A B C Rear inducer Front inducer

Impeller

Coupling

Center bearing Front bearing

Compressor shaft
Air outlet elbow with turning vanes
Impeller Diffuser Compressor manifold for reducing air pressure losses Compressor

Figure 1-46. (A) Components of a centrifugal-flow compressor; (B) Air outlet elbow with turning vanes for reducing air pressure losses;
(C) Components of a double-entry centrifugal-flow compressor.

rotor increases the compression of the air at each stage and

accelerates it rearward through several stages. With this
increased velocity, energy is transferred from the compressor
to the air in the form of velocity energy. The stator blades act
as diffusers at each stage, partially converting high velocity
to pressure. Each consecutive pair of rotor and stator blades
constitutes a pressure stage. The number of rows of blades
(stages) is determined by the amount of air and total pressure
rise required. Compressor pressure ratio increases with the
number of compression stages. Most engines utilize up to
16 stages and more.

The stator has rows of vanes, which are in turn attached inside
an enclosing case. The stator vanes, which are stationary,
project radially toward the rotor axis and fit closely on
Figure 1-47. Single-entry impeller. either side of each stage of the rotor blades. In some cases,
the compressor case, into which the stator vanes are fitted,
presenting a smooth, turning surface. [Figure 1-46B] is horizontally divided into halves. Either the upper or lower
half may be removed for inspection or maintenance of rotor
Axial-Flow Compressor and stator blades.
The axial flow compressor is a combination of an engine
compressor and high-pressure turbine that drives it using a The function of the stator vanes is to receive air from the
connecting drive shaft. In a single-spool engine, the high- air inlet duct or from each preceding stage and increase
pressure turbine drives the entire compressor. In a dual-spool the pressure of the air and deliver it to the next stage at the
engine, the compressor and high-pressure turbine are both correct velocity and pressure. They also control the direction
split into two segments. Each compressor segment is driven of air to each rotor stage to obtain the maximum possible
by its corresponding turbine using two separate drive shafts, compressor blade efficiency. Shown in Figure 1-48 are the
with one inside the other. The first stage turbine drives the rotor and stator elements of a typical axial-flow compressor.
N2 compressor. The first stage rotor blades can be preceded by an inlet guide
vane assembly that can be fixed or variable.
The axial-flow compressor has two main elements: a
rotor and a stator. The rotor has blades fixed on a spindle. The guide vanes direct the airflow into the first stage rotor
These blades impel air rearward in the same manner as a blades at the proper angle and impart a swirling motion to
propeller because of their angle and airfoil contour. The the air entering the compressor. This preswirl, in the direction
rotor, turning at high speed, takes in air at the compressor of engine rotation, improves the aerodynamic characteristics
inlet and impels it through a series of stages. From inlet to of the compressor by reducing drag on the first stage rotor
exit, the air flows along an axial path and is compressed at blades. The inlet guide vanes are curved steel vanes usually
a ratio of approximately 1.25:1 per stage. The action of the welded to steel inner and outer shrouds.

1-40
 in thickness by cutouts, referred to as blade profiles. These
At the discharge end of the compressor, the stator vanes are profiles prevent serious damage to the blade or housing
constructed to straighten the airflow to eliminate turbulence. should the blades contact the compressor housing. This
These vanes are called straightening vanes or the outlet vane condition can occur if rotor blades become excessively loose
assembly. The casings of axial-flow compressors not only or if rotor support is reduced by a malfunctioning bearing.
support the stator vanes and provide the outer wall of the Even though blade profiles greatly reduce such possibilities,
axial path the air follows, but they also provide the means occasionally a blade may break under stress of rubbing and
for extracting compressor air for various purposes. The stator cause considerable damage to compressor blades and stator
vanes are usually made of steel with corrosion- and erosion- vane assemblies. The blades vary in length from entry to
resistant qualities. Quite frequently, they are shrouded discharge because the annular working space (drum to casing)
(enclosed) by a band of suitable material to simplify the is reduced progressively toward the rear by the decrease in
fastening problem. The vanes are welded into the shrouds, the casing diameter. [Figure 1-50] This feature provides for a
and the outer shroud is secured to the compressor housing fairly constant velocity through the compressor, which helps
inner wall by radial retaining screws. to keep the flow of air constant.

The rotor blades are usually made of stainless steel with The rotor features either drum-type or disc-type construction.
the latter stages being made of titanium. The design of The drum-type rotor consists of rings that are flanged to fit
blade attachment to the rotor disc rims varies, but they are one against the other, wherein the entire assembly can then
commonly fitted into discs by either bulb-type or fir-tree be held together by through bolts. This type of construction
methods. [Figure 1-49] The blades are then locked into place is satisfactory for low-speed compressors where centrifugal
by differing methods. Compressor blade tips are reduced stresses are low. The disc-type rotor consists of a series of
discs machined from aluminum forgings, shrunk over a steel
shaft, with rotor blades dovetailed into the disc rims. Another
Front compressor stator casing method of rotor construction is to machine the discs and
shaft from a single aluminum forging, and then to bolt steel
stub shafts on the front and rear of the assembly to provide
bearing support surfaces and splines for joining the turbine
shaft. The drum-type and disc-type rotors are illustrated in
Figures 1-50 and 1-51, respectively.

The combination of the compressor stages and turbine stages

Rear compressor stator casing on a common shaft is an engine referred to as an engine
spool. The common shaft is provided by joining the turbine
Compressor rotor Compressor rear frame and compressor shafts by a suitable method. The engine’s
spool is supported by bearings, which are seated in suitable
bearing housings.

As mentioned earlier, there are two configurations of the

axial compressor currently in use: the single rotor/spool and
the dual rotor/spool, sometimes referred to as solid spool and
split spool (two spool, dual spool).
Rear compressor stator casing
One version of the solid-spool (one spool) compressor uses
variable inlet guide vanes. Also, the first few rows of stator
vanes are variable. The main difference between variable inlet
guide vane (VIGV) and a variable stator vane (VSV) is their
position with regard to the rotor blades. VIGV are in front of
the rotor blades, and VSV are behind the rotor blades. The
angles of the inlet guide vanes and the first several stages of
the stator vanes are can be variable. During operation, air enters
Front compressor stator casing
the front of the engine and is directed into the compressor at
the proper angle by the variable inlet guide and directed by the
Figure 1-48. Rotor and stator elements of a typical axial-flow VSV. The air is compressed and forced into the combustion
compressor.

1-41
 Bulb root Fir-tree root

Figure 1-49. Common designs of compressor blade attachment to the rotor disc.

section. A fuel nozzle that extends into each combustion rotor systems. Many dual rotor systems have rotors turning
liner atomizes the fuel for combustion. These variables are in opposite directions and with no mechanical connection to
controlled in direct relation to the amount of power the engine each other. The second spool, referred to as the high-pressure
is required to produce by the power lever position. spool and is the compressor for the gas generator and core of
the engine, supplies air to the combustion section of the engine.
Most turbofan engines are of the split-spool compressor type.
Most large turbofan engines use a large fan with a few stages The advantages and disadvantages of both types of
of compression called the low-pressure spool. These turbofans compressors are included in the following list. Even though
incorporate two compressors with their respective turbines and each type has advantages and disadvantages, each has its use
interconnecting shafts, which form two physically independent by type and size of engine.

The centrifugal-flow compressor’s advantages are:

• High pressure rise per stage,
• Efficiency over wide rotational speed range,
Air flow • Simplicity of manufacture and low cost,

Rotor blade Stator blade

Air flow

Figure 1-50. Drum-type compressor rotor. Figure 1-51. Disc-type compressor rotor.

1-42
 • Low weight, and The primary function of the combustion section is, of course,
to burn the air-fuel mixture, thereby adding heat energy to
• Low starting power requirements.
the air. To do this efficiently, the combustion chamber must:
The centrifugal-flow compressor’s disadvantages are: • Provide the means for proper mixing of the fuel and
air to assure good combustion,
• Its large frontal area for a given airflow and
• Burn this mixture efficiently,
• Losses in turns between stages.
• Cool the hot combustion products to a temperature
The axial-flow compressor’s advantages are: that the turbine inlet guide vanes/blades can withstand
under operating conditions, and
• High peak efficiencies;
• Deliver the hot gases to the turbine section.
• Small frontal area for given airflow;
• Straight-through flow, allowing high ram efficiency; The location of the combustion section is directly between
and the compressor and the turbine sections. The combustion
• Increased pressure rise by increasing number of stages, chambers are always arranged coaxially with the compressor
with negligible losses. and turbine regardless of type, since the chambers must be in a
through-flow position to function efficiently. All combustion
The axial-flow compressor’s disadvantages are: chambers contain the same basic elements:
• Good efficiencies over only narrow rotational speed 1. Casing.
range, 2. Perforated inner liner.
• Difficulty of manufacture and high cost, 3. Fuel injection system.
• Relatively high weight, and 4. Some means for initial ignition.
• High starting power requirements (partially overcome 5. Fuel drainage system to drain off unburned fuel after
by split compressors). engine shutdown.

Diffuser There are currently four basic types of combustion chambers,

The diffuser is the divergent section of the engine after the variations within type being in detail only. These types are:
compressor and before the combustion section. It has the 1. Can-type.
all-important function of reducing high-velocity compressor
discharge air to increased pressure at a slower velocity. This 2. Can-annular type.
prepares the air for entry into the flame burning area of the 3. Annular type.
combustion section at a lower velocity so that the flame of 4. Reverse-flow type.
combustion can burn continuously. If the air passed through
the flame area at a high velocity, it could extinguish the flame. The can-type combustion chamber is typical of the type
used on turboshaft and APUs. [Figure 1-52] Each of the
Combustion Section can-type combustion chambers consists of an outer case or
The combustion section houses the combustion process, housing, within which there is a perforated stainless steel
which raises the temperature of the air passing through the (highly heat resistant) combustion chamber liner or inner
engine. This process releases energy contained in the air- liner. [Figure 1-53] The outer case is removed to facilitate
fuel mixture. The major part of this energy is required at the liner replacement.
turbine or turbine stages to drive the compressor. About ²⁄³ of
the energy is used to drive the gas generator compressor. The Older engines with several combustion cans had each can
remaining energy passes through the remaining turbine stages with interconnector (flame propagation) tube, which was a
that absorb more of the energy to drive the fan, output shaft, necessary part of the can-type combustion chambers. Since
or propeller. Only the pure turbojet allows the air to create each can is a separate burner operating independently of the
all the thrust or propulsion by exiting the rear of the engine other cans, there must be some way to spread combustion
in the form of a high-velocity jet. These other engine types during the initial starting operation. This is accomplished
have some jet velocity out the rear of the engine but most by interconnecting all the chambers. As the flame is started
of the thrust or power is generated by the additional turbine by the spark igniter plugs in two of the lower chambers, it
stages driving a large fan, propeller, or helicopter rotor blades. passes through the tubes and ignites the combustible mixture
in the adjacent chamber and continues until all the chambers

1-43
 are caused by the residue left when the fuel evaporates.
Probably most important is the danger of afterfire if the fuel
is allowed to accumulate after shutdown. If the fuel is not
drained, a great possibility exists that, at the next starting
attempt, the excess fuel in the combustion chamber will ignite
and exhaust gas temperature will exceed safe operating limits.

The liners of the can-type combustors have perforations

of various sizes and shapes, each hole having a specific
purpose and effect on flame propagation within the liner.
[Figure 1-52] The air entering the combustion chamber
is divided by the proper holes, louvers, and slots into two
main streams—primary and secondary air. The primary or
combustion air is directed inside the liner at the front end,
where it mixes with the fuel and is burned. Secondary or
cooling air passes between the outer casing and the liner and
joins the combustion gases through larger holes toward the
rear of the liner, cooling the combustion gases from about
3,500 °F to near 1,500 °F. To aid in atomization of the fuel,
holes are provided around the fuel nozzle in the dome or
Figure 1-52. Can-type combustion chamber. inlet end of the can-type combustor liner. Louvers are also
provided along the axial length of the liners to direct a cooling
layer of air along the inside wall of the liner. This layer of air
also tends to control the flame pattern by keeping it centered
in the liner, thereby preventing burning of the liner walls.
Figure 1-55 illustrates the annular combustion chamber liner.

Some provision is always made in the combustion chamber

case for installation of a fuel nozzle. The fuel nozzle delivers
the fuel into the liner in a finely atomized spray. The more the
spray is atomized, the more rapid and efficient the burning
process is.

Two types of fuel nozzle currently being used in the various

types of combustion chambers are the simplex nozzle and the
duplex nozzle. The construction features of these nozzles are
covered in greater detail in Chapter 2, Engine Fuel & Fuel
Metering Systems.

The spark igniter plugs of the annular combustion chamber

Figure 1-53. Inside view of a combustion chamber liner.
are the same basic type used in the can-type combustion
chambers, although construction details may vary. There are
are burning.
usually two igniters mounted on the boss provided on each
of the chamber housings. The igniters must be long enough
The flame tubes vary in construction details from one
to protrude from the housing into the combustion chamber.
engine to another, although the basic components are almost
identical. [Figure 1-54] The spark igniters previously
The burners are interconnected by projecting flame
mentioned are normally two in number and are located in
tubes which facilitate the engine-starting process as
two of the can-type combustion chambers.
mentioned previously in the can-type combustion chamber
familiarization. The flame tubes function identically to those
Another very important requirement in the construction of
previously discussed, differing only in construction details.
combustion chambers is providing the means for draining
unburned fuel. This drainage prevents gum deposits in the fuel
The can-annular combustion chamber is not used in modern
manifold, nozzles, and combustion chambers. These deposits

1-44
 Interconnecter tube

Interconnecter tube Elbow Seal Ferrule Seal Elbow Extension tube

Figure 1-54. Interconnecting flame tubes for can-type combustion chambers.

engines. The forward face of each chamber presents six screens in the diffuser outlet, as is the case in most axial-
apertures, which align with the six fuel nozzles of the flow engines.
corresponding fuel nozzle cluster. [Figure 1-56] These
nozzles are the dual-orifice (duplex) type requiring the use The can-annular combustion chambers also must have the
of a flow-divider (pressurizing valve), as mentioned in the required fuel drain valves located in two or more of the
can-type combustion chamber discussion. Around each bottom chambers, assuring proper drainage and elimination
nozzle are preswirl vanes for imparting a swirling motion to of residual fuel burning at the next start.
the fuel spray, which results in better atomization of the fuel,
better burning, and efficiency. The swirl vanes function to The flow of air through the holes and louvers of the can-
provide two effects imperative to proper flame propagation: annular chambers, is almost identical with the flow through
1. High flame speed—better mixing of air and fuel, other types of burners. [Figure 1-56] Special baffling is used
ensuring spontaneous burning. to swirl the combustion airflow and to give it turbulence.
Figure 1-57 shows the flow of combustion air, metal cooling
2. Low air velocity axially—swirling eliminates overly air, and the diluent or gas cooling air. The air flow direction
rapid flame movement axially.

The swirl vanes greatly aid flame propagation, since a high Outlet ducts
degree of turbulence in the early combustion and cooling
stages is desirable. The vigorous mechanical mixing of the
fuel vapor with the primary air is necessary, since mixing by
diffusion alone is too slow. This same mechanical mixing
is also established by other means, such as placing coarse

Flame tubes

Rotor shaft

Fuel nozzle cluster Spark igniter

Figure 1-56. Can-annular combustion chamber components and

Figure 1-55. Annular combustion chamber liner. arrangement.

1-45
 Combustion air
Metal cooling air
Gas cooling air

Figure 1-57. Airflow through a can-annular combustion chamber.

is indicated by the arrows.

The basic components of an annular combustion chamber

are a housing and a liner, as in the can type. The liner
Figure 1-58. Annular combustion chamber with ceramic coating.
consists of an undivided circular shroud extending all the
way around the outside of the turbine shaft housing. The
chamber is constructed of heat-resistant materials, which
are sometimes coated with thermal barrier materials, such
as ceramic materials. The annular combustion chamber is
illustrated in Figure 1-58. Modern turbine engines usually
have an annular combustion chamber. As can be seen in
Figure 1-59, the annular combustion chamber also uses
louvers and holes to prevent the flame from contacting the
side of the combustion chamber.

A reverse-flow combustor is a type of combustor in which

the air from the compressor enters the combustor outer case
and reverses its direction as it flows into the inner liner.
It again reverses its direction before it flows through the
Figure 1-59. Combustion chamber louvers and holes.
turbine. Reverse-flow combustors are used where engine
length is critical.

Turbine Section
The turbine transforms a portion of the kinetic (velocity)
energy of the exhaust gases into mechanical energy to drive the
gas generator compressor and accessories. The sole purpose
of the gas generator turbine is to absorb approximately 60
to 70 percent of the total pressure energy from the exhaust
gases. The exact amount of energy absorption at the turbine is
determined by the load the turbine is driving (i.e., compressor
size and type, number of accessories, and the load applied by
the other turbine stages). These turbine stages can be used to
Figure 1-60. Turbine inlet guide vanes.
drive a low-pressure compressor (fan), propeller, and shaft.
The turbine section of a gas turbine engine is located aft, or The turbine inlet nozzle vanes are located directly aft of the
downstream, of the combustion chamber. Specifically, it is combustion chambers and immediately forward of the turbine
directly behind the combustion chamber outlet. wheel. This is the highest or hottest temperature that comes
in contact with metal components in the engine. The turbine
The turbine assembly consists of two basic elements: turbine inlet temperature must be controlled, or damage will occur
inlet guide vanes and turbine disc. [Figures 1-60 and 1-61] to the turbine inlet vanes.
The stator element is known by a variety of names, of which
turbine inlet nozzle vanes, turbine inlet guide vanes, and After the combustion chamber has introduced the heat energy
nozzle diaphragm are three of the most commonly used. into the mass airflow and delivered it evenly to the turbine

1-46
 shroud and an outer shroud between which the nozzle vanes
are fixed. The number and size of inlet vanes employed
vary with different types and sizes of engines. Figure 1-63
illustrates typical turbine inlet nozzles featuring loose and
welded vanes. The vanes of the turbine inlet nozzle may be
assembled between the outer and inner shrouds or rings in
a variety of ways. Although the actual elements may vary
slightly in configuration and construction features, there is
one characteristic peculiar to all turbine inlet nozzles: the
nozzle vanes must be constructed to allow thermal expansion.
Otherwise, there would be severe distortion or warping of
the metal components because of rapid temperature changes.

The thermal expansion of turbine nozzles is accomplished

by one of several methods. One method necessitates loose
Figure 1-61. Turbine disc. assembly of the supporting inner and outer vane shrouds.
inlet nozzles, the nozzles must prepare the mass air flow to [Figure 1-63A]
drive the turbine rotor. The stationary vanes of the turbine
inlet nozzles are contoured and set at such an angle that they Each vane fits into a contoured slot in the shrouds, which
form a number of small nozzles discharging gas at extremely conforms to the airfoil shape of the vane. These slots are
high speed; thus, the nozzle converts a varying portion of the slightly larger than the vanes to give a loose fit. For further
heat and pressure energy to velocity energy that can then be support, the inner and outer shrouds are encased by inner
converted to mechanical energy through the turbine blades. and outer support rings, which provide increased strength
and rigidity. These support rings also facilitate removal of
There are three types of turbine blades: the impulse turbine the nozzle vanes as a unit. Without the rings, the vanes could
blade, reaction turbine blade, and the reaction-impulse fall out as the shrouds were removed.
turbine blade. The impulse turbine blade is also referred to
as a bucket. This is because as the stream of air strikes the Another method of thermal expansion construction is to fit the
center of the blade it changes the direction of the energy as it vanes into inner and outer shrouds; however, in this method
causes the blades to rotate the disc and rotor shaft. The turbine the vanes are welded or riveted into position. [Figure 1-63B]
nozzle guide vanes can usually be adjusted during engine Some means must be provided to allow thermal expansion;
overhaul and assembly in order to increase the efficiency of therefore, either the inner or the outer shroud ring is cut
the air stream striking the blades or buckets of the turbine. into segments. The saw cuts separating the segments allow
[Figure 1-62] sufficient expansion to prevent stress and warping of the vanes.

Reaction turbine blades cause the disc to rotate by the The rotor element of the turbine section consists essentially
aerodynamic action of the airstream directed to flow past of a shaft and a wheel. [Figure 1-64] The turbine wheel is
the blade at a particular angle in order to develop the most a dynamically balanced unit consisting of blades attached
efficient power from the turbine engine. [Figure 1-62] to a rotating disc. The disc, in turn, is attached to the main
power-transmitting shaft of the engine. The exhaust gases
The reaction-impulse turbine blade combines the action of leaving the turbine inlet nozzle vanes act on the blades of
both the impulse and reaction blades designs. The blade has the turbine wheel, causing the assembly to rotate at a very
more of the bucket shape of the impulse blade at the blade root high rate of speed. The high rotational speed imposes severe
and it also has more of an airfoil shape of the reaction blade on centrifugal loads on the turbine wheel, and at the same
the second half of the blade toward the outer end of the blade. time the elevated temperatures result in a lowering of the
strength of the material. Consequently, the engine speed and
The second purpose of the turbine inlet nozzle is to deflect temperature must be controlled to keep turbine operation
the gases to a specific angle in the direction of turbine wheel within safe limits.
rotation. Since the gas flow from the nozzle must enter the
turbine blade passageway while it is still rotating, it is essential The turbine disc is referred to as such without blades. When
to aim the gas in the general direction of turbine rotation. the turbine blades are installed, the disc then becomes the
turbine wheel. The disc acts as an anchoring component for
The turbine inlet nozzle assembly consists of an inner the turbine blades. Since the disc is bolted or welded to the

1-47
 Rotor

Moving buckets
Steam pressure

Rotor

Stator
Steam velocity

Fixed nozzle

Impulse Turbine

Rotor

Stator
Steam pressure
Rotor

Rotating nozzle
Steam velocity

Reaction Turbine

Figure 1-62. Impulse and reaction turbine blades.

shaft, the blades can transmit to the rotor shaft the energy Additionally, turbine blades are generally more susceptible to
they extract from the exhaust gases. operating damage than compressor blades due to the exposure
of high temperatures. There are various methods to relieve, at
The disc rim is exposed to the hot gases passing through the least partially, the aforementioned stresses. One such method
blades and absorbs considerable heat from these gases. In is to bleed cooling air back onto the face of the disc.
addition, the rim also absorbs heat from the turbine blades
by conduction. Hence, disc rim temperatures are normally Another method of relieving the thermal stresses of the disc
high and well above the temperatures of the more remote is incidental to blade installation. A series of grooves or
inner portion of the disc. As a result of these temperature notches, conforming to the blade root design, are broached
gradients, thermal stresses are added to the rotational stresses. in the rim of the disc. These grooves allow attachment of the

1-48
 There are various ways of attaching turbine blades, some
similar to compressor blade attachment. The most satisfactory
method utilizes the fir-tree design. [Figure 1-65]

The blades are retained in their respective grooves by a

variety of methods, the more common of which are peening,
welding, lock tabs, and riveting. Figure 1-66 shows a typical
turbine wheel using rivets for blade retention.

The peening method of blade retention is used frequently

in various ways. One of the most common applications of
A. Turbine nozzle vane assembly with loose-fitting vanes
peening requires a small notch to be ground in the edge of
the blade fir-tree root prior to the blade installation. After
the blade is inserted into the disc, the notch is filled by the
disc metal, which is “flowed” into it by a small punch-mark
made in the disc adjacent to the notch. The tool used for this
job is similar to a center punch.

Another method of blade retention is to construct the root

B. Turbine nozzle vane assembly with welded vanes
of the blade so that it contains all the elements necessary for
its retention. This method uses the blade root as a stop made
Figure 1-63. Typical turbine nozzle vane assemblies.
on one end of the root so that the blade can be inserted and
removed in one direction only, while on the opposite end is
turbine blades to the disc; at the same time, space is provided a tang. This tang is bent to secure the blade in the disc.
by the notches for thermal expansion of the disc. Sufficient
clearance exists between the blade root and the notch to Turbine blades may be either forged or cast, depending on the
permit movement of the turbine blade when the disc is cold. composition of the alloys. Most blades are precision cast and
During engine operation, expansion of the disc decreases finish ground to the desired shape. Many turbine blades are
the clearance. This causes the blade root to fit tightly in the cast as a single crystal, which gives the blades better strength
disc rim. and heat properties. Heat barrier coating, such as ceramic
coating, and air flow cooling help keep the turbine blades and
The turbine shaft is usually fabricated from alloy steel. inlet nozzles cooler. This allows the exhaust temperature to
[Figure 1-64] It must be capable of absorbing the high torque be raised, increasing the efficiency of the engine. Figure 1-67
loads that are exerted on it.

The methods of connecting the shaft to the turbine disc vary.

In one method, the shaft is welded to the disc, which has a
butt or protrusion provided for the joint. Another method is
by bolting. This method requires that the shaft have a hub
that fits a machined surface on the disc face. Then, the bolts
are inserted through holes in the shaft hub and anchored in
tapped holes in the disc. Of the two connection methods,
bolting is more common.

The turbine shaft must have some means for attachment to

the compressor rotor hub. This is usually accomplished by
a spline cut on the forward end of the shaft. The spline fits
into a coupling device between the compressor and turbine
shafts. If a coupling is not used, the splined end of the turbine
shaft may fit into a splined recess in the compressor rotor hub.
This splined coupling arrangement is used almost exclusively
with centrifugal compressor engines, while axial compressor
engines may use either of these described methods. Figure 1-64. Rotor elements of the turbine assembly.

1-49
shows a turbine blade with air holes for cooling purposes.

Most turbines are open at the outer perimeter of the blades;

however, a second type called the shrouded turbine is
sometimes used. The shrouded turbine blades, in effect, form
a band around the outer perimeter of the turbine wheel. This
improves efficiency and vibration characteristics and permits
lighter stage weights. On the other hand, it limits turbine
speed and requires more blades. [Figure 1-68]

In turbine rotor construction, it occasionally becomes

necessary to utilize turbines of more than one stage. A
single turbine wheel often cannot absorb enough power
from the exhaust gases to drive the components dependent
on the turbine for rotative power; thus, it is necessary to add
additional turbine stages. Figure 1-66. Rivet method of turbine blade retention.

A turbine stage consists of a row of stationary vanes or this single wheel. [Figure 1-69] This arrangement is used
nozzles, followed by a row of rotating blades. In some on engines where the need for low weight and compactness
models of turboprop engine, as many as five turbine stages predominates. This is the simplest version of the pure turbojet
have been utilized successfully. It should be remembered engine.
that, regardless of the number of wheels necessary for
driving engine components, there is always a turbine nozzle A multistage turbine is shown in Figure 1-70. In multiple
preceding each wheel. spool engines, each spool has its own set of turbine stages.
Each set of turbine stages turns the compressor attached to
As was brought out in the preceding discussion of turbine it. Most turbofan engines have two spools: low pressure (fan
stages, the occasional use of more than one turbine wheel is shaft a few stages of compression and the turbine to drive it)
warranted in cases of heavy rotational loads. It should also and high pressure (high pressure compressor shaft and high
be pointed out that the same loads that necessitate multistage pressure turbine). [Figure 1-71]
turbines often make it advantageous to incorporate multiple
compressor rotors. The remaining element to be discussed concerning turbine
familiarization is the turbine casing or housing. The turbine
In the single-stage rotor turbine, the power is developed by casing encloses the turbine wheel and the nozzle vane
one turbine rotor, and all engine-driven parts are driven by assembly, and at the same time gives either direct or indirect
support to the stator elements of the turbine section. It always
has flanges provided front and rear for bolting the assembly
to the combustion chamber housing and the exhaust cone
assembly, respectively. A turbine casing is illustrated in

Figure 1-65. Turbine blade with fir-tree design and lock-tab method
of blade retention. Figure 1-67. Turbine blade with cooling holes.

1-50
 Figure 1-69. Single-stage rotor turbine.

Figure 1-68. Shrouded turbine blades.

Figure 1-72.

Exhaust Section
The exhaust section of the gas turbine engine consists
of several components. Although the components have
individual purposes, they also have one common function:
Figure 1-70. Multirotor turbine.
they must direct the flow of hot gases rearward in such a
manner as to prevent turbulence and, at the same time, impart
a high final or exit velocity to the gases. In performing the
various functions, each of the components affects the flow
of gases in different ways. The exhaust section is located
directly behind the turbine section and ends when the gases
are ejected at the rear in the form of high-velocity exhaust
gases. The components of the exhaust section include the
exhaust cone, tailpipe (if required), and the exhaust nozzle.
The exhaust cone collects the exhaust gases discharged from
the turbine section and gradually converts them into a solid Figure 1-71. Dual-rotor turbine for split-spool compressor.
flow of gases. In performing this, the velocity of the gases is
decreased slightly and the pressure increased. This is due to
the diverging passage between the outer duct and the inner
cone; that is, the annular area between the two units increases
rearward. The exhaust cone assembly consists of an outer
shell or duct, an inner cone, three or four radial hollow struts
or fins, and the necessary number of tie rods to aid the struts
in supporting the inner cone from the outer duct.

The outer shell or duct is usually made of stainless steel and

is attached to the rear flange of the turbine case. This element
collects the exhaust gases and delivers them directly to the Figure 1-72. Turbine casing assembly.
exhaust nozzle. The duct must be constructed to include such
features as a predetermined number of thermocouple bosses exhaust duct, but they also perform the important function of
for installing exhaust temperature thermocouples, and there straightening the swirling exhaust gases that would otherwise
must also be insertion holes for the supporting tie rods. In leave the turbine at an angle of approximately 45°.
some cases, tie rods are not used for supporting the inner
cone. If such is the case, the hollow struts provide the sole The centrally located inner cone fits rather closely against
support of the inner cone, the struts being spot-welded in the rear face of the turbine disc, preventing turbulence of the
position to the inside surface of the duct and to the inner cone, gases as they leave the turbine wheel. The cone is supported
respectively. [Figure 1-73] The radial struts actually have a by the radial struts. In some configurations, a small hole is
twofold function. They not only support the inner cone in the located in the exit tip of the cone. This hole allows cooling

1-51
air to be circulated from the aft end of the cone, where the There are two types of exhaust nozzle designs: the converging
pressure of the gases is relatively high, into the interior of the design for subsonic gas velocities and the converging-
cone and consequently against the face of the turbine wheel. diverging design for supersonic gas velocities. These exhaust
The flow of air is positive, since the air pressure at the turbine nozzle designs are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3,
wheel is relatively low due to rotation of the wheel; thus, air Induction & Exhaust Systems.
circulation is assured. The gases used for cooling the turbine
wheel return to the main path of flow by passing through the The exhaust nozzle opening may be of either fixed or variable
clearance between the turbine disc and the inner cone. The area. The fixed-area type is the simpler of the two exhaust
exhaust cone assembly is the terminating component of the nozzles since there are no moving parts. The outlet area of the
basic engine. The remaining component (the exhaust nozzle) fixed exhaust nozzle is very critical to engine performance.
is usually considered an airframe component. If the nozzle area is too large, thrust is wasted; if the area is
too small, the engine could choke or stall. A variable-area
The tailpipe is usually constructed so that it is semiflexible. exhaust nozzle is used when an augmenter or afterburner is
On some tailpipes, a bellows arrangement is incorporated used due to the increased mass of flow when the afterburner is
in its construction, allowing movement in installation, activated. It must increase its open area when the afterburner
maintenance, and in thermal expansion. This eliminates stress is selected. When the afterburner is off, the exhaust nozzle
and warping which would otherwise be present. closes to a smaller area of opening.

The heat radiation from the exhaust cone and tailpipe could Gas Turbine Engine Bearings & Seals
damage the airframe components surrounding these units.
The main bearings have the critical function of supporting
For this reason, some means of insulation had to be devised.
the main engine rotor. The number of bearings necessary
There are several suitable methods of protecting the fuselage
for proper engine support is, for the most part, determined
structure; two of the most common are insulation blankets
by the length and weight of the engine rotor. The length and
and shrouds.
weight are directly affected by the type of compressor used
in the engine. Naturally, a two-spool compressor requires
The insulation blanket, illustrated in Figures 1-74 and 1-75,
more bearing support. The minimum number of bearings
consists of several layers of aluminum foil, each separated by
required to support one shaft is one deep groove ball bearing
a layer of fiberglass or some other suitable material. Although
(thrust and radial loads) and one straight roller bearing (radial
these blankets protect the fuselage from heat radiation, they
load only). Sometimes, it is necessary to use more than one
are used primarily to reduce heat loss from the exhaust system.
roller bearing if the shaft is subject to vibration or its length
The reduction of heat loss improves engine performance.
is excessive. The gas turbine rotors are supported by ball and
roller bearings, which are antifriction bearings. [Figure 1-76]
Outer duct Many newer engines use hydraulic bearings, in which the
outside race is surrounded by a thin film of oil. This reduces
vibrations transmitted to the engine.

In general, antifriction bearings are preferred largely because

they:

Insulation blanket

Ram air Induction air Cooling air ejector

Inner cone Struts

Figure 1-73. Exhaust collector with welded support struts. Figure 1-74. Exhaust system insulation blanket.

1-52
 Cooling air 120 ° F
Stainless steel shroud – 350 ° F

Fiberglass

Aluminum foil

Fiberglass

Silver foil

Jet tailpipe 900 ° F

Exhaust gas 1000 ° F

Figure 1-75. Insulation blanket with the temperatures obtained at the various locations shown.

• Offer little rotational resistance, for this purpose. A typical ball or roller bearing assembly
• Facilitate precision alignment of rotating elements, includes a bearing support housing, which must be strongly
constructed and supported in order to carry the radial and
• Are relatively inexpensive, axial loads of the rapidly rotating rotor. The bearing housing
• Are easily replaced, usually contains oil seals to prevent the oil leaking from its
normal path of flow. It also delivers the oil to the bearing for
• Withstand high momentary overloads,
its lubrication, usually through spray nozzles. The oil seals
• Are simple to cool, lubricate, and maintain, may be the labyrinth or thread (helical) type. These seals
• Accommodate both radial and axial loads, and also may be pressurized to minimize oil leaking along the
compressor shaft. The labyrinth seal is usually pressurized,
• Are relatively resistant to elevated temperatures.
but the helical seal depends solely on reverse threading to
stop oil leakage. These two types of seals are very similar,
The main disadvantages are their vulnerability to foreign
differing only in thread size and the fact that the labyrinth
matter and tendency to fail without appreciable warning.
seal is pressurized.
Usually the ball bearings are positioned on the compressor or
turbine shaft so that they can absorb any axial (thrust) loads
Another type of oil seal used on some of the later engines is
or radial loads. Because the roller bearings present a larger
the carbon seal. These seals are usually spring loaded and
working surface, they are better equipped to support radial
are similar in material and application to the carbon brushes
loads than thrust loads. Therefore, they are used primarily

1-53
 Ball bearing Roller bearing

Preformed sleeve bearing Slipper bearing

Figure 1-76. Types of main bearings used for gas turbine rotor support.

used in electrical motors. Carbon seals rest against a surface addition to operating the compressor and accessories, the
provided to create a sealed bearing cavity or void; thus, the turboprop turbine transmits increased power forward through
oil is prevented from leaking out along the shaft into the a shaft and a gear train to drive the propeller. The increased
compressor airflow or the turbine section. [Figure 1-77] power is generated by the exhaust gases passing through
additional stages of the turbine.
The ball or roller bearing is fitted into the bearing housing and
may have a self-aligning feature. If a bearing is self-aligning, Some engines use a multirotor turbine with coaxial shafts
it is usually seated in a spherical ring. This allows the shaft for independent driving of the compressor and propeller.
a certain amount of radial movement without transmitting Although there are three turbines utilized in this illustration,
stress to the bearing inner race. as many as five turbine stages have been used for driving the
two rotor elements, propeller, and accessories.
The bearing surface is usually provided by a machined journal
on the appropriate shaft. The bearing is usually locked in The exhaust gases also contribute to engine power output
position by a steel snap ring or other suitable locking device. through thrust production, although the amount of energy
The rotor shaft also provides the matching surface for the oil available for thrust is considerably reduced. Two basic types
seals in the bearing housing. These machined surfaces are of turboprop engine are in use: fixed turbine and free turbine.
called lands and fit in rather close to the oil seal. The fixed turbine has a mechanical connection from the gas
generator (gas-turbine engine) to the reduction gear box
Turboprop Engines and propeller. The free turbine has only an air link from gas
The turbopropeller (turboprop) engine is a combination of generator to the power turbines. There is no mechanical link
a gas turbine engine, reduction gear box, and a propeller. from the propeller to the gas turbine engine (gas generator).
[Figure 1-78] Turboprops are basically gas turbine engines There are advantages and disadvantages of each system, with
that have a compressor, combustion chamber(s), turbine, the airframe generally dictating the system used.
and an exhaust nozzle (gas generator), all of which operate
in the same manner as any other gas engine. However, the Since the basic components of normal gas-turbine and
difference is that the turbine in the turboprop engine usually turboprop engines differ slightly only in design features, it
has extra stages to extract energy to drive the propeller. In should be fairly simple to apply acquired knowledge of the

1-54
 those sections unique to turboprop configurations.
3. The torquemeter assembly—transmits the torque from
Spacers the engine to the gearbox of the reduction section.
Seal housing
4. The accessory drive housing assembly—mounted
on the bottom of the compressor air inlet housing.
It includes the necessary gear trains for driving all
power section driven accessories at their proper rpm
in relation to engine rpm.

Turboshaft Engines
A gas-turbine engine that delivers power through a shaft to
operate something other than a propeller is referred to as
a turboshaft engine. [Figure 1-79] The output shaft may
be coupled directly to the engine turbine, or the shaft may
be driven by a turbine of its own (free turbine) located in
the exhaust stream. As mentioned with the turboprop, the
free turbine rotates independently. This principle is used
Bearing inner race Seals
extensively in current production of turboshaft engines. The
turboshaft engine’s output is measured in horsepower instead
of thrust because the power output is a turning shaft.
Figure 1-77. Carbon oil seal.
Turbofan Engines
basic gas turbine to the turboprop. The turbofan gas turbine engine is, in principle, the same as
a turboprop, except that the propeller is replaced by a duct-
The typical turboprop engine can be broken down into enclosed axial-flow fan. [Figure 1-80] The fan can be a part
assemblies as follows: of the first-stage compressor blades or can be mounted as a
1. The power section assembly—contains the usual major separate set of fan blades. The blades are mounted forward
components of a gas turbine engine (i.e., compressor, of the compressor.
combustion chamber, turbine, and exhaust sections).
The general principle of the fan engine is to convert more
2. The reduction gear or gearbox assembly—contains of the fuel energy into pressure. With more of the energy

Figure 1-78. PT6 turboprop engine.

1-55
Figure 1-79. Turboshaft engine.

converted to pressure, a greater product of pressure times operating efficiency and high thrust capability of a turboprop
area can be achieved. One of the major advantages is turbofan and the high speed, high altitude capability of a turbojet.
production of this additional thrust without increasing fuel
flow. The end result is fuel economy with the consequent Turbine Engine Operating Principles
increase in range. Because more of the fuel energy is turned The principle used by a gas turbine engine as it provides
into pressure in the turbofan engine, additional stages must force to move an airplane is based on Newton’s Third Law.
be added in the turbine section to provide the power to drive This law states that for every action there is an equal and
the fan. This means there is less energy left over and less opposite reaction; therefore, if the engine accelerates a mass
thrust from the core exhaust gases. Also, in a mixed-exhaust of air (action), it applies a force on the aircraft (reaction).
nozzle (where fan air and core air mix in a common nozzle The turbofan generates thrust by giving a relatively slower
before entering ambient conditions) the exhaust nozzle must acceleration to a large quantity of air. The old pure turbojet
be larger in area. The result is that the fan develops most of engine achieves thrust by imparting greater acceleration to a
the thrust. The thrust produced by the fan more than makes smaller quantity of air. This was its main problem with fuel
up for the decrease in thrust of the core (gas generator) of consumption and noise.
the engine. Depending on the fan design and bypass ratio,
it produces 80 percent of the turbofan engine’s total thrust. The mass of air is accelerated within the engine by the use of
a continuous-flow cycle. Ambient air enters the inlet diffuser
Two different exhaust nozzle designs are used with turbofan where it is subjected to changes in temperature, pressure, and
engines. The air leaving the fan can be ducted overboard by velocity due to ram effect. The compressor then increases
a separate fan nozzle [Figure 1-43], or it can be ducted along pressure and temperature of the air mechanically. The air
the outer case of the basic engine to be discharged through continues at constant pressure to the burner section where its
the mixed nozzle (core and fan exhaust together). The fan air temperature is increased by combustion of fuel. The energy
is either mixed with the exhaust gases before it is discharged is taken from the hot gas by expanding through a turbine
(mixed or common nozzle), or it passes directly to the which drives the compressor, and by expanding through an
atmosphere without prior mixing (separate nozzle). Turbofans exhaust nozzle designed to discharge the exhaust gas at high
are the most widely used gas turbine engine for air transport velocity to produce thrust.
aircraft. The turbofan is a compromise between the good

1-56
Figure 1-80. Turbofan engine.

The high velocity gases from the engine may be considered

continuous, imparting this force against the aircraft in which Also, a force of 10 pound accelerates a mass of 10 pound at
it is installed, thereby producing thrust. The formula for thrust the rate of 32.2 ft/sec2. This is assuming there is no friction
can be derived from Newton’s second law, which states that or other resistance to overcome. It is now apparent that the
force is proportional to the product of mass and acceleration. ratio of the force (in pounds) is to the mass (in pounds) as
This law is expressed in the following formula: the acceleration in ft/sec2 is to 32.2. Using M to represent
the mass in pounds, the formula may be expressed thus:
F=MxA
where: F A or F = MA
F = force in pounds M = G G
M = mass in pounds per second
A = acceleration in feet per second where:
F = force
In the above formula, mass is similar to weight, but it is M = mass
actually a different quantity. Mass refers to the quantity A = acceleration
of matter, while weight refers to the pull of gravity on that
quantity of matter. At sea level under standard conditions, G = gravity
1 pound of mass has a weight of 1 pound. To calculate the
acceleration of a given mass, the gravitational constant is In any formula involving work, the time factor must be
used as a unit of comparison. The force of gravity is 32.2 considered. It is convenient to have all time factors in
feet per second squared (ft/sec2). This means that a free equivalent units (i.e., seconds, minutes, or hours). In
falling 1 pound object accelerates at the rate of 32.2 feet per calculating jet thrust, the term “pounds of air per second” is
second each second that gravity acts on it. Since the object convenient, since the second is the same unit of time used
mass weighs 1 pound, which is also the actual force imparted for the force of gravity.
to it by gravity, it can be assumed that a force of 1 pound
accelerates a 1 pound object at the rate of 32.2 ft/sec2.

1-57
Thrust
Using the following formula, compute the force necessary to
Ms (V2 - V1)
accelerate a mass of 50 pounds by 100 ft/sec2.
Fn = G
F = MA Thrust of a gas turbine engine can be increased by two
G
methods: increasing the mass flow of air through the engine
F = 50 lb x 100 ft/sec
2
or increasing the gas velocity. If the velocity of the turbojet
32.2 ft/sec2
engine remains constant with respect to the aircraft, the thrust

F = 5,000 lb-ft/sec
2 decreases if the speed of the aircraft is increased. This is
32.2 ft/sec2 because V1 increases in value. This does not present a serious
problem, however, because as the aircraft speed increases,
F = 155 lb more air enters the engine, and jet velocity increases. The
resultant net thrust is almost constant with increased airspeed.
This illustrates that if the velocity mass per second is
increased by 100, the resulting thrust is 155 pounds. The Brayton cycle is the name given to the thermodynamic
cycle of a gas turbine engine to produce thrust. This is a
Since the turbojet engine accelerates air, the following variable volume constant-pressure cycle of events and is
formula can be used to determine jet thrust: commonly called the constant-pressure cycle. A more recent
term is “continuous combustion cycle.” The four continuous
Ms (V2 - V1) and constant events are intake, compression, expansion
F= G (includes power), and exhaust. These cycles are discussed
where: as they apply to a gas-turbine engine. In the intake cycle, air
F = force in pounds enters at ambient pressure and a constant volume. It leaves
the intake at an increased pressure and a decrease in volume.
Ms = mass flow in lb/sec
At the compressor section, air is received from the intake at
V1 = inlet velocity an increased pressure, slightly above ambient, and a slight
V2 = jet velocity (exhaust) decrease in volume. Air enters the compressor where it is
V2 - V1 = change in velocity; difference between compressed. It leaves the compressor with a large increase in
inlet velocity and jet velocity pressure and decrease in volume, created by the mechanical
G = acceleration of gravity or 32.2 ft/sec2 action of the compressor. The next step, expansion, takes
place in the combustion chamber by burning fuel, which
As an example, to use the formula for changing the velocity expands the air by heating it. The pressure remains relatively
of 100 pounds of mass airflow per second from 600 ft/sec to constant, but a marked increase in volume takes place. The
800 ft/sec, the formula can be applied as follows: expanding gases move rearward through the turbine assembly
and are converted from velocity energy to mechanical energy
100 lb/sec (800 ft/sec - 600 ft/sec) by the turbine. The exhaust section, which is a convergent
F= duct, converts the expanding volume and decreasing pressure
32.2 ft/sec2 of the gases to a final high velocity. The force created inside
the engine to keep this cycle continuous has an equal and
20,000 lb/sec opposite reaction (thrust) to move the aircraft forward.
F=
32.2 ft/sec2 Bernoulli’s principle (whenever a stream of any fluid has its
velocity increased at a given point, the pressure of the stream
F = 621 lb at that point is less than the rest of the stream) is applied to
gas turbine engines through the design of convergent and
As shown by the formula, if the mass airflow per second and divergent air ducts. The convergent duct increases velocity
the difference in the velocity of the air from the intake to the and decreases pressure. The divergent duct decreases
exhaust are known, it is easy to compute the force necessary velocity and increases pressure. The convergent principle is
to produce the change in the velocity. Therefore, the thrust of usually used for the exhaust nozzle. The divergent principle
the engine must be equal to the force required to accelerate is used in the compressor and diffuser where the air is
the air mass through the engine. Then, by using the symbol slowing and pressurizing.
“Fn” for thrust pounds, the formula becomes:

1-58
Gas Turbine Engine Performance
Since the temperature lapse rate is lower than the pressure
Thermal efficiency is a prime factor in gas turbine performance.
lapse rate as altitude is increased, the density is decreased.
It is the ratio of net work produced by the engine to the
Although the decreased temperature increases thrust, the
chemical energy supplied in the form of fuel. The three most
effect of decreased density more than offsets the effect of
important factors affecting the thermal efficiency are turbine
the colder temperature. The net result of increased altitude
inlet temperature, compression ratio, and the component
is a reduction in the thrust output.
efficiencies of the compressor and turbine. Other factors that
affect thermal efficiency are compressor inlet temperature
The effect of airspeed on the thrust of a gas-turbine engine
and combustion efficiency. Figure 1-81 shows the effect that
is shown in Figure 1-86. To explain the airspeed effect, it
changing compression ratio (compressor pressure ratio) has on
is necessary to understand first the effect of airspeed on the
thermal efficiency when compressor inlet temperature and the
factors that combine to produce net thrust: specific thrust
component efficiencies of the compressor and turbine remain
and engine airflow. Specific thrust is the net thrust in pounds
constant. The effects that compressor and turbine component
developed per pound of airflow per second. It is the remainder
efficiencies have on thermal efficiency when turbine and
of specific gross thrust minus specific ram drag. As airspeed
compressor inlet temperatures remain constant are shown in
is increased, ram drag increases rapidly. The exhaust velocity
Figure 1-82. In actual operation, the turbine engine exhaust
remains relatively constant; thus, the effect of the increase in
temperature varies directly with turbine inlet temperature at
a constant compression ratio.

Rpm is a direct measure of compression ratio; therefore, at 30 Temperature

constant rpm, maximum thermal efficiency can be obtained
Thermal efficiency (in percent)
1000 °F 1200 °F
by maintaining the highest possible exhaust temperature. 25 1400 °F 1600 °F

Since engine life is greatly reduced at high turbine inlet

20
temperatures, the operator should not exceed the exhaust
temperatures specified for continuous operation. Figure 1-83
15
illustrates the effect of turbine inlet temperature on turbine
blade life. In the previous discussion, it was assumed that 10
the state of the air at the inlet to the compressor remains
constant. Since this is a practical application of a turbine 5
engine, it becomes necessary to analyze the effect of varying
inlet conditions on the thrust or power produced. The three 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
principal variables that affect inlet conditions are the speed
of the aircraft, the altitude of the aircraft, and the ambient Compression ratio
temperature. To make the analysis simpler, the combination
of these three variables can be represented by a single variable Figure 1-81. The effect of compression ratio on thermal efficiency.
called stagnation density.

The power produced by a turbine engine is proportional to 30 Efficiency of C&T

90% 80% 85% 75%
the stagnation density at the inlet. The next three illustrations
Thermal efficiency (in percent)

25
show how changing the density by varying altitude, airspeed,
and outside air temperature affects the power level of the
20
engine. Figure 1-84 shows that the thrust output improves
rapidly with a reduction in outside air temperature (OAT) at 15
constant altitude, rpm, and airspeed. This increase occurs
partly because the energy required per pound of airflow to 10
drive the compressor varies directly with the temperature,
leaving more energy to develop thrust. In addition, the thrust 5
output increases since the air at reduced temperature has an
increased density. The increase in density causes the mass 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
flow through the engine to increase. The altitude effect on
Compression ratio
thrust, as shown in Figure 1-85, can also be discussed as a
density and temperature effect. In this case, an increase in Figure 1-82. Turbine and compressor efficiency vs. thermal
altitude causes a decrease in pressure and temperature. efficiency.

1-59