MODULE

150 SELECTING
INDOOR DESIGN
PROUDLY SPONSORED BY CONDITIONS
FOR THERMAL COMFORT
Skills summary
Human comfort is a subjective concept which varies from person to person
and changes over time. Internal conditions that are considered universally
comfortable in a temperate climate do not need to be exactly replicated in
a tropical climate. Clothing differences, cultural difference and outdoor air
■ What? humidity levels all must be considered.
A guide to the different aspects of
thermal comfort and how these affect By varying indoor humidity, dew point and air speed, designers can create
design decisions. comfortable conditions that are more practical and relevant to a specific
environment, application or culture.
■ Who?
Relevant for anyone involved in the This Skills Workshop looks at the different factors affecting thermal comfort,
design of air conditioning systems. and how to design for them.

Factors affecting Garment descriptiona Icl clob Garment descriptiona Icl clob
thermal comfort Underwear Suit jackets and vests (lined)
Human comfort depends on a range of factors Men’s briefs 0.04 Single-breasted (thin) 0.36
including temperature, humidity, air movement,
clothing, and the type of activity, as well as Panties 0.03 SIngle-breasted (thick) 0.44
cultural factors and personal preferences. Bra 0.01 Double-breasted (thin) 0.42
Thermal comfort is a subjective experience T-shirt 0.08 Double-breasted (thick) 0.48
that varies from person to person and over Full slip 0.16 Sleeveless vest (thin) 0.10
time. Historically, air conditioning controls have
targeted a set room air temperature (DBT) Half slip 0.14 Sleeveless vest (thick) 0.17
and sometimes relative humidity (RH) level. Long underwear top 0.20 Sweaters
We now understand that many other factors Long underwear bottoms 0.15 Sleeveless vest (thin) 0.13
affect human comfort and their control can be
exploited to optimise comfort air conditioning Footwear Sleeveless vest (thick) 0.22
at greater energy efficiency. The ASHRAE 55 Ankle-length athletic socks 0.02 Long-sleeved (thin) 0.25
thermal comfort standard provides a mechanism Calf-length socks 0.03 Long-sleeved (thick) 0.36
for analysing human thermal comfort.
The factors that affect comfort include:
Knee socks (thick) 0.06 Dresses and skirtsc
Panty hose 0.02 Skirt (thin) 0.14
• Air temperature (DBT/WBT)
Sandals/thongs 0.02 Skirt (thick) 0.23
• Humidity levels (per cent RH) Slippers (quilted, pile-lined) 0.03 Long-sleeved shirtdress (thin) 0.33
• Mean radiant temperature (MRT) Boots 0.10 Long-sleeved shirtdress (thick) 0.47
• Air velocity (Air V) Shirts and blouses Short-sleeved shirtdress (thin) 0.29
Sleeveless, scoop-neck blouse 0.12 Sleevless, scoop neck (thin) 0.23
• Activity level (MET)
Short-sleeved, dress shirt 0.19 Sleeveless, scoop neck (thick) 0.27
• Clothing (CLO) Long-sleeved, dress shirt 0.25 Sleepwear and robes
• Seasonal variation Long-sleeved, flannel shirt 0.34 Sleveless, short gown (thin) 0.18
Short-sleeved, knit sport shirt 0.17 Sleeveless, long gown (thin) 0.20
• Geographic location
Long-sleeved, sweat shirt 0.34 Short-sleeved, hospital gown 0.31
• Adaptation
Trousers and coveralls Long-sleeved, long gown (thick) 0.46
• Workplace and local culture. Short shorts 0.06 Long-sleeved pyjamas (thick) 0.57
A CLO is a non-SI unit of clothing insulation, Walking shorts 0.08 Short-sleeved pyjamas (thin) 0.42
defined as the thermal insulation necessary to Straight trousers (thin) 0.15 Long-sleeved, long wrap robe (thick) 0.69
keep a sitting person comfortable in a normally Straight trousers (thick) 0.24 Long-sleeved, short wrap robe (thick) 0.48
ventilated room at 21°C and 50 per cent relative
humidity. The thermal resistance of one CLO Sweat pants 0.28 Short-sleeved, short robe (thin) 0.34
is equal to 0.155m².K/W. A typical combination Overalls 0.30 a “ Thin” garments are summerweight,
of garments for 0.5CLO would be underpants, “thick” garments are winterweight.
Coveralls 0.49 b 1clo = 0.155 (m².K/W) c Knee-length
shirt with short sleeves, light trousers, light socks
and shoes. See Table 1 for typical CLO factors. Table 1 – Typical CLO factors for typical garments

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HVAC&R Skills Workshop

MET is the unit of metabolic rate of people. region may be accepted as comfortable, enclosed in a hollow black sphere referred to as a
One MET is defined as 58.15W/m², which is equal particularly if summer indoor air velocities are globe thermometer in ISO 7726.
to the energy produced per unit surface area increased above winter velocities, see Figure 1. Psychrometric charts are the tool of choice
of a person seated at rest. The surface area of for many air conditioning assessments.
an average person is about 1.8m². MET rates for Thermal comfort, The psychrometric chart used in ASHRAE 55 for
typical people undertaking particular activities
are provided in Section 8. air temperature and visualising indoor thermal comfort is different to
the AIRAH psychrometric charts in that the scale
operative temperature along the bottom is in operative temperature
Comfort zones Temperature is usually the most important not air temperature. Air temperature and
Comfort zones, or envelopes of acceptable internal environmental factor affecting thermal comfort. radiant temperature are combined as operative
comfort conditions, have been developed for If the temperature changes are small (e.g., <1°C) temperature. Operative temperature is not the
refrigerative air conditioning, evaporative air and occur slowly over the course of a day, they same as actual/measured space temperature
cooling and naturally ventilated or fan assisted are unlikely to prompt dissatisfaction. Larger as measured by a thermometer or temperature
ventilative cooling applications. The evaporative air diurnal changes can be acceptable if they are sensor. Operative temperature (top) is defined
cooling comfort zone differs from the refrigerative within the control of the building occupant, as the uniform temperature of an imaginary
air conditioning comfort zone because of the i.e., they can move to a different area, change black enclosure in which an occupant would
different air velocities used and because of the clothing levels, operate blinds or shade curtains, exchange the same amount of heat by radiation
differences in how indoor humidity is considered. turn on a personal fan, or open windows (when plus convection as in the actual non‑uniform
An advanced understanding of human comfort air conditioning is off). Temperature changes environment. Operative temperature can be
presents opportunities to save energy while still over longer time periods (e.g., in a summer heat shown mathematically as:
keeping occupants comfortable. The standard
convention of attempting to maintain a narrow
wave) can be acceptable if they occur sufficiently
gradually to allow building occupants to adapt to
the change. Seasonal temperature changes are
top = hr tmr + hc ta
temperature band can be an energy-intensive
practice. Instead, using ASHRAE Standard 55 as a
guide, designers may find that a wider temperature
reflected by changed clothing.
The air temperature inside an occupied space can hr + hc
band will provide adequate comfort, saving a be measured on a standard (mercury-in-glass) Equation 2
significant amount of energy. dry-bulb thermometer. This measurement of air
The ASHRAE-developed comfort zones shown in temperature is representative for internal rooms It is also acceptable to approximate this relationship
Figure 1 indicate a wide humidity tolerance. where room surfaces are close to air temperature. for occupants engaged in near sedentary physical
This condition is described in Equation 1: activity (with metabolic rates between 1.0MET and
The operative temperatures have been determined 1.3MET), not in direct sunlight, and not exposed to
based on the following criteria:
ta = tmr air velocities greater than 0.20m/s.

top = ta + tmr
• Light, primarily sedentary activity
• A metabolic rate ≤1.1MET Equation 1
• 50 per cent relative humidity Where:
• Mean air speed ≤0.15m/s. ta = air temperature; and
2
Accommodating a range of CLO, MET and air tmr = mean radiant temperature.
Equation 3
speed within comfort zones can be achieved However, if an air conditioned space is subjected Where:
using the analytical methods contained in to direct solar radiation through a window, or top = operative temperature
ASHRAE 55. Comfort is not the only performance infrared radiation through a poorly insulated
criteria applied to systems, however, and indoor roof or ceiling, then a simple mercury-in-glass hc = convective heat transfer coefficient hr
air quality, condensation risk and operating costs thermometer measurement would be misleading = linear radiative heat transfer coefficient ta
all need to be considered. if the temperature measurement is used to assess = air temperature (DBT)
ASHRAE Standard 55 is strictly limited to thermal indoor thermal comfort. tmr = mean radiant temperature (MRT)
comfort considerations, so mould issues and Comfort assessment under these conditions
health issues such as dry throat or eyes at low Most people have experienced the difference
must also consider the radiant temperature of the between air temperature and operative
RH are not accommodated in the ASHRAE 55 surrounding surfaces. This radiant temperature
thermal comfort recommendations. temperature. Recall the perceived temperature
(tr) can be calculated from a measurement on a hot summer day when there is no breeze
With adaptation, an even greater psychrometric using a standard mercury-in-glass thermometer under a metal roof (without insulation) of say
a park shelter. Then compare that to the lower
Relative Humidity (%) perceived temperature under the shade of
100 80 50
.026
a nearby large and leafy tree. The difference
The Graphical Comfort Zone Method has been is largely due to the greater protection from
removed from the ASHRAE 55 standard as a “Method
for Determining Acceptable Thermal Environment in .024 radiant heat offered by the leafy tree.
Occupied Spaces”. The Graphical method has been Typically, radiant temperature in a room
replaced by some example graphic psychrometric .022
charts that have been developed using the )
becomes noticeable when a surface
Analytical Comfort Zone Method and the (°C 25 temperature of the space exceeds the air
u re .020
Elevated Air Speed Comfort Zone Method. ra
t temperature by more than 4°C.
pe 40
The Analytical method and the Elevated m .018
Te
Air Speed method are now the
Bu
lb Thermal comfort and
Humidity Ratio (Kg H2O / Kg DRY AIR )

two ASHRAE 55 methods for et

determining acceptable
W
20
.016
air movement
thermal comfort.
.014 The cooling effect of moving air is well known,
and operative temperature can be increased to
.012 take advantage of this cooling effect, associated
1. 2 m/s ai
0.1 m/s ai

15 with differences between air temperature and

.010
20 radiant temperature, see Figure 2. Comfort is a
r speed
r speed

Use Section .008 function of both temperature and air velocity,

10
Comfort zone moves left with: 1.0 clo 0.5 clo
5.3.2 for air
Comfort zone moves right with:
and humans can be comfortable over a range
speeds over
• Higher clothing zone zone 0.2 m/s and • Lower clothing .006 of conditions. By increasing the velocity or air
• Higher metabolic rate to increase • Lower metabolic rate movement, the air feels cooler even though the
• Higher radiant temperature the upper • Lower radiant temperature
See section 5.3.1 operative See section 5.3.1
.004 air temperature has not changed.
temperature
limit due .002
The principal physical factors for thermal comfort
to elevated described in ASHRAE Standard 55 for office type
No lower humidity limit air speed
.000 spaces are environmental factors: air temperature,
10 15 20 25 30 35 radiant temperature, air speed, and humidity;
Operative Temperature (°C) – ( 1/2 Dry-bulb + 1/2 MRT for still air) and additional personal factors: metabolic rate
and clothing insulation. Given that psychrometric
Note that “Operative temperature” is not the same as the space temperature measured by a thermometer or temperature sensor. charts are two dimensional, displaying temperature
Figure 1 – Extending comfort zones versus humidity, the other physical factors,

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 HVAC&R Skills Workshop

i.e., the radiant temperature (tr) and an assumed air • When the operative temperature drops ET and SET are very similar for “normal conditions”
speed factor (A) are accommodated by combining to lower values, the dry heat exchange is in air conditioned buildings, typically around
them with the air temperature (ta), as an operative increased and the evaporative heat loss 22°C to 24°C when relative humidity is around
temperature (top). The simplest form of this is mainly respired vapour loss. The skin 50 per cent. However, if operative temperature rises
combination is described in ASHRAE 55 as: above approximately 30°C, the effect of relative
temperature and the temperature of

top = Ata + (1 – A) tmr

humidity in SET is greater than in ET.
superficial and deep tissues drop, resulting
in a negative heat storage. SET focuses on “skin wettedness” in the calculation
of evaporative cooling from sweating and is a
Equation 4 • When the operative temperature exceeds 29°C, more suitable index to use than ET when assessing
the rate of evaporative heat loss is significantly thermal comfort in humid environments.
1.5 increased in order to counterbalance the
1.2 ( L1 - L2 )
-10°C -5°C 0 5°C reduction of dry heat exchange to maintain the Comfort variables
thermal equilibrium. and SET analysis
AIR SPEED, m/s

0.9 • The body temperature tends to rise only when The ASHRAE 55 preferred way to determine how
10°C
0.6
Limits For Light,
Primarily Sedentary
the body is entirely wet, and the evaporative much dry-bulb air temperature can be offset
Activity
heat loss is inadequate. There exists a positive by elevating air speed is to enter the relevant
0.3 rate of heat storage. DBT, MRT, RH, MET and CLO conditions for the
occupants and the space, along with the proposed
0.0
Body temperature above 43°C may cause death. elevated air speed into computer software analysis
0 1.1 2.2 3.3 4.4
TEMPERATURE RISE,°C
tools such as the ASHRAE Thermal Comfort Tool or
80 the CBE Berkeley Comfort Tool.
Figure 2 – Air speed required to offset 60
Metabolisim These comfort tools will compute a range of
increased air and radiant temperature 40
20
outputs including SET. The SET is the equivalent
Heat exchange W/m²

The values for air speed factor (A) range from 0.5 air temperature of an isothermal environment
0 Evaporative
for air speed less than 0.2m/s to 0.7 for air speeds -20
at 50 per cent RH in which a subject, wearing
from 0.6–1.0m/s. -40 Storage clothing standardised for the activity concerned,
-60 has the same heat stress (skin temperature) and
Assuming uniform velocity airflow, turbulent thermoregulatory strain (skin wetness) as in the
-80
airflow with a gusting frequency of around Radiative and Convective actual environment.
0.5Hertz can significantly increase the cooling -100
effect of air movement at the same velocity. -120 Input the comfort factor values, note the value
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
of SET calculated and then reduce the air speed
The effect of air movement on the comfort of a Operative temperature °C
value. A new SET will be computed. The difference
person can be determined by comparing standard between the original SET and the latter SET is the
effective temperatures (SET). Figure 3 – Effect of operative temperature dry-bulb temperature offset achievable from the
on human body heat exchange mechanisms elevated air speed. The SET index is used for hot
Thermal comfort humid tropical climates because it is the only index
and humidity Effective temperature included in the tool that takes account of skin
wetness, an important factor in human body heat
Human comfort depends on temperature,
air movement and the ability of the body to
and standard effective exchange in warm conditions.
warm or cool itself to maintain a required body temperature Comfort variables
temperature. High levels of humidity generally Effective temperature (ET) combines operative
lead to a feeling of discomfort as the increased temperature and humidity into a single index. Two and PMV analysis
levels of moisture in the air impede the body’s different environments with the same ET should Originally developed through field
ability to perspire and cool itself through have a similar comfort response even though experimentation, the predicted mean vote (PMV)
evaporation (evaporative body heat exchange). temperature and humidity levels are different. analysis refers to a thermal scale that runs from
The high humidity levels in tropical climate For the analysis to be valid, air movement and cold (-3) to hot (+3). A mathematical model of
areas must be considered. velocity, skin wettedness and clothing moisture the relationship between all environmental and
Unlike sunlight and temperature, humidity is permeability must also be the same. Some physiological comfort factors (or variables) was
a factor that is much harder to design for in modified commercial versions of ET have been derived and adopted into ISO 7730 and ASHRAE 55.
the built environment. Humidity cannot be developed to better model human response to The PMV equation for thermal comfort is a steady-
controlled through shade as we do the sun or humid tropical and arid environments. state empirical equation for calculating (predicting)
insulated against as we do for the heat and cold. Standard effective temperature (SET) is the the average vote of a large number of people on
Instead, ventilative cooling by ventilation and air effective temperature (ET) under a set of a seven-point scale (-3 to +3) of thermal comfort.
movement, or comfort cooling by air conditioning standard conditions (clothing, skin wettedness It only applies to humans exposed for a long period
becomes the essential design consideration for and activity) intended to represent typical indoor to constant conditions at a constant metabolic rate.
controlling humidity. Although it is harder to
applications or activities. SET is based on a The equation uses the steady state heat balance
avoid humidity by building design, good cross
laboratory study with a large number of subjects of the human body and develops a link between
ventilation or assisted air movement using ceiling
using empirical equations for skin temperature the thermal comfort vote and the degree of stress
or wall mounted fans can improve the comfort
and skin wettedness. SET is calculated by or load on the body caused by any deviation
levels at higher levels of room humidity.
determining a value that satisfies the two from perfect balance. The greater the load, the
Relative humidity is most relevant to body heat equations for those environmental conditions. more the comfort vote will deviate from zero.
exchange and thermal comfort at operative Computer software to perform the calculations The partial derivative of the load function was
temperatures above 30°C, refer to Figure 3. includes the ASHRAE Thermal Comfort Tool. estimated by exposing a number of people to
This accounts for significant differences between enough different conditions sufficient to fit a
effective temperature (ET) and standard In the SET model, clothing insulation is linked
to metabolic rate and skin wettedness is linked curve. PMV is a widely used thermal comfort
effective temperature (SET) values, see “Effective index and ISO 7730 uses limits on PMV as an
temperature and standard effective temperature”. to mean body temperature. The standard MET
rate is taken as 1.1MET and linked to a clothing explicit definition of the comfort zone.
Figure 3 shows the following: insulation of 0.6CLO. However, a SET value can From the PMV, the predicted percentage of
• At an operative temperature of about 25.5°C for be calculated for any combination of the six dissatisfied people (PPD) can be determined. As
light clothed person (and 31°C for an unclothed thermal comfort factors: air temperature (DBT/ PMV moves away from neutral (PMV = 0) in either
person), there is minimal body heat exchange WBT), humidity levels (per cent RH), mean radiant direction, PPD increases, i.e., more people are
when the metabolic rate is about 1MET. temperature (MRT), air velocity (Air V), activity dissatisfied. The maximum number of people that
level (MET) and clothing (CLO). can be dissatisfied with their comfort conditions
is 100 per cent and the minimum number is
5 per cent. A 20 per cent PPD figure (80 per cent
This skills workshop is taken from DA09 – Air Conditioning Load satisfied) is generally considered acceptable. ■
Estimation and Psychrometrics. Explore the full suite of DA manuals
at [Link]/damanuals Next month: Controls and HVAC

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