Reproduction in Lower & Higher

Q.1 Choose the correct option. 50

1) Ans. (a)

2) Ans. (a)

3) Ans. (c)

4) Ans. (b)

5) Ans. (c)

6) Ans. (a)

7) Ans. (b)

8) Ans. (c)

9) Ans. (d)

10) Ans. (a)

11) Ans. (c)

12) Ans. (d)

13) Ans. (c)

14) Ans. (d)

15) Ans. (a)

16) Ans. (a)

17) Ans. (a)

18) Ans. (a)

19) Ans. (b)

20) Ans. (b)

21) Ans. (a)

22) Ans. (b)

23) Ans. (c)

24) Ans. (d)

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 25) Ans. (b)

26) Ans. (c)

27) Ans. (a)

28) Ans. (c)

29) Ans. (d)

30) Ans. (d)

31) Ans. (a)

32) Ans. (a)

33) Ans. (a)

34) Ans. (c)

35) Ans. (a)

36) Ans. (d)

37) Ans. (b)

38) Ans. (d)

39) Ans. (a)

40) Ans. (a)

41) Ans. (d)

42) Ans. (d)

43) Ans. (a)

44) Ans. (c)

45) Ans. (d)

46) Ans. (b)

47) Ans. (d)

48) Ans. (b)

49) Ans. (a)

50) Ans. (b)

Q.2 Answer the following one line. 65

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 1) Ans. It is the process which involves the production up offspring by the formation and Fusion of gametes.

2) Ans. Testes are present in a pouch named as scrotum.

3) Ans. Spermatozoa are formed by gametogenesis of germinal epithelial cells.

4) Ans. The diagram represents gemmule of sponges.

5) Ans. The causative organism of Gonorrhoea is Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

6) Ans. Reproductive and child health.

7) Ans. At the end of 4th week one can call embryo as foetus.

8) Ans. The names of two IUDs are copper IUDs and hormone releasing IUDs.

9) Ans. The process in which cells undergo meiosis to form gametes.

10) Ans. Dormant cells aggregate during gemmule formation in spongilla.

11) Ans. Seminal vesicle secretes fluid with fructose.

12) Ans. Imbibition is significant in the soaking of seeds, swelling of dried raisins, kneading of flour.

13) Ans. The above diagram is used for demonstration of root pressure.

14) Ans. Testies

15) Ans. Uterus

16) Ans. ampulla

17) Ans. placenta

18) Ans. An embryo is the early stage of development of multicellular organism.

Foetus is the unborn offspring of an animal that develops from an embryo.

19) Ans. Sperm → vas deferens → ureter → bladder → urethra

20) Ans. The prostate gland, seminal vesicle contribute fluid to the semen.

21) Ans. Hormones HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin), HPL (human placental lactogen) and Relaxin are
produced in woman only during pregnancy by placenta.

22) Ans. Following is the sequence of events occurring in the process of human reproduction gametogenesis,
insemination, fertilization, implantation, gestation, Parturition.

23) Ans. The different parts of Fallopian tube are fimbria, infundibulum, ampulla, and isthmus.

24) Ans. The skeletal disorder is seen during menopause is osteoporosis.

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25) Ans.

26) Ans. Water percolates deep, due to the gravity, in the soil, is called gravitational water.

27) Ans. In vitro fertilization.

28) Ans. The extra embryonic membrane is involved in formation of placenta is chorion.

29) Ans. Birth control pills are used to prevent pregnancy.

30) Ans. Implantation is the stage of pregnancy at which the embryo adheres to the wall of the uterus. It results
in the formation of two distinct layers syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast.

31) Ans. Lenticular transpiration: Because it is a type of transpiration others are translocation.

32) Ans. The loss of water in the form of vapor is called transpiration.

33) Ans. The factors like oxygen, moisture, temperature of the soil, salt content, etc influence the root pressure.

34) Ans. Passive absorption is occurs during day time when transpiration is in progress.

35) Ans. Vasa efferentia arises from testes and carries spermatozoa from testis to epididymis.
Vasa differentia arises from the epididymis and carries spermatozoa from epididymis to duct.

36) Ans. Mesoderm, the germ layer which gives rise to heart and blood vessels.

37) Ans. If Zona Pellucida gets damaged accidently, it affects on development of embryos.

38) Ans. FSH and LH are two hormones inhibited by birth control pills.

39) Ans. Blastula- it is spherical, hollow one celled thick structure found during the first stage of embryo
genesis
Gastrula - It is formed during the gastrulation stage of embryogenesis and consist of 3 germ layers.

40) Ans. The external genital organs in female are labia major, labia minor and clitoris.

41) Ans. 1. Zygote- It is unicellular.

It is the first stage in the development of a new organism
2. Embryo- It is multicellular.
An embryo is the early stage of development of multicellular organism.

42) Ans. Neisseria gonorrhoeae

43) Ans. Follicular cells of empty Graafian follicle transform as corpus luteum and the corpus luteum secrets
hormone called progesterone.

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 44) Ans. The chromosome number in spermatid will be 23.

45) Ans. The function of acrosome in human sperm is to help sperm get through the egg’s protective coat and
to allow the plasma membranes of the sperm and egg to fuse.

46) Ans. Human egg is microlecithal because the amount of yolk is much less than the amount of cytoplasm.

47) Ans. The hormone secreted from Leydig’s cell is testosterone.

48) Ans. Seminal fluid is composed of fructose, fibrinogen, and prostaglandins.

49) Ans. a- 2n, b- 2n, c-n, d – n, e-n

50) Ans. Prostate gland is composed of 20-30 lobes and is located underneath the urinary bladder.

51) Ans. The diagram describe the diffusion of water into plant cell across the plasma membrane.

52) Ans. The above diagram explains structure of root hair.

53) Ans. The high concentration of solutes in soil water reduced the rate of absorption of water.

54) Ans. Mesovarium is the part which is associated with ovary.

55) Ans. Gonads are the glands involved in maintaining the sex characteristics of males.

56) Ans. Fertilization occurs in fallopian tube and implantation occurs in uterus.

57) Ans. testosterone

58) Ans. In corals budding type of asexual reproduction occurs.

59) Ans. The significance of imbibition is significant in soaking of seeds, swelling of dried raisins, kneading
of flour.

60) Ans. Aquaporins and ion channels are involved in facilitate diffusion.

61) Ans. In a plasmolysed cell, the gap is developed between the cell wall, and the protoplast.

62) Ans. The function of Zona Pellucida is to support communication between oocytes and follicular cells
during oogenesis.

63) Ans. Testis and seminal vesicle are odd structures. These structures are male reproductive structure.
Remaining are the parts of female reproductive system.

64) Ans. Fertilization in human takes place in the fallopian tube which connect the ovaries to uterus.

65) Ans. When water passes across from one living cell to other living cells through plasmodesmata, then, it is
called symplast pathway.

Q.3 Answer the following question. 56

1) Ans. 1. Ovulation phase involves rupturing of the mature graafian follicle and release of ovum into the
pelvic cavity.
2. It is the shortest phase of menstrual cycle.
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 3. It happens usually on 14th day of menstrual cycle.
4. Rapid secretion of LH by positive feedback mechanism causes the mature follicle to rupture.

2) Ans. 1. Budding is the asexual mode of reproduction, normally occurring in favourable condition.
2. In budding a genetically identical new organism grows attached to the body of parent hydra and
separates later.
3. In this process a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site.
4. It grows and forms tentacles and develops into new individual.

3) Ans. 1. The various male accessory glands include seminal vesicle, prostate glands, and Cowper’s gland.
2. Seminal vesicle secret alkaline fluid which is rich in fructose, fibrinogen, and prostaglandins.
3. Cowper’s gland secrets an alkaline viscous and mucous like fluid which acts as a lubricant during
copulation.
4. Prostate gland secret milky white fluid which helps in forming acidic environment for vagina.

4) Ans. 1. Sponges can reproduce asexually by forming mass of cells which are capable of developing into a
new Organism is termed as gemmule.
2. They are small bud like cells which are formed by sponges to withstand unfavourable environmental
condition.
3. On return of favourable conditions of water and temperature, the gemmule hatch and develop into
new individual.
4. Sponges can reproduce both sexually and asexually.

5) Ans. 1. Scrotum is a loose pouch of pigmented structure lying behind the penis.
2. The testis remains suspended in scrotum by a spermatic chord.
3. It contains the testicle and many nerves and blood vessels.
4. Its main function is to protect and maintain the temperature of the testis.
5. Temperature control is necessary for spermatogenesis.

6) Ans. 1. Contraceptive methods are devices that provide a physical barrier between the sperm and egg.
2. Condom-The condom is the one kind of contraceptive method that helps prevent sexually
transmitted infection. It is a thin rubber sheath that is used to cover the penis of the male during
copulation.
3. It prevents the entry of ejaculated semen into the female reproductive tract.
4. spermicides - in this method chemicals like foam, tablets, jellies and creams are used by the female
partner at the time of sexual intercourse.
5. This chemical is introduced into the vagina, they adhere to the mucous membrane, kill the sperms.

7) Ans. 1. Gestation is referring to the period between fertilization of the egg until birth or parturition.
2. The average length of human gestation is 280 days or 40 weeks from the first day of the woman’s
last menstrual period.
3. The time interval of a gestation is called the gestation period.

8) Ans. 1. Tubectomy is a major surgical procedure to prevent contraception.

2. It is a surgical method performed in females as a birth control method.
3. In tubectomy, a small part of the fallopian tube is removed and then tied of through a small incision
in the abdomen or through the vagina.
4. This technique is highly effective.

9) Ans. A - Trophoblast
B- inner cell mass
Function of Trophoblast is to help in embryo implantation.
Function of inner cell mass – it is the source of true embryonic cells.

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10) Ans. 1. Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease.
2. It is caused by one kind of bacteria called Treponema pallidum.
3. The main symptoms are:
primary lesion called chancre at the site of infection.
Chancre is formed on external genitalia, skin rashes and mild fever.
Inflamed joints, loss of hair paralysis, Degenerative changes occur in the heart and brain.

11) Ans. 1. Birth control is any method used to prevent unwanted pregnancies.
2. There are many different methods of birth control including condoms, IUDs, birth control pills,
vasectomy and tubectomy.
3. Birth control also known as contraceptive method help to prevent unwanted pregnancies
4. Contraceptive methods are of two main types, temporary and permanent.

12) Ans. 1. IVF stands for in vitro fertilization.

2. It is one of the most widely known types of reproductive technology.
3. It works by surgical procedure to help sperm fertilise an egg and help the fertilised egg implant in
human uterus.
4. In these cases, doctors fuses sperms and ovum externally and zygote formed is implanted in women
uterus for further development.

13) Ans. 1. To create awareness among people about various aspects related to reproduction.
2. To provide the facilities to people to understand and built of reproductive health.
3. To provide support for building up a reproductively healthy society.
4. To bring about a change mainly in 3 critical health indicators that is reducing total fertility, rate
infant mortality rate and maternal mortality rate.

14) Ans. 1. Colostrum is the sticky and yellow fluid secreted by the mammary gland soon after childbirth.
2. The mammary glands of the female start producing milk at the end of pregnancy by the process of
lactation.
3. Prolactin is the hormone which is responsible for production of milk.
4. It is composed of proteins, lactose, and mothers’ antibodies.

15) Ans. 1. Parturition refers to a process of delivering a baby from the uterus.
2. There are three stages of parturition i.e. Dilation, expulsion and placental.
3. The signals of parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the placenta.
4. The physical activities involved in this process are uterine and abdominal contraction, dilation of
cervix, discomfort, and agony.

16) Ans. 1. The placenta plays structural and functional unit between the developing embryo and mother.
2. It promotes the supply oxygen and nutrients to the embryo.
3. It also facilitated the elimination of excretory waste and carbon dioxide produced by the embryo.
4. Placenta helps in the transportation of substances to and from the embryo as it is connected to the
embryo through the umbilical cord.

17) Ans. The two main functions of placenta are

1. Acts as endocrine tissue and produces hormones like HCG, progesterone
2. Facilitate supply of oxygen to the foetus.

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18) Ans. 1. Gonorrhoea is caused by bacteria called Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
2. The main symptoms of the disease are:
3. In case of Male the visible symptoms are:Blockage of urethra and reproductive ducts pus from
pennies pain and burning sensation during urination.
4. In case of female the visible symptoms are:
Inflammation in urinary tract Sterility and arthritis

19) Ans. A- Oogonia

B- Meiosis I
C- Ovum
D- polar bodies

20) Ans. 1. Disease or infection that are transmitted one person to another through sexual intercourse are called
sexually transmitted diseases.
2. The causes of sexually transmitted diseases are bacteria, parasites, and viruses
3. The major diseases are Syphilis and gonorrhoea.

21) Ans. 1. The fluid secreted by the mammary gland is called colostrum.
2. Colostrum is the sticky and yellow fluid secreted by the mammary gland soon after childbirth.
3. The mammary glands of the female start producing milk at the end of pregnancy by the process of
lactation.
4. Prolactin is the hormone which is responsible for production of milk.
5. It is composed of proteins, lactose, and mothers’ antibodies e.g. IgA.

22) Ans. • A- Located underneath the urinary bladder

• B-Cowper’s gland
• C- present in the posterior side of urinary bladder.
• D- Leydig’s cell

23) Ans. A. Corpus luteum- The function of corpus luteum is to secrete progesterone which helps endometrium
to prepare for placentation and normal development of foetus.
B. Endometrium – The function of endometrium is to prepare itself for implantation.
It is shed during menstruation.

24) Ans. W -Primodeal cell

X- secondary spermatocyte
Y- spermatozoa
Z- second meiotic division.

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 25) Ans. Tunica albuginea is a collagenous connective tissue, which is present outer side of testis covering it
externally.

26) Ans. 1. Syngamy is the Fusion of gametes to initiate the development of a new individual.
2. The cycle of fertilization and development of new individual is called sexual reproduction.
3. sexual reproduction primarily involves formation and fusion of gametes.
4. fertilization is the latter process which involves fusion of the haploid male and female gametes
resulting in the formation of a diploid zygote.

27) Ans. 1. Blastulation is the process of formation of the hollow and multicellular blastocyst.
2. The blastocyst that enters the uterus remains floating in the uterus cavity for 2 to 4 days after its
entry.
3. The outer layer of cells seen in the morula now from the layer called trophoblast.
4. These outer cells become flat and are called trophoblast cells.
5. The inner larger cells form inner cell mass or embryoblast.

28) Ans. 1. Infertility is the inability to conceive or give birth to a child.

2. The causes of infertility could be physical, congenital, diseases, immunological or even
psychological.
3. The common physical causes in females are polycystic ovary syndrome, hormonal imbalance, and
endometriosis.
4. Common physical causes in male is less sperm count in small size of penis.
5. A person affected by any of the above regions can suffer from infertility.

Q.4 Answer the following question. (Short Answer) 60

1) Ans. 1. This phase is the duration between the end of menstruation and release of Ovum.
2. In this phase, primary follicles transform into the fully mature Graafian follicle in the ovary.
3. The endometrium of the uterus simultaneously regenerates through proliferation.
4. Changes in the levels of ovarian and pituitary hormones induce changes in the uterus and ovaries.
5. During this stage, the secretion of hormone FSH and LH eventually increases and triggers the
secretion and follicular development of estrogen by the growing follicles.
6. Endometrium begins to regenerate under the effect of Estrogen which causes rupture of Graafian
follicle and release of ovum.

2) Ans. Various methods of birth control to avoid pregnancies are mentioned below:
1. Natural method - In natural method the principle of avoiding chances of fertilization is used. A week
before and a week after menstrual bleeding is considered the safe for sexual intercourse

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 2. Coitus Interruptus-in this method, the male partner withdraws his penis from the vagina just before
ejaculation to avoid insemination.
3. lactation amenorrhea - Since ovulation does not occur during the period of intense lactation
following parturition, therefore if the mother breastfeeds the child fully, chances of conception are
almost negligible.
4. Chemical means- in this method chemicals like foam, tablets, jellies, and creams are used by the
female partner before sexual intercourse. These chemicals immobilise and kill the sperms.
5. Mechanical method (use of condoms)- condom is a thin rubber sheath that is used to cover the penis
of the male during copulation. It prevents the entry of ejaculated semen into the female reproductive
tract, and this method prevent conception.
6. Intra uterine device- these chemical devices are plastic or metal objects. A trained person places the
object into the uterus.
These devices include copper releasing IUDs and hormone releasing IUDs.

3) Ans. 1. Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploids spermatozoa are develop from germ cells.
2. It takes place in the seminiferous tubule present inside the testis.
3. Spermatozoa are the mature male gamete in many sexually reproducing Organism.
4. The hormones which are involved in this process are –
5. Follicle-stimulating hormones (FSH) and luteinizing hormones (LH), which are secreted by
gonadotropin releasing hormones from the hypothalamus.
6. These hormones are involved in the regulation of the process of spermatogenesis.
7. At onset puberty the gonadotropin release by hypothalamus. It initiates the significance increase in
secretion of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) which induce spermatogenesis.
8. FSH acts on Sertoli cells, whereas LH acts on Leydig cells of the testis and stimulates the process
of spermatogenesis.

4) Ans. 1. Ovary is a compact structure differentiated into a central part called medulla and the outer part
called cortex.
2. The cortex is covered externally by a layer of germinal epithelium.
3. The loose connective tissue of the medulla has blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerve fibres.
4. The outer cortex is more compact and granular, and it shows large number of tiny masses of cells
called ovarian follicles, these are collectively formed from the immature Ovum originating from cells
of the dorsal endoderm of the Yolk sac.
5. During embryonic development, these cells migrate to the gonadal ridge and divide mitotically to
form oogonia.
6. The cells of germinal epithelium give rise to groups of oogonia projecting into the cortex in the form
of cords called egg tubes of Pfluger.
7. Each cord at it ends has around mass of oogonial cells called egg nests, from which the primordial
ovarian follicle is developed, and each primordial follicle has, at its centre a large primary oocyte
surrounded by a single layer of flat follicular cells.
8. The deployment of the primordial follicle into a mature graafian follicle restarts with the onset of
puberty.

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5) Ans. 1. Parturition is the process of giving birth to a baby as the development of the foetus gets completed
in the mother’s womb.
2. Fully developed foetus and placenta send signals for parturition which in turn induces mild uterine
contraction by stretching of cervix.
3. Stretching of cervix exerts positive feedback on pituitary gland to secret oxytocin.
4. The hormones involved in this process are oxytocin and relaxin.
5. Oxytocin exhibits both direct and indirect effect on the uterus to facilitate uterine contractions to
push the foetus down.
6. Relaxin hormone which is secreted from corpus luteum at the end of pregnancy causes relaxation
of the pelvic ligaments and prepares the uterus for childbirth.

6) Ans. 1. Parturition is the process of giving birth to baby and placenta as the development of the foetus gets
completed in the mother’s womb.
2. The hormones involved in this process are oxytocin and relaxin.
3. Oxytocin leads to the contraction of smooth muscles of myometrium of the uterus, which directs
the full-term foetus towards the birth canal.
4. ACTH from pituitary and corticosteroids from adrenal gland help in uterine contraction.
5. Relaxin hormone causes relaxation of the pelvic ligaments and prepares the uterus for childbirth.

7) Ans. During this period following events occur-

1. The embryo receives nutrients directly from the endometrium
2. It is the main period of organogenesis and the development of body organs.
3. The major structures found in the adult are formed in the embryo in a rudimentary form.
4. In this period embryo is called as foetus and is about 3 centimetre long.
5. Body parts such as hands, fingers, feet, and toes are formed.
6. Foetus can open and close mouth and fists.
7. Excretory, circulatory, and nervous system of baby starts working.

8) Ans. The following points are main goals of RCH programmes -

1. To create awareness among people about various aspects related to reproduction.
2. To provide the facilities to people to understand and built of reproductive health.
3. To provide support for building up a reproductively healthy society.
4. To bring about a change mainly in 3 critical health indicators that is reducing total fertility, rate
infant mortality rate and maternal mortality rate.
5. The goals of RCH can be achieved by introduction of sex education in schools to create awareness
about various aspects related to reproduction and by educating the younger generation about birth
control measures.

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 9) Ans.

Different parts of male reproductive organ are

1. Scrotum
2. Testes
3. Epididymis
4. Vas deferens
5. Seminal vesicle
6. Prostate gland
7. Accessory ducts
8. Accessory glands

10) Ans. 1. Testis are oval shaped organs located at the scrotum. It is the male reproductive organ of human.
2. The testis is externally covered by a collagenous connective tissue layer called tunica albuginea.
3. Outer to tunica albuginea an incomplete peritoneal covering called tunica vaginalis and inner to it
is tunica vasculosa.
4. Fibres from tunica albuginea divide each testis into about 200 -300 testicular lobules, each lobule
containing 1-4 highly coiled seminiferous tubules.
5. Each seminiferous tubule is internally lined by cuboidal germinal epithelium cells and few large
pyramidal cells card Sertoli cells.
6. The interstitial or Leydig cells lie in between the seminiferous tubules the Leydig’s cells secret the
male hormone androgen or testosterone.

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11) Ans. 1. Graafian follicle is a fluid filled structure in the ovary which carries ovum development.
2. The outer most protective and fibrous covering is called theca externa.
3. Inner to theca externa cellular theca interna is present, which produces the hormone estrogen.
4. Inner to the theca interna, the follicular cells form the membrana granulosa.
5. From the membrana granulosa the cells differentiate into discus proligerus and the corona radiata.
6. A fluid filled cavity called antrum lies between the oocyte and the membrana granulosa and it is
filled with a fluid card liquor folliculi.

12) Ans. 1. Blastula is a hollow ball of cells of in the early stages of development in an animal embryo.
2. The outer layer of cells seen in the morula now form the layer called tropoblast.
3. Cells from the tropoblast begin to absorb the glycogen rich uterine milk.
4. The blastocyst doubles in size from 0.15 mm to 0.30 mm.
4. With the mpre fluid entering inside the blastocyst cavity is formed. These outer cells become flat
and are called tropoblast cells.
5. The inner larger cells form inner cells mass or embryoblast The embryo proper develop from this
cells.
6. These remain attached to the tropoblast on only one side.
7. The tropoblast cells in contact with the embryonal knob are called cells of Rauber.

13) Ans. 1. A pair of testes is formed in the lower abdominal cavity.

2. It is in a pouch called scrotum, just behind the penis and right in front of the anus on male.
3. Functions of the Testis:
The main function of testis is to store and produce sperms.
4. They produce male gametes called spermatozoa by the process of spermatogenesis.
5. The Leydig cells of the seminiferous tubules secrete the male sex hormone called testosterone.
6. Testosterone helps in the development of secondary sex characteristics in males.

14) Ans. 1. The main accessory glands are seminal vesicle, prostate gland, and Cowper’s gland
2. seminal vesicle - it activates and provides energy to facilitate sperm motility after ejaculation.
3. prostate gland - It nourishes and activates sperms.
i. Enhances sperm motility, provides alkalinity to the ejaculate, neutralizes urine
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 ii. Acidity.
4. Cowper’s gland- This gland in enhances mobility and survival potentiality of sperms in the genital
tract of female reproductive system and neutralises the activity of acidic vaginal secretion.

15) Ans. 1. Capacitation is an activation process that involves enhancement.

2. Biochemical, Structural changes in the plasma membrane of the sperm head that prepare sperm to
undergo the acrosomal reaction.
3. This process requires 5 to 6 hours.
4. As a result of capacitation sperms become extra active and begin to start moving upwards from
vagina to uterus and to oviduct.
5. The prostaglandin and vestibular secretion of the female enhance sperm motility activate the sperms.
6. Sperms reach up to the ampulla as a result of their own swimming and partly by contraction of
uterus and fallopian tubes stimulated by secretion of oxytocin hormone of female.
7. After capacitation, the sperms may reach ampulla within 5 minutes and remain viable 24-48hrs.
8. It occurs after ejaculation when the spermatozoa leave the vagina and enter the superior female
reproductive tract.
9. The uterus aids in the steps of capacitation by secreting albumin, lipoprotein, and proteolytic and
glycosidic enzymes.

16) Ans. 1. Capacitation is an activation process that involves enhancement.

2. Biochemical, Structural changes in the plasma membrane of the sperm head that prepare sperm to
undergo the acrosomal reaction.
3. This process requires 5 to 6 hours.
4. As a result of capacitation sperms become extra active and begin to start moving upwards from
vagina to uterus and to oviduct.
5. The prostaglandin and vestibular secretion of the female enhance sperm motility activate the sperms.
6. sperms reach up to the ampulla as a result of their own swimming and partly by contraction of uterus
and fallopian tubes stimulated by secretion of oxytocin hormone of female.
7. After capacitation, the sperms may reach ampulla within 5 minutes and remain viable 24-48hrs.
8. It occurs after ejaculation when the spermatozoa leave the vagina and enter the superior female
reproductive tract.
9. The uterus aids in the steps of capacitation by secreting albumin, lipoprotein, and proteolytic and
glycosidic enzymes.

17) Ans. 1. Medical termination of pregnancy is a procedure that uses medication to end pregnancy without
surgery.
2. It is safe during the first trimester of pregnancy.
3. The defective development of foetus is examined by amniocentesis.
4. amniocentesis is a process in which amniotic fluid containing foetal cells is collected using a hollow
needle inserted into the uterus by ultrasound.
5. The abnormalities in the developing foetus are studied.
6. According to medical termination of pregnancy Act pregnancy may be terminated within 12 weeks.

18) Ans. 1. Sperm is a motile, elongated cell and divisible into three parts.
2. The human sperm is a microscopic structure with a head, middle piece, and tail
3. The head has the haploid nucleus and an anterior acrosome that contains the enzymes required for
the fertilization of the egg
4. The middle piece has numerous mitochondria to produce the energy for the motility of the tail of
the sperm.
5. Tail is long, slender, and tapering part containing cytoplasm and fine thread axial filament, the axial
filament arises from the distal centriole and travels throughout the length of tail.
6. The tail is partly surrounded by plasma membrane and the part without plasma membrane is called
end piece.

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 19) Ans. Fertilization is the process of fusion of gametes which results in the formation of a diploid zygote.
Fertilization is internal and it usually takes place in the ampulla of the fallopian tube.
Significance of fertilization are-
1. The diploid chromosome number is restored in the zygote by the process of syngamy.
2. The zygote develops to form a new individual which is necessary for the continuation of the species
3. Secondary oocyte completes the process of oogenesis and is transformed into a mature. Ovum
4. The process fertilization involves fusion of male and female gametes from the two parents, and it
results in variation which are significant to evolution.
5. Fertilization process increases the metabolic activities of the egg.

20) Ans. Blastula :

[Link] is an animal embryo at the early stage of development, and it is a hollow ball of cells.
2. It is formed from the morula in the process called Blastulation.
3. It results from rapid mitotic cell division.
4. It is composed of a single layered hollow structure.
5. It contains zona pellucida.
6. It contains undifferentiated cells.
7. It found during first stage of embryogenesis.

Gastrula :
1. Gastrula is an embryo develops from the blastula. It is a hollow cup shaped structure having 3 layers
of cells.
2. It is formed from the blastula in the process called gastrulation.
3. It results from slow mitotic cell division.
4. It is composed of 3 layered folder structure.
5. It lacks zona pellucida.
6. It contains differentiated cells.
7. It is formed during gastrulation, at last stage of embryogenesis.

Q.5 Answer the following question. (Long Answer) 64

1) Ans. 1. The zygote formed as a result of syngamy is ready to divide, the mitotic division is initiated and is
called the cleavage to form 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres.
2. By the end of 4th day of fertilization embryo is a solid ball of 16 -32 cells and externally looking
like Mulberry, the embryo containing blastomeres form the morula.

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 3. It continues to transform and divide into hollow and multicellular blastocyst as it further approaches
the uterus.
4. In the blastocyst, the blastomeres are organized into an outer layer referred to as the trophoblast and
the inner cell mass which is an inner collection of cells attached to the trophoblast.
5. Cells from the trophoblast begin to absorb glycogen and uterine milk.
6. The outer cells become flat and are called trophoblast cells, the inner larger cells form inner cell
mass or embryoblast.
7. The blastocyst after its formation gets implanted or embedded into the endometrium of the uterus,
this process usually begins on day 7 after fertilization.
8. The inner cell mass transforms into the embryo, the cells of the uterus rapidly divide and covers up
the entire blastocyst.
9. This causes the blastocyst to implant in the endometrium of the uterus which leads to conception.

2) Ans. The human female reproductive system consists of :

i) Internal genitalia
ii) External genitalia
iii) Accessory glands
i) Internal genitalia includes ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina.
A) Ovary :
It is the primary female sex organ.
It is a solid, oval or almond shaped organ. It is 3 cm in length, 1.5 cm in breadth and 1 cm thick.
It is located in the upper lateral part of the pelvis near the kidneys.
Each ovary is held in position by ligaments by attaching it to the uterus and the abdominal wall.
The largest of these is the broad ligament formed by a fold of peritoneum.
It holds the ovary, oviduct and the uterus to the dorsal body wall.
The ovarian ligament attaches ovary to the uterus.

B) Oviduct / Fallopian tube / Uterine tube :

These are a pair of muscular ducts lying horizontally over the peritoneal cavity.
The proximal part of the tube lies close to the ovary and distally it opens into the uterus. Each tube is
10 to 12 cm in length. It is internally lined by ciliated epithelium.
It can be divided into three regions :
a) Infundibulum : The proximal funnel like part with an opening called ostium surrounded by many
figure-like processes called fimbriae (of these at least one is long and connected to the ovary). The
cilia and the movement of fimbriae help in transporting the ovulated egg to the ostium.
b) Ampulla : It is the middle, long and straight part of the oviduct. Fertilization of the ovum takes place
in this region.
c) Isthmus: The distal narrow part of the duct opening into the uterus functions :
Fallopian tubes carry the released egg from the ovary to the uterus.
Ampulla provides the site for fertilization of the ovum.

C) Uterus :
It is commonly called as womb.
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It is a hollow, muscular, pear shaped organ, located above and behind the urinary bladder. It is about
7.5 cm long, 5 cm broad and 2.5 cm thick.
Internally the uterine wall can be distinguished into three layers : Outermost perimetrium, middle thick
muscular myometrium, made up of thick layer of smooth muscles. Vigorous contractions of these
muscles cause labor during parturition (child birth).
Innermost layer called endometrium or mucosal membrane is made up of stratified epithelium. The
thickness of these layer regularly undergoes changes in during the menstrual cycle. It is richly supplied
with blood vessels and uterine glands. These provide nourishment to the developing fetus.
The uterus can be divided into three regions :
a) Fundus : It is upper dome shaped part. Normally implantation of the embryo occurs in the fundus.
b) Body : It is the broad part of the uterus which gradually tapers downwards.
c) Cervix : It is narrow neck about 2.5 cm in length. It extends into the vagina. Its passage has two
openings : an internal os towards the body, and an external ostowards the vagina.
Functions :
Uterus receives the ovum. It provides site for implantation, gestation and parturition.
It forms placenta for the development of fetus.
D) Vagina :
It is a tubular, female copulatory organ, 7 to 9 cm in length.
It lies between the cervix and the vestibule.
The vaginal wall has an inner mucosal lining, the middle muscular layer and an outer adventitia layer.
The mucosal epithelium is stratified and non-keratinized and stores glycogen.
There are no glands but the cervical secretion of mucus is received in vagina.
The opening of the vagina into the vestibule is called vaginal orifice. The vaginal orifice is partially
covered by hymen.
Functions : The vagina acts as a passage for menstrual flow as well as a birth canal during parturition.

2) External genitalia (Vulva) :

The external genital organ of female include parts external to the vagina, collectively called vulva
(covering or wrapping), or pudendum. They include the following parts :
a) Vestibule : It is a median vertical depression of vulva enclosing the urethral and vaginal opening.
b) Labia minora : These are another pair of thin folds inner to the labia majora with which they merge
posteriorly to form the fore chette (frenulum), while towards anterior and they converge into a hood-
like covering around the clitoris.
c) Clitoris : A small conical and sensitive projection lying at the anterior end of labia minora. It has a
pair of erectile tissue i.e. corpora cavernosa which is homologous to the penis.
d) Labia majora : These are a pair of fleshy folds of skin forming the boundary of vulva. They are
homologous to the scrotum. They surround and protect the other parts of external genitalia and enclose
the urethral and vaginal openings in the vestibule.
e) Mons pubis : It is a fleshy elevation above the labia majora. The Mons pubis and outer part of labia
majora show pubic hair.

3) Accessory glands :
a) vestibular glands / Bartholin’s glands :
It is a pair of glands homologous to the Bulbourethral or Cowper’s glands of the male. They open into
the vestibule and release a lubricating fluid.
b) Mammary glands :
These are accessory organs of female reproductive system for production and release of milk after
parturition.
Development of mammary glands occur at puberty under the influence of estrogen and progesterone.
Lactotropic hormone (LTH) or prolactin helps in development of lactiferous tubules during pregnancy.
The mammary glands are a pair of rounded structures present in the subcutaneous tissue of the anterior
thorax in the pectoral region (from 2nd and 6th rib). These are modified sweat glands.
Each mammary gland contains fatty connective tissue and numerous lactiferous ducts.

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 The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 irregularly shaped mammary lobes, each with
alveolar glands and lactiferous duct.
Alveolar glands secrete milk which is stored in the lumen of alveoli open into mammary tubules.
The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct.
Many mammary ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla, which is connected to lactiferous duct.
These converge towards the nipple located near the tip of the breast.
It is surrounded by a dark brown colored and circular area of the skin called areola.

3) Ans. Gastrulation is the process of formation of gastrula from the blastocyst.

• Two important events that take place in gastrulation process:
• Differentiation a blastomeres
• Morphogenetic movements.
Differentiation of blastomeres results in the formation of 3 germinal layers, ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm.
1. Gastrulation begins on about 8th day after fertilization inside the embryoblast.
2. The inner cell mass called hypoblast become flattened and start dividing and grows downwards
towards the blastocoel, cavity of blastocyst and this forms the endoderm layer
3. After formation of endoderm the second layer to be differentiated is the ectoderm.
4. After implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer layer called ectoderm
and an inner layer called endoderm. A mesoderm soon appears between the ectoderm and the
endoderm. These three layers give rise to all tissues (organs) in adults.
5. Morphogenetic movements create different types of movements to reach their definite place in the
embryo.

4) Ans. 1. Testis- A pair of testes are present in a pouch called scrotum and each testis is oval, 4 to 5-
centimetre-long, 2 to 3-centimetre-wideand it is mesodermal in origin.

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 2. Vas deferens-- The Vas deferens a thin, fibromuscular is tube initiating from the epididymis and
converting into the ejaculatory duct in the male reproductive system. It serves in transporting sperm
cells from each of the testis to the common ejaculatory duct. The Vas Deferens is a 30cm long tube
whose main function is to transport sperms.
3. Epididymis-It leads to vas deferens that ascends to the abdomen and loops over the urinary bladder.
4. Seminal vesicle- It is a pair of glands lying on the posterior side of urinary bladder.
5. Prostate gland- It is a large and single gland made up of 20 -30 lobes and is located under the urinary
bladder.
6. Penis- It is divided into three parts, the root, the body and glands. It serves as a common pathway
and exit for semen and urine.
7. It secrets and alkaline seminal fluid which contains fibrinogen and prostaglandins.

5) Ans. 1. Fertilization is the biological process of fusion of male and female gametes resulting in the
formation of zygote.
2. Mechanism of fertilization involves following steps:
• movement of sperm towards egg
• Entry of sperm into the egg and acrosomal reaction.
• Activation of Ovum and Fusion of egg and sperm.
Capacitation is an activation process that involves enhancement, biochemical, Structural changes in
the plasma membrane of the sperm head that prepare sperm to undergo the acrosomal reaction.
1. This process requires 5 to 6 hours.
2. As a result of capacitation sperms become extra active and begin to start moving upwards from
vagina to uterus and to oviduct.
3. The prostaglandin and vestibular secretion of the female enhance sperm motility activate the sperms.
4. sperms reach up to the ampulla as a result of their own swimming and partly by contraction of uterus
and fallopian tubes stimulated by secretion of oxytocin hormone of female
5. After capacitation, the sperms may reach ampulla within 5 minutes and remain viable 24-48hrs.

6) Ans. The process of delivery of the foetus (childbirth) is called parturition. Parturition is induced by a
complex neuroendocrine mechanism.
It involves the following 3 stages-
1. Dilation stage-
This stage begins with the uterine contraction from top forcing the baby towards the cervix.
2. Contraction are accompanied by pain caused by compression of blood vessels. Hormone called
oxytocin induced uterine contraction become stronger and stronger due to stimulatory reflex.
3. As the baby is pushed down in the uterus its head comes to lie against cervix.
4. This stage of labour can normally last upto few hours. It ends in rupturing of amniotic membrane of
foetus.
5. Expulsion stage-
in this stage the uterine and abdominal contraction become stronger. In normal delivery the foetus
passes out through cervix and vagina with head in forward direction.
6. This stage normally takes 22-60 minutes.
7. The umbilical cord is tied and cut off close to the baby’s navel.
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 8. After birth –
After the delivery of the baby the placenta separates from the uterus and it is expelled out as after birth
due to severe contraction of the uterus.
9. This stage nearly takes 10 to 45 minutes.

7) Ans. 1. Oogenesis is the process of formation of the haploid female gamete that is egg or Ovum from the
diploid germinal epithelium. It involves both the process meiosis and mitosis
2. The process of Oogenesis takes place in three phases:
Multiplicative phase
Growth phase
Maturation phase
3. Multiplication phase: In this stage, follicle cells are differentiated from the germinal epithelium of
the ovary due to repeated mitosis division. Few follicle cells enlarge and are termed as egg mother
cells and undergo mitosis to multiply which are referred to as oogonia.
4. Growth phase – In this stage Some of the oogonia stop division and begin to increase in size and
form the primary oocyte. Cellular organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and
mitochondria increase in number.
5. Maturation phase – The primary oocyte in this phase passes through two maturation divisions.
6. Meiosis I – the first meiotic division splits the diploid primary oocyte into two haploid cells wherein
the larger one is the secondary oocyte and the minor one is the polar body.
7. In meiosis II or the second meiotic division, the secondary oocyte splits to form one large ovum and
polar body.
Furthermore, the first polar body splits through mitosis to form two polar bodies.
8. Therefore, one primary oocyte produces one large ovum and three polar bodies which eventually
degenerate.

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8) Ans. The menstrual cycle is divided into four phases, namely:
1. Menstrual phase: The beginning of each cycle is taken as the first day when menses or loss of blood
takes place. It lasts for approximately 5 days.
The blood in the menstrual discharge does not clot due to presence of fibrinolysin.
Menstrual phase occurs when an ovulated egg does not get fertilized and it is thereby shedout along
with the menstruum.
Endometrium of uterus breaks down under the effect of prostaglandins released due to decreased level
of progesterone and estrogen.
During menses, the blood, tissue fluid, mucus, endometrial lining and the unfertilized oocytes is
discharged through vagina. Also, the endometrial lining becomes very thin i.e. about 1 mm.
During these five days, many primordial follicles develop into primary and few of them into secondary
follicles under the effect FSH.

2) Proliferative phase/ Follicular phase/ Post menstrual phase : This phase is the duration between the
end of menstruation and release of ovum (ovulation).
Duration of this phase is more variable than other phases. Generally, it extends from 5th and 13th day
of menstrual cycle.
Generally, out of 6 to 12 secondary follicles that proceed to develop, only one develops into a Graafian
follicle (mature follicle), while the rest of the follicles degenerate (atresia).
The stimulation for proliferation of new follicles is influenced by GnRH which stimulates release of
FSH.
The developing secondary follicles secrete the hormone estrogen.
Endometrium begins to regenerate under the effect of estrogen. Regeneration also involves formation
of endothelial cells, endometrial or uterine glands and network of blood [Link] this phase thickness
of endometrium reaches 3-5 mm.
3) Ovulatory phase : It is the shortest phase of menstrual cycle.
It involves rupturing of the mature Graafian follicle and release of ovum (secondary oocyte) into the
pelvic cavity; usually on 14th day of menstrual cycle.
Rapid secretion of LH by positive feedback mechanism causes the mature follicle to rupture. Ovulation
may be accompanied by mild or severe pains in lower abdomen.

4) Secretory phase/Luteal phase : It is the phase between ovulation and beginning of the next menses.
This phase is the longest phase. It lasts for 14 days i.e. from 15th to 28th day of the cycle.
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 After release of secondary oocyte, remaining tissue of Graafian follicle transforms into corpus luteum
under the effect of LH.
The corpus luteum releases hormone such asprogesterone, estrogen and inhibin.
The ovulated egg may get fertilized within 24 hours.
In the absence of fertilization : Corpus luteum can survive for only two weeks and then degenerates
into a white scar called corpus albicans.
In case of fertilization : The embryo is implanted, there is secretion of human chronic gonadotropin
(hCG), which extends the life of corpus luteum and stimulates its secretory activity. Presence of hCG
in blood and urine is an indicator of pregnancy. In absence of fertilization, next menstrual cycle begins.
Under the influence of progesterone and estrogen, the endometrial glands grow, become coiled and
start uterine secretions.
Endometrium becomes more vascularized and thickens up to 8-10 mm. Inhibin stops secretion of FSH.
These changes are necessary for fertilization and subsequent implantation.

9) Ans. The menstrual cycle is divided into four phases:

Menstrual Phase:
• Loss of blood takes place and it lasts for five days.
• The production of LH from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is reduced.
• Endometrium of uterus breaks down under the effect of hormone prostaglandins release due to
decreased labels of progesterone and Estrogen.
• Due to this blood tissue, fluid, mucus endometrium lining and the unfertilised oocyte is discharged
through vagina.
• Production of oestrogen is also reduced in this phase.
The cells of endometrium secretions, blood & unfertilised ovum constitutes the menstrual flow.

Follicular Phase:
• This phase generally extends from 5th to 13th day of menstrual cycle.
• The follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland stimulates
the ovarian follicle to secrete oestrogens.
• Oestrogen stimulates the proliferation of the endometrium of the uterine wall.

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 • The endometrium becomes thicker by rapid cell multiplication and this is accompanied by an increase
in uterine glands & blood vessels.

Ovulatory Phase:
• This phase generally occurs on 14th day of menstrual cycle.
• It is the shortest phase of menstrual cycle and it involves rupturing of the mature graafian follicle
and release of Ovum into the pelvic cavity.
• Oestrogen concentration in blood increases.
• Rapid secretion of LH induces rupturing of graafian follicle and thereby the release of ovum.

Luteal Phase:
• It lasts for 14 days, i.e. from cycle days 15 to 28.
• Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and small amount of Estrogen and inhibin.
• Endometrium Becomes more vascularized and thickens up to 8 -210 mm.
• Uterine glands become secretory.

10) Ans. Fertilization is the biological process of Fusion of male and female gametes resulting in the formation
of zygote.
Steps of fertilization in humans:
i) Movement of sperms towards egg
ii) Entry of sperm into egg
iii) Acrosomal reaction
iv) Activation of egg
v) Fusion of egg and sperm
Movement of sperm towards egg-
i) The sperm incapacitation undergoes acrosomal reactions and release certain chemicals known as
sperm lysins.
ii) The movement of sperm towards ampulla a result of their own swimming and partly by contraction
of uterus and fallopian tube stimulated by oxytocin of female.
Entry of sperm into egg - only few sperms can reach the ampulla.
i) After reaching their sperm to lie against ovum.
Acrosome reaction –
i) As the sperm head touches the zona pellucida in the animal pole region its acrosome covering
ruptures to release lytic enzymes.
ii) A small fertilization cone is formed where both plasma membrane dissolve.
iii) Plasma membrane of both cells dissolve at the point of contact the sperm nucleus enter the egg.
Activation of Ovum –
iv) The entry of sperm triggers the metabolism in the zygote, subsequent formation of polar body and
true ovum formed.
Fusion of egg and sperm –
v) The coverings of male and female pronuclei degenerate allowing the chromosomal pairing, this
results in the formation of a synkaryon by the process called syngamy.

11) Ans. Gastrulation is the process of formation of gastrula from the blastocyst.
Differentiation of blastomeres results in the formation of 3 germinal layers, ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm
Ectoderm- Ectoderm gives rise to epidermis of skin, hair, nails sweat gland, salivary glands, mammary
glands, lacrimal gland, sebaceous gland, cornea, lens, retina conjunctiva, nasal epithelium, enamel of
teeth, internal external ear, foregut hindgut, adrenal medulla, anterior and posterior pituitary, pineal
gland, entire nervous system.
Mesoderm- It gives rise to all types of muscles, connective tissues, dermis of skin, adrenal cortex heart,
blood, blood vessels, lymphatic vessel, middle ear, dentine of teeth, urinary and reproductive ducts,
kidney, sclera, and choroid of eye.

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 Endoderm- it gives rise to epithelium of mid got, glands of stomach and intestine, tongue, tonsil,
trachea, bronchi, larynx, urinary bladder, vagina, liver, pancreas, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland
thymus gland, eustachian tube, epithelium of urethra and lining of middle ear.

12) Ans. 1. The zygote formed as a result of syngamy is ready to divide, the mitotic division is initiated and is
called the cleavage to form 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres.
2. The first cleavage in the zygote is meridional and occurs about 30 hours after fertilization, it divides
longitudinally into two blastomere one slightly larger than the other.
3. The second cleavage is also longitudinal but at the right angle to the first one and occurs after 30hrs.
4. The third cleavage is horizontal, after 3rd cleavage the embryo is 8 celled structure.
5. As cleavage are going on the embryo is gradually being pushed towards the uterus.
6. By the end of 4th day of fertilization embryo is a solid ball of 16 -32 cells and externally looking
like Mulberry, the embryo containing blastomeres form the morula.
7. It continues to transform and divide into hollow and multicellular blastocyst as it further approaches
the uterus.

13) Ans. The following changes are observed in female after implantation:
1. The embryo usually implants in the region of the fundus of uterus.
2. The trophoblast differentiated into 2 layers outer layer and inner layer.
3. The outer layer secrets enzymes to rupture the endometrium of uterus
4. The inner layer grows out as finger like projection into uterine stoma and is known as chorionic
villi.
5. placenta secrets hormone like HCG, HPL, Estrogen, progesterone that are necessary to maintain
pregnancy.
6. Umbilical cord, the structure that connects the placenta with the foetus is developed.
7. The inner cell mass differentiates into outer layer called ectoderm and inner player called endoderm
and middle layer called mesoderm.
8. The primary germ layers give rise to all the tissues and organs of the adults.
9. The foetus is completely developed by the end of nine months and is ready for delivery.

14) Ans. Oogenesis :

1. It occurs inside the ovary.
2. Oogonia develop from the germinal epithelium lining overlying the ovary.
[Link] of egg from Oogonia.
4. Few Oogonia gives rise Oocyte.
5. Generates nonmotile gametes.
6. Sertoli cell not found in germinal epithelium.
7. This process involves both meiosis and mitosis.
8. Polar bodies are formed.
9. The growth phase of Oogonia development is lengthy.

Spermatogenesis :
1. It occurs inside the testes.
2. Spermatogonia develop from the germinal epithelium lining in the seminiferous tubule.
3. Production of sperm from spermatogonia.
4. All spermatogonia gives rises to spermatocytes.
5. Produces motile gametes.
6. Sertoli cell found in germinal epithelium.
7. Only meiosis occurs.
8. Polar bodies are not formed.
9. The growth phase of spermatogonia development is short.

15) Ans. The female Reproductive System consist of following parts

i) The primary sex organ which is a pair of ovaries.
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 ii) Secondary sex organs-consisting of a pair of fallopian tube, a uterus, cervix, and vagina.
iii) External genitalia
iv) Mammary glands
Ovary: It is the primary female sex organ that produce the female gamete and several steroid hormones.
Each ovary is covered by thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma, which is divided into a
peripheral cortex and an inner medulla.
Fallopian tube: It extends from periphery of ovary to the uterus. The part closer to ovary is a funnel
shaped structure called infundibulum having finger like projection called fimbriae.
Infundibulum: It leads to ampulla and join with uterus with isthmus. Uterus part is pear shaped
structure also called womb.
Uterus: It is hollow, muscular, pear shaped organ located above and behind the urinary bladder. It
opens vagina through a narrow cervix. The cavity of cervix (cervical canal) along with vagina forms
the birth canal.
The wall of uterus has three layers of tissue:
I. Perimetrium- external membrane.
II. Myometrium – middle thick layer of smooth muscles which exhibit strong contraction during
delivery of baby.
III. Endometrium – line the uterine wall and undergo cyclic changes during menstrual cycle.
External genitalia include:
• Vestibule: It is a median vertical depression of vulva enclosing the urethral and virginal opening.
• Clitoris: It is a small conical and sensitive projection lying at the anterior end of labia minora. It has
a pair of erectile tissue known as corpora carvernosa and homologous to the penis.
• Mons pubis – cushion of fatty tissues covered by skin and pubic hair.
• Labia majora- fleshy fold that surround the vaginal opening.
• Labia minora – paired fold of tissue under labia majora.

Mammary gland:
• It is the accessory organs of female reproductive system.
• The mammary glands are a pair of rounded structures present in the subcutaneous tissue of the
anterior thorax in the pectoral region.
• Development of the mammary gland occurs at the puberty under the influence of Estrogen and
progesterone.
• Each mammary gland contains fatty connective tissue and numerals lactiferous ducts.
• The glandular tissue of each mammary gland is divided into 15 -20 irregularly shaped mammary
lobes, each with alveolar glands and lactiferous duct.
• Alveolar gland secret milk which is stored in the lumen of alveoli.

16) Ans. The major events occur in second trimester are as follows:
1. It is the period of rapid growth of foetus.
2. Development of brain begins.
3. The foetus is nearly 30 centimetre long and is highly active.
4. The movements of baby can be easily felt by the mother.

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5. Head, hair, eyebrows, and eyelashes are developed.
6. Baby reaches half the size of a new-born.

The major events occur in third trimester are as follows:

1. The foetus is almost 3 to 4 kg in weight and nearly 50 centimetre in length.
2. Eyes are open and properly developed.
3. Gain in body weight
4. At the end of 3rd trimester, the foetus becomes fully developed and ready for parturition.

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