WEATHER

Definition (kcse 2015) - Weather is the daily atmospheric conditions of a place over a short
period of time i.e. 24 hours.
Elements of weather Measuring Instrument
Temperature Thermometer
Types of thermometers;
i. Maximum thermometer
ii. Minimum thermometer
iii. Six’s thermometer
Humidity
Hygrometer
Precipitation ( Not Rainfall) Rain gauge (rainfall)
Wind Windvane(direction)
Windsock (strength)
Anemometer (speed)
Sunshine Sunshine recorder
Air pressure mercury/ aneroid barometer
Cloud cover

1. TEMPERATURE
- This is the degree of sensible heat within the atmosphere.
- It is the degree of hotness or coldness of a place.
- It is measured by an instrument known as Thermometer in degree Celsius (˚c).
- Lines drawn on a map joining places with the same temperatures are called Isotherms.
Factors influencing the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface.
1. The intensity of the sun’s radiation in the space and the earth’s average distance from the
sun.
2. The transparency of the atmosphere i.e. transmission, absorption, scattering and reflection
of the sun’s rays by particles found in the atmosphere.
3. The position of the earth on its orbit which produces different seasons. This causes
insolation to vary with the time of the day and period of the year.
4. The inclination or angle of the earth’s surface on which the sun’s rays fall.
5. The area and nature of the surface on which the rays fall.
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 Processes through which the Earth is heated.
i. Radiation
ii. Conduction
iii. Convection
Factors influencing temperature on the Earth.
a. Latitude
- Temperature decreases with increasing latitude. Highest temperatures are generally at the
equator and the lowest at the poles.
K.C.S.E. 2011- Give reasons why the intensity of the insolation is higher at M (Equator)
than at N (poles).
 There is a higher concentration of heating at M than at N because the
surface area at M is smaller than at N.
 The angle of the sun’s rays at M is higher than at N hence the variation in
intensity.
 At N the sun’s rays travel over a long distance than at M thus losing the
heat resulting to low intensity.
b. Altitude or Height above Sea Level
- Temperature decreases with an increase in altitude. This is known as normal lapse rate.
- Low altitude areas have high temperatures because air is heated from below by the
earth’s surface (terrestrial radiation).
- High altitude areas have low temperatures because particles like gases, dust, smoke and
water vapour store heat and lose it rapidly to the outer space.
c. Length of the day
- The longer the period of solar insolation, the greater the quantity of radiation received at
a given place on the earth surface and the higher the temperature.
d. Winds
- Various types of wind affect temperature. Winds are a medium of transfer of heat from
one place to another.
- Winds carrying warm air bring a warming effect to a place.
e. Ocean currents
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- Ocean currents may be warm or cold. When the winds blow over them, they get their
warmth or cold and affect the temperatures of coastal areas.

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 - For example, the warm North Atlantic Drift raises the winter temperature of North-West
Europe.
f. Aspect
- It is the direction in which a slope faces in relation to the incoming solar radiation.
- South facing slopes in northern hemisphere face the sun thus receive more sunshine
which raises the temperature than the north facing slopes.
g. Cloud cover.
- The presence of clouds in the sky prevents the amount of solar radiation coming to the
earth’s surface. It also prevents the ground radiation, leaving the earth’s surface.
- Because of this, the places where clouds are less, experience a high day temperature and
a much lower night temperature.
- In the equatorial areas, because of the abundance of cloud cover, day temperatures are not
so high and night temperatures not so low.
h. Distance from the sea.
- Areas nearer the sea/ocean experience sea breezes during the day which lowers the
temperatures of the surrounding areas.
- At night, the land breeze raises the temperatures of areas surrounding sea/ocean.
- Formation of heavy convectional rainfall in areas nearer the sea/ocean also regulates
temperatures of such areas.
2. PRECIPITATION
- Precipitation is a general term referring to the various forms of moisture which fall from the
atmosphere to the earth’s surface.

Major forms of precipitation –kcse 2021

 Dew
 Frost/ hoar frost
 Snow
 Mist/ Fog
 Rain
 Sleet
 Hail
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 Rime
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 i) Dew
- Dew is the water droplets formed on the ground, or on objects near the ground due to
condensation of water vapour.
- The dew point is the temperature at which the water vapour in the air becomes saturated and
condenses on any available surface to form tiny droplets of dew.
Conditions for the formation of Dew –kcse 2021
(a) The air on the ground should be calm so that it can remain in contact with the ground long
enough to be cooled below its dew point.
(b) Daytime temperature should be warm to accelerate evaporation providing a lot of water
vapour in the air.
(c) The sky should be cloudless at night to accelerate the rate at which the earth loses the heat
gained during the day.
ii) Hail
- They are spherical lumps of ice droplets that falls on the ground as hailstones.
iii) Frost
- These are tiny ice crystals deposited on objects on the ground.
iv) Snow
- They are numerous tiny ice crystals that falls on the ground.
v) Sleet
- This is a mixture of rain and snow or partially melted snow that falls on the surface of the
earth.
vi) Rime
- They are tiny ice crystals formed when super-cooled tiny water droplets are blown by wind
and deposited on objects whose temperature is below freezing point (0˚c).

vii) Fog and mist

- Fog and mist are masses of tiny water droplets suspended in the lower atmosphere.
- They are formed when air is cooled below the dew point but the resultant water droplets
remain suspended in the atmosphere.
- The term fog is used when visibility reduces to less than 1km and the relative humidity
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exceeds 95% whereas mist is used when visibility/obscurity exceeds 1km.

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 Factors/Conditions for formation of fog and mist –kcse 2001
 Long nights during the colder months in areas experiencing the winter season.
 The wind must be light/calm to hold water droplets in suspension.
 There must be clear sky/absence of clouds to permit free terrestrial radiation.
 There must be sufficient moisture in the air.
 A low level temperature inversion.
 Sufficient supply of condensation nuclei.
NOTE: The mixture of smoke and fog is called smog. It is common in industrial and port areas.
Types of fog
a. Radiation or ground fog – forms when air in contact with the ground is cooled by
terrestrial radiation at night.
b. Advection fog/Sea fog-forms when warm and moist air passes over a cooler land or
water surface.
c. Hill fog – forms as a low sheet cloud in the hills as result of moist air stream
advancing inland from the sea.
d. Frontal fog – forms when warm moist air is cooled from below as it rises over the
cold air.
e. Steam fog – forms when cold air passes over warm water surfaces which then
appears to be steaming.
f. Ice fog- forms when water vapour is converted directly into ice crystals when
temperatures are below freezing point. It is common over the Arctic Ocean.
vii) Rainfall
- They are water droplets that develop from the clouds in the atmosphere that falls on the
earth surface.
- Formed as a result of condensation process.
- Lines drawn on a map joining areas receiving the same amount of rainfall are called
isohyets.
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 Factors influencing rainfall types and amounts.
a. Relief– hills/mountains results in the rising and cooling of moist winds to form
relief/orographic rainfall.
b. Forests – areas near thick vegetation such as tropical rainforests experience more
convectional rainfall due high evapotranspiration rates.
c. Water bodies – regions near large water bodies such as lakes, oceans and seas also
experience high evaporation rates hence have high convectional rainfall amounts.
d. Aspect-windward slopes which are on the path of rain bearing winds receive heavier relief
rainfall than leeward slopes which face away.
e. Air masses- when warm and cold air masses meet frontal/cyclonic rainfall is formed.
f. Air pressure- high pressure areas receive low rainfall than low pressure areas due to pushing
of air masses from high pressure to low pressure.
g. Ocean currents- coasts washed by warm ocean currents experience heavy rainfall when
moist onshore winds are warmed by the current and made to hold onto moisture which they
release on reaching the land.

TYPES OF RAINFALL
 Relief/Orographic rainfall
 Convectional rainfall
 Cyclonic/Frontal rainfall

Ways in which rainfall is formed.

a) When winds blow over a mountainous region- Relief rainfall
b) When hot air rises by convectional currents- Convectional rainfall
c) When warm air rises over cold air- Frontal rainfall

1. Relief or Orographic rainfall

- Rain experienced on the windward slopes of mountains/hills formed when moist air is forced
to rise over a mountain/a hill.
How it forms –kcse 2000
 A waterbody/sea/lake is heated causing evaporation of water.
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 Moist warm air from the sea is forced to rise over a hill/mountain barrier.
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 Temperature and air pressure decreases making the rising moist air to expand.
 The rising moist warm air cools, get saturated and condensed to form clouds.

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  The clouds drop water droplets in form of rain on the windward side of the
hill/mountain forming relief rainfall.
 On crossing the leeward side of the mountain, the wind is dry thus absorbs any
moisture available as it descends leaving the area dry.

Characteristics of Relief/orographic rainfall

 Experienced in highlands areas like Mt. Kenya and Elgon.
 Occurs when moist warm air ascends a highland, cools, condense forming clouds that
releases rainfall.
 Received on windward side of the mountain while leeward side remains dry.
 Occurs in light showers which last for several hours.
 May be accompanied by thunder and lightning.

2. Convectional Rainfall
- Common in lowlands near large waterbodies and forests as a result of convective rising and
cooling of moist air.
How it forms –kcse 2003
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 Ground/waterbody is intensely heated by solar radiation.

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 Moist warm air rises to the atmosphere in form of convectional currents.

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  The rising moist warm air expands, cools and condenses to form cumulo-nimbus
clouds in the atmosphere.
 The clouds release water droplets on the earth surface as convectional rainfall.

Characteristics of convectional rainfall

 It mainly falls in the late afternoons.
 It is usually accompanied by thunder and lightening
 It falls in large drops i.e. torrential
 It falls for a short time between 15 – 30 minutes
 It may be accompanied by hailstones sometimes
 It occurs in the lowland areas near large waterbodies e.g. Lake Victoria and the Indian
Ocean.
 It may result in floods in lowland areas.
 It is associated with cumulo-nimbus clouds i.e. dark dense clouds.
Problems associated with convectional rainfall –kcse 2003
 The torrential rains cause floods which displace people.
 The hailstones destroy crops.
 The strong winds blow off roofs of houses.
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 The strong winds uproot trees.

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 Lightning strikes causes deaths of people and animals and drying of trees.
3. Cyclonic rain/Frontal rain.

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- Common in the mid-latitudes, where moist warm wind from the tropics and cold dry winds
from the Polar Regions may converge.
How it forms.
- Moist warm wind from the tropics and cold dry winds from the Polar Regions converge at
the frontal zone.
- The cold polar winds being heavier will sink below the warm lighter tropical winds.
- The Moisture in the tropical warm winds will condense to form clouds.
- The clouds release water droplets as cyclonic or frontal rain.
- The point where the two air masses meet is called a frontal zone.

Characteristics of cyclonic/frontal rainfall

 Occurs when two air masses of different characteristics meet at frontal zone.
 The rain falls for a short time.
 It is usually heavy.
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 It is associated with cumulo-nimbus clouds.

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 It is accompanied by cyclones (violent winds).

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 It is usually accompanied by thunder and lightning.

Location of a rain gauge

(a) An open space away from trees, buildings or any other object that can direct water into it.
(b) The collecting jar should be maintained at a height of 30cm above the ground to avoid water
splashing into the funnel.
(c) The outer case should be sunk into the ground to prevent evaporation of the rainwater
collected in the jar.
How Rain gauge works –kcse 2015
- The rain gauge is placed in an open area away from tall trees and buildings.
- It is sunk into the ground and funnel top is left 30cm above the ground.
- When it rains, water from direct rain drops collect into the jar through the funnel.
- After 24 hours, collecting jar with rain water is removed.
- The collected rain water is poured into a measuring cylinder.
- The readings are taken and recorded.
- The water is emptied and the instrument is placed outside to collect more water for
measuring the following day.

-From the rain data collected, the following calculations are made;
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3. CLOUD COVER

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- A cloud is a mass of tiny visible particles of water or ice, formed by condensation and
suspended in the atmosphere.
- Lines drawn on the map showing places having the same amount of cloud cover are called
isonephs.
Factors that are considered when classifying clouds –kcse 2008
i. Their height in the atmosphere i.e. high, medium or low clouds.
ii. Their colour i.e. white, grey or dark clouds.
iii. Their shape/appearance i.e. feathery, heaped or layered clouds.
iv. Weather conditions associated with the clouds i.e. those releasing convectional
rainfall, those accompanied with lightning and thunderstorms.
v. Their formation.
Types/Classification of clouds
a. High level Clouds
Examples of high level clouds –kcse 2010
 Cirrus
 Cirro-stratus
 Cirro-cumulas

i. Cirrus clouds
- Appear high in the sky.
- Appear in bands/patches in the sky.
- Milky-white clouds.
- Contain tiny ice crystals.
- Are fibrous/wispy resembling feathers.

ii. Cirro – stratus clouds.

- Appear high in the sky.
- Form thin sheets in the sky.
- Covers the whole sky.
- Have a milky appearance.
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- Give rise to haloes when the sun or moon shines through them.
- Cause stormy weather.
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iii. Cirro – cumulus clouds.

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 - Appear high in the sky.
- White in colour.
- Made up of ice crystals.
- Have a thin base.
- May be globular in appearance or arranged in ripples.
b. Medium level clouds
Examples of medium level clouds
 Alto-cumulus clouds
 Alto-stratus clouds

i. Alto-cumulus clouds
- Appear medium in the sky.
- Form flattened globular masses.
- Arranged in lines/waves.
- Vary considerably in thickness and shape.

ii. Alto-stratus clouds

- Appear medium in the sky.
- Uniform in layers.
- Contain water droplets.
- Are transparent.
- Forms sheet of grey-white colour.

c. Low level clouds

Examples of low level clouds
 Stratus
 Strato-cumulus
 Nimbo-stratus

i) Stratus clouds
- Appear low in the sky.
- Grey in colour.
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- Sheet-like causing dull weather and drizzoles.

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- Are in uniform layer.

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 - Resembles fog.
- Has a low base.

ii) Strato-cumulus clouds.

- Appear low in the sky.
- Grey or grey-white in colour.
- Are big but vary greatly in size and shape.
- Are loose in structure.
- Are large globular masses arranged in groups/lines.
iii) Nimbo-stratus clouds.
- Appear low in the sky.
- A rain cloud.
- Shapeless
- Dark-grey and dense.
- Spreads all over the sky in low uniform layers.

d. Great vertical extent level clouds.

- White globular mass.
- Black and white.
- Resembles a cauli flower shape.
- Appears between 1500-9000m

Examples of Great vertical extent level clouds

 Cumulus
 Cumulonimbus

i) Cumulus clouds
- Has a thick vertical development.
- Are large white globular masses.
- Resemble cauli flower.
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- Has flat horizontal base and dome shaped tops.

- Do not last for a long time in the atmosphere.
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- Convection cloud/rain- bearing cloud.

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 ii) Cumulonimbus clouds
- Dark at the base and sometimes white at the sides.
- Has great vertical development.
- Towers like mountains.
- Big and dense.
- Form a wedge-shaped pattern in the sky.
Conditions associated with cumulonimbus clouds –kcse 2001
 Releases convectional rainfall
 Heavy rainfall
 Thunder and lightning
 Hailstones
 Strong winds(cyclones)

Examples of rain bearing clouds –kcse 2006

 Nimbo-stratus
 Stratus
 Cumulus
 Cumulonimbus

Measurement of cloud cover

- This is estimated by determining what fraction or percentage of the sky is covered by the
clouds.
- The remote sensing method is more accurate in this measurement.
- A computerized camera on a spaceship revolving around the earth’s atmosphere is able to
measure the amount of cloud cover around the earth.
- The amount of cloud cover is given in oktas i.e. 1 okta= 1/8 of sky covered with clouds.

4. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
- Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by a column of air on the earth’s surface.
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- It is measured by an instrument called Barometer in mmHg.

- Lines drawn on a map joining places with same/equal atmospheric pressure are called
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isobars.

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 World Distribution of Pressure zones.
There are four major pressure zones namely:
1) The Equatorial Low-Pressure zones.
- It is a belt of low pressure around the equator common in both hemispheres.
- It is found between 23 ½ ˚N and 23 ½ ˚S.
- It is a zone of light and intermediate winds called doldrums or equatorial trough.
- It is characterized by high temperature and high humidity.
- Doldrum is a region where air at sea level is calm.
- Polar front is a convergence zone where air from low pressure belt and high-pressure belt
meet.
- The trade winds converge at the equator hence forming I.T.C.Z
- I.T.C.Z is a broad belt (trough) with low atmospheric pressure which moves with the
movement of sun.
Characteristics of Inter-Tropical Convergence zone (I.T.C.Z) –kcse 2019
 It is found within 23 ½ ˚North and 23 ½ ˚South of the Equator/within the tropics.
 It experiences high temperature.
 It has low pressure/doldrums.
 It is a zone where South East and North East trade winds converge.
 The zone migrates North or South of the equator with the apparent movement of the
overhead sun.
 It is associated with convectional rainfall.
 It receives high rainfall.
 It is associated with high humidity.

2) The sub-tropical high-pressure belt.

- It is found in regions of latitudes 300 North and South of the equator.
- It is a region of calm and descending air.
- It is the source of trade winds and the westerlies.
- It is a zone of high pressure.
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- Zone of divergence of trade winds and westerlies.

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3) The temperate low-pressure zone.

- It is also known as the sub-polar low-pressure belt.

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 - It is the meeting point of the westerlies and the polar easterlies.
- It exists in regions 60°N and 60°S of the equator.
- The low pressure is due to the earth’s rotation.
4) The polar high-pressure belt.
- It exists over both the north and south poles.
- Found over the poles 90°N and 90°S
- A high pressure zone.
- It is characterized by currents of descending calm air of low temperatures.
- It is the source of polar easterlies

Measuring Atmospheric Pressure.

- Atmospheric pressure can be measured with a mercury barometer and aneroid barometer
–kcse 2022

a) Mercury Barometer –kcse 2019

- It is made up of a 1m long glass tube open on one end completely filled with mercury then
inverted into a mercury container.

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- Air exert pressure on the mercury in the container.

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- The level of mercury in the container drops as the level of the mercury in the glass tube rises.

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- When the air pressure is low, the mercury in the glass tube drops as that of container
increases.
- The height of the mercury in the glass tube is a measure of the air pressure.
- The readings are taken in mmHg i.e. 760mmHg
b) Aneroid barometer
- It consists of an air tight metal box (partial vacuum), a spring tied to the box and connected
to the lever system.
- It measures the changes in the atmospheric pressure as they occur during the day.

- When air pressure increases, air tight box contracts. The movement is transmitted by
lever system to a pointer on a dial/scale which shows increase in the pressure on a scale.
- When air pressure falls, air tight box expands. This movement is conveyed to the pointer
by lever system showing the fall in pressure on a scale.
- The readings are taken in kg/cm2

5. HUMIDITY
- Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere of a place.
- It is measured by hygrometer.
- The actual amount of water vapour that a given volume of air holds at a specific temperature
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is called Absolute humidity. It is expressed in gm/m3

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- The ratio of the actual amount of water vapour in the air to the maximum amount of water
vapour air can hold (saturated air) at the same temperature is called Relative humidity. i.e.

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 Absolute Humidity
×100%
Relative Humidity = Maximum amoutn of water the air can hold at the same temperature
- Saturated air is the maximum amount of water vapour air can hold at a specific
temperature.
- The temperature at which air becomes saturated is called dew point.

Examples
1. Saturated air contain 19.0g/cm3 of moisture but at the same temperature it contains
13.3g/cm3. Calculate the relative humidity.

Absolute Humidity
×100%
Relative Humidity = Maximum amoutn of water the air can hold at the same temperature
= 13.3g/cm3 X 100%
19.0g/cm3
= 70%
Factors influencing humidity –kcse 2009
a) Temperature.
- High temperature leads to high humidity because air is heated, it expands increasing in
volume creating more space to hold more water vapour.
- Low temperature leads to low humidity because air is cooled, it contracts decreasing in
volume creating less space to hold more water vapour.
b) Air pressure.
- High atmospheric pressure compresses air, warming it increasing its capacity to hold
moisture hence high humidity.
- Low atmospheric pressure allows air to expand and cool thus reducing its capacity to
hold moisture hence low humidity.
c) Altitude.
- Low altitude areas have high temperature and high atmospheric pressure which allows air
to hold more moisture hence high humidity.
- High altitude areas have low temperature and low atmospheric pressure hence reducing
the air’s capacity to hold moisture leading to low humidity.
d) Distance from large water bodies/seas.
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- Places near large waterbodies e.g. Kisumu and Mombasa experience high temperature
leading to high evaporation rates increasing amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
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hence high humidity.

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 - Places far away from waterbodies e.g. middle of desert have little water vapour in the
atmosphere hence low humidity.
e) Latitude.
- Areas at the equator experiences high temperatures hence high humidity while areas at
the poles experiences low temperatures hence low humidity.
f) Seasons.
- The amount of moisture in the air is higher in the summer (warm season) than in winter
(cold season) and during the day than at night.
g) Natural vegetation/forests.
- The amount of moisture in the air is higher in forested areas due high evapotranspiration
rates leading to more water vapour in the atmosphere hence high humidity unlike in areas
with little/no vegetation cover.

Measurement of Humidity
- Humidity is measured by hygrometer/ a wet and dry bulb thermometer/ Psychrometer –
kcse 2022
Dry bulb thermometer
- It has no muslin.
- It measure air temperature.

Wet bulb thermometer

- Its bulb is wrapped in a muslin which is dipped into water container.

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 How humidity is measured –kcse 2009
- Read and record temperature of wet bulb thermometer.
- Read and record temperature of dry bulb thermometer.
- Calculate the difference in temperature of wet and dry bulb thermometers.
- Use conversion scale to determine humidity/interpretation of temperature difference.
Interpretation of hygrometer readings.
a. If the atmosphere is saturated, there is no evaporation and so the atmosphere reading on both
thermometers are the same. Relative Humidity is 100%.
b. When the difference is small, it means that relative humidity is very high.
c. When the difference is large, it means that relative humidity is very low.

6. Winds
- Wind is a moving air over the earth’s surface.
Types of winds.
i) Planetary/Prevailing winds.
- Winds blowing in a place frequently and consistently and which influence the world weather.
- They follow a regular path.

ii) Monsoon wind

- They are seasonal winds.
- They show a reversal in the direction of flow according to season.
- They are best developed in the Indian sub-continent, china, Japan and south east asia.

iii) Local winds

- Winds blowing within a local small area for a short period of time.

Examples of local winds

 Land and sea breezes
 Anabatic and katabatic winds
 The harmattan winds
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 The leveche, Sirocco, Chili and Khamsin

 Berg winds
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 Fohn winds.

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a. Sea breeze –kcse 2016
- This is a mass of cool air blowing from the sea to the land during the day
- During the day, the land heats faster than the sea.
- The warmer air over the land rises.
- The cool air from the sea blows towards the land to replace the rising air.
- The cool air from the sea is called sea breeze.

Ways in which sea breezes influence the adjacent land –kcse 2011
 It lowers temperatures of adjacent areas.
 It may increase rainfall.
 It may increase relative humidity.
 It moderates diurnal range of temperature.
 It may lead to convectional rainfall.

b. Land breeze
- This is a mass of cool air blowing from the land to the sea at night –kcse 2011
- At night, the sea is relatively warmer compared to the land because the land loses heat
more rapidly compared to the sea.
- The air of the sea (water) being warmer rises while the air over land which is cooler
flows in to replace the rising warm air as a land breeze.
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c. Anabatic winds
- These are cold local winds that blow from the valley bottoms to the hill tops.
- They occur in areas of temperature inversion (condition where the temperatures on higher
parts of a slope are warmer than the lower parts)
- During the day, the hill tops/mountain slopes receive more solar radiation compared to
the valley bottoms.
- The hill tops warm up leading to lower pressure whereas the valley bottoms remain cold
with high pressure.
- Air at the upper slopes is heated more than air over the valleys causing the air over the
slope to rise by convection.
- The cools air from the valleys flow uphill to replace the rising warm air as anabatic
winds.

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d. Katabatic winds
- These are cold local winds that blow from hill tops to valley bottoms/downhill.
- At night, the air over the hill tops and mountain slopes is cooled faster compared to the
air at the valley bottoms.
- The air at the hill tops become denser and with higher pressure while at the valley
bottoms the air becomes warm/light and with lower pressure.
- Warm air at the valet bottoms rises while cool winds blows from the hill tops to replace
the rising warm air at the valley bottoms as katabatic winds.

Factors influencing wind flow (wind direction and speed)

a. Pressure gradient.
- Air flows from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure.
- Steep pressure gradient (usually determined by the distance between two regions of
different pressure) results in strong winds.
b. Coriolis Effect.
- The Coriolis Effect is a force which acts upon any moving body or a parcel of air in an
independently rotating system such as the Earth.
- Winds blowing closer to the poles will be deflected more than winds at the same speed
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closer to the equator.

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 c. Centrifugal force.
- When air streams move along a curved isobar in anticyclones, there is a centrifugal force
acting outwards from the centre of the curvature.
- Thus, in the northern hemisphere, air will tend to move clockwise in anticyclones and
anticlockwise in cyclones.
d. Effect of friction.
- Topographical obstacles create friction on moving air causing it to lose strength and even
change direction.
7. Sunshine
- This refers to the direct rays of sunlight reaching the surface of the earth.
- Sunshine duration and intensity depends on factors such as latitude, aspect, cloud cover and
revolution of the earth.
Measurement of Sunshine
- The duration of sunshine for the day is measured using the Campbell stokes sunshine
recorder.
- It is a glass sphere which focuses the sun’s rays on a sensitized paper mounted on a metal
frame.
- Since the rays are focused on the sensitized paper, they burn a line as the sun moves across
the sky.
- There are calibrations in hours on the margin of the paper. Continuous sunshine will produce
continuous burn whereas intermittent sunshine produces unburnt parts on the paper.
- The length of all the burnt sections is added so as to obtain the total hours of sunshine for the
day.
- The sensitized paper is changed every day.

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 A Weather Station
- A weather station is a place set aside for the observation, measuring and recording of
weather elements like temperature and rainfall.
- Weather stations are found at meteorological centers, agricultural institutions, schools,
colleges, army barracks and airports.
- The study of weather is called meteorology and people who study weather are called
meteorologists.

Conditions necessary for Siting a Weather Station –kcse 2011

1. The area should be away from tall buildings/trees/tall objects.
2. The ground should be gently sloping/free from floods.
3. The area should be have a wide view open to the surrounding landscape.
4. The area should be secured to keep off intruders like animals and thieves.
5. The area should be accessible so that recording can be done easily.
A Stevenson Screen –kcse 2012
- This is a white wooden box mounted on four metallic legs 1meter above the ground in which
meteorological instruments are kept at a weather station.
Instruments found in a Stevenson Screen
 Maximum thermometer
 Minimum thermometer
 Six’s thermometer
 Hygrometer

Characteristics which make Stevenson screen suitable for its work.-kcse 2014
a. It is painted white to reflect excess rays of the sun –kcse 2005
b. Its sides are made of wooden louvers to allow the free circulation of air –kcse 2005
c. It has double roof/insulated roof to prevent direct heating from the sun
d. It is raised above the ground (1.2m) to prevent contact with terrestrial radiation.
e. It is mounted on four metallic legs to prevent termites from destroying the wood.
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f. It is made of wood so as not to absorb heat from the sun.

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g. It has air space between the roofs/ it is well ventilated to allow easier flow of air inside it.

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 The Atmosphere –kcse 2018
- Atmosphere is a thin layer of gases and vapor surrounding the earth and held by the earth’s
gravitational pull.
Composition of the atmosphere -kcse 2008
 Gases
 Smoke particles
 Dust particles
 Water vapour
 Salt particles
 Pollen grains
 Ozone

Structure of the Atmosphere.

- Atmosphere consists of four main zones namely;
a. Troposphere
b. Stratosphere
c. Mesosphere
d. Thermosphere
- The atmosphere has 3 transitional (Isothermal ) layers - there is no change in
temperature with an increase in height. These are:
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a. Tropopause
b. Stratopause
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c. Mesopause

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 CHARACTERISTICS
(a) The troposphere –kcse 2016
- It is the lowest layer of the atmosphere (extends to a height of 8km at the poles and 13km
around the equator)
- It experiences a normal/positive lapse rate (Temperatures decreases with an increase in
height)
- Pressure falls/decreases with an increase in height.
- It supports life.
- The speed of wind increases with an increase in height.
- It contains most of the weather making constituents.
- It contains most of the atmospheric water vapour.
- It is unstable layer because it contains water vapour, cloud, dust and other pollutants.
- Rainfall is got from it.
- Effect of gravity decreases with increase in height.
- The transitional zone between the troposphere and stratosphere is known as the tropopause.

(b) The Stratosphere –kcse 2015

- It extends from the tropopause (extends 30km above the tropopause)
- Temperature increases with increase in height (negative lapse rate).
- Pressure falls with increase in height.
- It contains most of the atmospheric ozone and is therefore also known as the ozonosphere.
- It contains little dust and water vapour therefore lacking clouds.
- It has ozone layer which absorbs the ultra violet radiations that would otherwise be harmful
to life.
- Winds are light in the lower parts but increase with height.
- The transitional zone between the stratosphere and mesosphere is known as the stratopause.
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(c) The Mesosphere
- It extends from the stratopause to about 80km.
- Temperatures decrease with increase in height i.e. has a positive lapse rate.
- It has no water vapour, cloud and dust to absorb the incoming radiations
- It experiences the lowest temperatures (about – 900C)
- It experiences strongest winds (about 300kmh-1)
- The transitional zone between the mesosphere and thermosphere is known as the
mesopause.

(d) The Thermosphere

- It lies above the mesopause - extends 90-120km above the earth’s surface.
- It is also known as the ionosphere because gases found here have been ionized by the
gamma and x-rays of the sun.
- It contains electrons and ions that influence radio waves.
- Temperature increases with an increase in height (negative lapse rate).
- The pressure is very low.
- High radiation is present.
- Has no definite top but merges gradually into the outermost part of the atmosphere called
Exosphere.
- Exosphere consists of rare gases like hydrogen and helium.
- Beyond the atmosphere there is outer space.
- Outer space is the universe beyond the atmosphere in which other planets and stars exist.

NOTE: Lapse rate is the change of temperature in relation with increasing/decreasing

height/altitude.
: Temperature inversion is a condition in the atmosphere where the upper layer of air is
warmer than the lower layer.
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 Weather forecasting –kcse 2017
- It is the prediction of the state/conditions of the atmosphere of a given place within a
specified time/period.
Methods of weather forecasting
1) Ancient methods.
- In ancient times it was believed that weather was governed by gods. Weather forecasting
in the 17th century was based on astrological, local, traditional and religious theories.
- Some of the traditional weather forecasts showed careful observation expressed in form
of poems and jingles that were passed on from generation to generation.
2) Weather lore.
- This refers to a body of traditional facts and beliefs relating to weather like –kcse
2022
 Observing movement of animals and migration of birds.
 Observing changes in plants/ shedding of leaves.
 Observing heavenly bodies/ appearance of the moon.
 Observing changes in the wind patterns.
 Observing changes in temperature/ intensity of solar radiation.
 Observing cloud/ colour of the sky.
 Appearance of rainbow.

3) Modern methods.
- They are more reliable and accurate.
- They use advanced and modern equipment e.g. electronic computer, satellites, rockets,
radar aircrafts, balloons, airships and submarines.
- World Meteorological Organization has set up a conventional system of weather
recording and interpretation for international use.
- In Kenya, weather forecasting is based on records from meteorological stations and
remote sensing centre.
- Dagoretti is the headquarters of meteorological stations in East and Southern Africa.
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 Significance of Weather Forecasting –kcse 2019
a. It enables farmers to plan their farming activities.
b. It helps in guiding tourist activities.
c. It enables military personnel to plan their military activities.
d. It enables people to choose their suitable clothing.
e. It guides people on sporting activities.
f. It guides people on fishing activities.
g. It helps to determine the times for air/sea travels.
h. It helps in planning for weather related disasters.
Factors hindering weather forecasting.
i. Inadequate data.
ii. Inaccurate/unreliable data brought about by faulty equipment.
iii. Intervening factors like slope of the land, nature of the vegetation, soil moisture
conditions and winds lead to variation in temperature at different areas adjacent to each
other.
iv. Inadequate personnel in developing countries
v. Vagaries of nature like storms and earthquakes.

Reasons why recording of data at a school weather station may be inaccurate –kcse 2000
i. Use of defective weather instruments which are mainly improvised.
ii. Occurrence of extreme weather conditions e.g. El Niño.
iii. Human error in setting up and reading the values from the instruments.
iv. Interference/ tampering of instruments by students.
v. Natural calamities.
vi. Poor siting of the weather station
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 Factors influencing weather
i. Altitude
- Temperature decreases with increase in altitude in the troposphere i.e. highland
experience cooler temperatures/while lowland areas experience higher temperature.
- Atmospheric pressure decreases with increase in altitude due to weight of air layers
above.
- Highland areas on their windward sides under the influence of rising moisturized winds
receive more rainfall compared to their leeward sides.
ii. Continentality
- Also referred to as nearness to large water bodies
- Large water bodies such as lakes, seas and oceans facilitate development of breezes
through creation of pressure differences.
- These breezes may:
 Strengthen/reverse the direction of prevailing winds
 Lower temperatures of the surrounding areas.
 In coastal areas, ocean currents influence temperatures and precipitation of
adjacent lands.
 High/increased precipitation by supplying moisture through evaporation.
[Link]
- This is the direction a slope faces with respect to the incoming solar radiation.
- Sun facing slopes are warmer that the opposite slopes especially towards the poles.
iv. Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
- It is a zone of low pressure lying within the tropics.
- Since it a convergence zone of South east trade and north east trade winds.
- It experiences high convectional rainfall.
- It experiences high temperature.
v. Latitude
- High latitude areas are cooler/experience lower temperature compared to low
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latitude/equatorial areas which are hotter/experience high temperatures.

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v. Cloud cover –kcse 2015
- Cloud cover reduces the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface thus
decreasing atmospheric temperature.
- Absence of cloud cover leads to an increase in diurnal range of temperature.
- The type of clouds determine the type/amount of rainfall.
- The amount of cloud determines the intensity of sunshine received on the earth’s surface.
vi. Local winds –kcse 2015
- Warm winds blowing over an area bring the warming effect thereby raising the
temperature of the place.
- Cold winds blowing over an area bring the cooling effect hence lowering the
temperature of the place.
- Moist winds passing over a region drop moisture as precipitation/increase humidity.
- Dry winds passing over a region bring drying effect/aridity/lower humidity.

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 MINERALS AND ROCKS.

Definition of minerals –kcse 2022

- Mineral is an inorganic substance occurring naturally beneath/ at earth’s surface.

Classes/Types of minerals.
a. Metallic minerals
a) Ferrous minerals- contains iron e.g. limonite, magnetite, siderite and haematite.
b) Non-ferrous minerals- do not contain iron e.g. copper, Aluminium, gold, lead, zinc and
tin.
b. Non-metallic minerals
 Examples (kcse 2008)- Graphite, Diamond, Coal, Petroleum, Phosphate, Nitrate, Potash

c. Fossil fuels/mineral fuels/energy minerals

- They are not classified as minerals because they are of organic origin e.g. petroleum,
natural gas, coal and uranium.

Characteristics of Minerals
a) Tenacity
- This is the ability of a mineral to resist/to withstand tearing, crushing or breaking.
Minerals differ in the ability to resist tearing or breaking hence they are brittle,
ductile, elastic, malleable or flexible.

b) Lustre -kcse 2012

- Refers to the surface appearance of minerals as it reflects light. Minerals differ in their
brightness depending on the nature of their reflective surfaces (smooth surfaces are
shinny whereas rough surfaces are dull) e.g. iron is dull and opaque while mica is glassy
and shiny.

c) Colour –kcse 2012

- Different minerals display different colours for example gold is yellow, Copper is
brown and gypsum is white.

d) Hardness -kcse 2007

- The measure of degree of resistance of a mineral to disintegration. Different minerals
have different degrees of hardness e.g. Diamond is hard while Talc is soft.

e) Shapes
- Some minerals aggregate into distinct crystal shapes, for example, a crystal of quartz
is a six- sided prism.

f) Composition
- Some minerals are composed of one element such as gold, copper, diamond and silver
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while others such as bauxite and feldspar have two or more elements.
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 g) Specific gravity/density -kcse 2012
- This is the measure of the relative weight of a substance. Minerals have different
specific gravity/densities e.g. gold/lead are heavy while silicate minerals are light.

h) Tastes and solubility

- Different minerals have different tastes and solubility. A soluble mineral has a feel of
a lump of sugar on tongue while an insoluble mineral has a feel of glass.

i) Cleavage/fracture -kcse 2007

- This is the tendency of a mineral to break along a certain line of weakness. Minerals
differ in the ability to break along the line of weakness.

j) Texture
- This is the fineness or coarseness of minerals. Minerals have different textures i.e.
coarse or fine grained.

k) Streak
- This is the colour mineral leaves when it is rubbed against a hard surface. Minerals
differ in streak.

l) Minerals differ in their ability to allow light to pass through them.

- Some minerals are opaque; some are transparent while others are translucent.

Definition of Rocks –kcse 2018

- A rock is a naturally occurring aggregates of mineral particles forming part of the earth’s
crust.

Ways in which rocks can be classified.

a) By mode of formation or origin.
b) By appearance (physical and chemical characteristics)
c) By age

Classification of Rocks According to the Mode of Formation or Origin

- There are three classes/types of rocks namely;-kcse 2017
1. Igneous rocks
2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks

1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
- Igneous rocks are aggregates of minerals formed the cooling and solidification of
magma/lava.
- Magma is a hot molten rock material found in the earth’s interior.
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- Lava is a hot molten rock material that has reached the earth’s surface.
- General characteristics --crystalline in structure
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--glassy in appearance

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 Formation of Igneous Rocks
- Land forming processes like tectonic movement leads to the formation of lines of
weaknesses within the crustal rocks.
- Heat and pressure beneath cause rocks to melt forming magma.
- Magma escape from the earth’s interior towards the earth’s surface through the lines of
weaknesses within the crustal rocks.
- Magma may fail to reach the earth surface but cools slowly and solidifies deep in the
earth’s interior forming intrusive/plutonic igneous rocks e.g. granite
- At times, magma cools near the earth surface at a medium rate and solidifies to form
hypabyssal igneous rocks e.g. Dolerite
- On reaching the earth surface, lava cools rapidly and solidifies to form extrusive
igneous/volcanic rocks e.g. granite.

Types of Igneous Rocks -kcse 2020

i. Intrusive igneous rocks- Further sub-divided into
Plutonic igneous rocks
Hypabyssal igneous rocks.
ii. Extrusive igneous rocks/Volcanic rocks

a) Plutonic Igneous Rocks

- Plutonic igneous rocks are aggregates of minerals formed from the slow cooling and
solidification of magma in the earth’s interior.
- Examples of plutonic igneous rocks;- kcse 2018
 Granite –kcse 2022
 Diorite
 Peridotite
 Gabbro
 Syenite
 Diabase
 Nephnine

- Characteristics of plutonic igneous rocks;

 Form from cooling and solidification of magma.
 Form deep inside the crust/great depth.
 Cools slowly
 Form large crystals
 They are coarse textured.

b) Hypabyssal Rocks/Intermediate igneous rocks.

- Hypabyssal igneous rocks are aggregates of minerals formed from the medium cooling
and solidification of magma near the earth surface.
- Examples of hypabyssal igneous rocks;-kcse 2014
 Dolerite
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 Porphyry
 Diabase
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 Lamprophyre

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  Porphyrite
 Granophyre

- Characteristics of hypabyssal igneous rocks;

 Form from the cooling and solidification of magma.
 Form near the earth surface/shallow depth.
 Cools at medium rate.
 Form medium sized crystals.

c) Extrusive Igneous Rocks/Volcanic rocks.

- Extrusive igneous/volcanic rocks are aggregates of minerals formed from rapid cooling
and solidification of lava on the earth surface.

- Examples of Extrusive/volcanic igneous rocks;-kcse 2022

i) Those formed as a result of lava flows;
 Rhyolite
 Andesite
 Basalt
 Obsidian
 Scoria
 Trachyte
ii) Those formed as a result of ejection of volcanic materials;
 Pumice
 Tuff

- Characteristics of extrusive/volcanic igneous rocks;

 Form from cooling and solidification of lava.
 Form on the earth surface.
 Cools rapidly
 Form small crystals
 They are fine textured.

KCSE 2009: Differentiate between the processes of formation of plutonic and volcanic
rocks (2mks)
 Plutonic rocks form from magma which cools slowly and solidifies within cracks and
chambers in the earth’s crust while volcanic rocks form from the lava that cools fast and
solidifies onto the surface of the earth.

2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- Also called derived rocks.
- Sedimentary Rocks are aggregates of minerals formed from pre-existing igneous or
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metamorphic rocks through the process of weathering/ erosion.

- The sediments are deposited in layers / strata in water or on land and over a period of
time they are consolidated into hard rock.
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 Characteristics of sedimentary rocks –kcse 2022
 They form horizontal layers/ are stratified.
 They have bedding planes.
 They have cleavage/joints.
 Some sedimentary rocks contain fossils.
 They are non-crystalline.
 They form from pre-existing/original rocks.
 Many are multi-coloured.

Classification/Types of sedimentary rocks

A. Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks
B. Organically formed sedimentary rocks
C. Chemically formed sedimentary rocks.

A) Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks

 These are aggregates of minerals formed when weathered/eroded rock materials are
transported by agents of erosion and deposited in layers on land. e.g. sandstone,
mudstone, shale, claystone, breccia, grit e.t.c.

Formation of mechanically formed sedimentary rocks –kcse 2018

 Sediments used to form the rocks are derived from weathering of existing rocks.
 The weathered materials are transported by wind/water/moving ice.
 The weathered materials are deposited in layers on land or in sea.
 They are then compacted and cemented into mechanically formed sedimentary rocks.

B) Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks

- These are aggregates of minerals formed from the remains of dead plants and animals.
e.g. limestone, chalk, ironstone, diatomite, coal

Formation of organically formed sedimentary Rocks – kcse 2018

 These rocks are formed from the remains of dead plants and animals/fossils.
 These remains accumulate in the oceans/basins/land in layers.
 The accumulated materials are compressed/compacted/cemented into organically formed
sedimentary rocks.

Types of organically formed sedimentary rocks

i. Calcareous rocks e.g. limestone, chalk
ii. Ferruginous rocks e.g. ironstone
iii. Siliceous rocks e.g. Diatomite
iv. Carbonaceous rocks e.g. coal

C) Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks

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- These are aggregates of minerals formed when rocks are precipitated or when solutions
of salt are evaporated and particles accumulate in layers. e.g. Trona, dolomite, gypsum,
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rock salt, chert and flint -kcse 2005

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 Formation of Chemically formed sedimentary rocks –kcse 2012
 Some minerals of some pre-existing rocks are dissolved when it rains.
 Dissolved minerals are transported into water bodies.
 They are then precipitated/evaporated over a long period of time.
 The evaporates/precipitates are then compacted to form chemically formed sedimentary
rocks

Types of chemically formed sedimentary Rocks

i. Carbonates e.g. Travertine, Dolomite and Trona.
ii. Sulphates e.g. Gypsum
iii. Chlorides e.g. Rock salt
iv. Silicates e.g. chert and flint
v. Iron stones e.g. limonite and haematite

3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
- Definition-kcse 2015: A metamorphic rock is a rock formed when the
original/igneous/sedimentary rock is subjected to chemically active
fluids/pressure/intense heat which changes its form/structure/composition.

Factors determining the ease and degree of change of rocks during metamorphosis
i. The resistance of the rock to crushing.
ii. The grain size of the rock being changed.
iii. The porosity of the rocks.
iv. The solubility of the constituents of the rocks.
iv. The chemical action of the minerals.
vi. The stability of the minerals that are produced.

Causes of metamorphosis/change of rocks from the original state.

a.) Heat which causes the minerals to re –crystalize; such action is called thermal
Metamorphism.
b.) Stress/pressure which causes alteration in the rock structure. This action is called
cataclastic/dynamic/kinetic/regional metamorphism.
c.) The action of both heat and stress/pressure. This action is called Thermal-Dynamic
metamorphism.

Metamorphic processes/Types of metamorphism

a) Dynamic / Kinetic/Regional metamorphism.-kcse 2017
 Original rock is subjected to intense pressure.
 Pressure is caused by compressional force when the crustal plates collide.
 The great pressure alters the mineral line up/composition in the rock.
 The rock changes their physical appearance and characteristics forming a new rock.

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Examples: Clay changes to slate.

: Granite changes to gneiss
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 b) Contact / Thermal metamorphism. -kcse 2017
 Rocks are subjected to intense heat.
 Heat may be due to rocks being buried at great depths/due to contact with magma.
 The hot magma melts the minerals of the original rock, they cool and solidify to form a
totally different rock/recrystallize the rock grains.
 New minerals may also be added into the rock by the intruding magma.
 The new rocks change their physical appearance/chemical composition.
 Example: Igneous rocks changed to soapstone in Kisii.

c) Thermal – dynamic metamorphism.

 Original rocks are subjected to both intense pressure and heat.
 Pressure is caused by compressional force while heat is due to rocks being in contact with
magma.
 Both heat and pressure may occur during mountain building processes.
 They modify the structure of the original rocks forming new rocks.
 Examples: coal changes to graphite

Changes that occur in rocks during metamorphism

 New minerals are formed.
 The rocks are hardened / become more resistant.
 Some minerals recrystallize further.
 The chemical composition of the rocks change.
 Physical characteristics / appearance of the rock changes/ is altered.

Examples of rocks and their metamorphic equivalent.

Original rock Metamorphic rock

Sandstone Quartzite/slate –kcse 2009
Limestone Marble –kcse 2009
Coal Graphite
Clay/shale Slate/schist –kcse 2009
Mudstone Slate
Augite Horn blende
Basalt Granulite
Granite Gneiss
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 The Rock formation cycle.
- It is a series of changes that occur in the formation of three types of rocks.

Characteristics of Rocks –kcse 2018

 Some rocks have joints.
 Rocks have varied degree of hardness.
 Rocks have cleavage.
 Rocks have varied texture.
 Rocks have different colours.
 Some rocks have lustre.
 Rocks have varied specific density.
 Rocks have different streak.
 Rocks have different minerals.

Why coral rocks are widespread at the coast -kcse 2007

 Salty water favours growth of coral polyps.
 Warm water for the growth of coral polyps.
 Clear water which is free from silt or mud favour coral polyps growth.
 Shallow water to which sunlight can penetrate for coral polyps growth.
 Well oxygenated water for coral polyps growth.
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Reasons why sedimentary rocks are dominant along the Kenyan coast –kcse 2003
 High temperature at the coast causes water to evaporate leaving behind rock salts.
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 The shallow continental shelf has conducive environment for the formation of coral
rocks.

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  The coastal plain is lowland which has facilitated deposition of sediments.
 Some parts of the coastal plain emerged from the sea where sedimentation occurred.
 Coral polyps die in large numbers in the ocean leading to the growth of coral reef which
is a sedimentary rocks.

Uses of rocks –kcse 2020

 Some rock features like granitic tors are tourist attraction earning a country foreign
exchange -kcse 2012
 Rocks weather down to form soils which support agriculture.
 Some rocks provide materials for building/construction.
 Some sedimentary rocks contain fossil fuels which are sources of energy for domestic/
industrial use -kcse 2012
 Some rocks are source of minerals.
 Some rocks act as storage for water which can be supplied for domestic/ industrial/
agricultural use -kcse 2012
 Some rocks provide raw materials for manufacturing industry e.g. Trona is processed to
obtain soda ash used in glass-making industry.
 Some rocks like soapstone are used in carving.
 Some rocks are source of salt/food.
 Some rocks are used for scrubbing human bodies/sharpening tools.

QUIZ: Why is industrial diamond used in shaping hard stones and metals?
 Because it is the hardest mineral/It does not break easily.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1a) Define the term rock.

b) Differentiate between rocks and minerals.

c) Identify three characteristics of minerals.

2. a) Classify rocks according to the mode of formation.

b) List two characteristics of rocks

c) How are rocks classified?

d) State four uses of rocks

3) Differentiate between plutonic rocks and volcanic rocks.

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4a) Describe three ways in which sedimentary rocks are formed.

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Mechanically formed-

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Chemically formed –

Organically formed

b) State two characteristics of sedimentary rocks.

c) Give two reasons why sedimentary rocks are dominant along the Kenyan coast.

d) State two changes that occur in sedimentary rocks when they are subjected to intense heat and
pressure.

e) Mention the characteristics of sedimentary rocks.

f) Describe two processes through which sedimentary rocks change into metamorphic rocks.

g) State two changes that occur in sedimentary rocks when they are subjected to intense heat and
pressure.

h) Give two examples of chemically formed sedimentary rocks.

i) Name examples of organically formed sedimentary rocks.

j) Explain the process of formation of mechanically formed sedimentary rocks.

k) Give three types of mechanically formed sedimentary rocks.

l) Mention areas where sedimentary rocks are found in Kenya.

j) Explain three ways in which sedimentary rocks are significance to the economy of kenya.

m) Describe the following types of rock.

i) Calcareous

ii) Ferruginous

iii) Siliceous

iv) Carbonaceous

n) Explain the processes through which sedimentary rocks changes into metamorphic rocks.

5a) Explain how igneous rocks are formed.

b) Give examples of the following types of igneous rocks.

i) Plutonic rocks:

ii) Hypabyssal rocks:

iii) Volcanic rocks:

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iv) Give two examples of mechanically formed sedimentary rocks.

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v) Give two examples of igneous rocks.

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ci) Describe how extrusive igneous rocks are formed.

ii) Differentiate between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.

iii) State the characteristics of igneous rocks.

6i) What is the use of coral rocks?

7i) Distinguish between porous and pervious rocks.

ii) Distinguish between permeable and impermeable rocks.

iii) Describe how organic rocks are formed.

Quartizite

8i) The table below shows some examples of metamorphic rocks. Complete the table.
Original rocks Metamorphic rocks
Marble
Augite
Clay/ mudstone.
Gneiss
Sandstone
Schist

bi) Explain four ways in which rocks contribute to the economy of Kenya.

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 EXTERNAL LANDFORMING PROCESSES.

 They are also called Exogenic or Exogenetic processes.

 These are processes which originate from the earth’s surface and are responsible for the
sculpturing and shaping of the landscape.
 Denudation refers to all the processes of destruction, wastage and removal of parts of the
earth’s surface. They include weathering, mass wasting, erosion and transportation.
 Erosion is the wearing away of the land surface by various agents like running water,
glacier, action of wind and transportation of all the rock materials that result.
 External land forming processes include:
 Weathering
 Mass wasting
 Action of Rivers
 Action of wind and waves
 Glaciation

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 WEATHERING
Definition-kcse 2023
 Weathering is the breaking down of rocks at or near the earth’s surface in situ (without
movement).

Agents of Weathering
a) Heat: - leads to differences in temperature exerting stress upon the rocks. It also influences
chemical reactions within the rocks.
b) Water: - dissolves carbon (iv) oxide from the atmosphere to form a carbonic acid that
dissolves rock minerals.
c) Plants and animals: - burrowing animals, plants’ roots penetrate through cracks and joints.
d) Wind- loads carried by wind may hit against rock outcrop by abrasion leading to weathering.
e) Movement of ice- ice erosion by abrasion/plucking may lead to weathering.
f) Man- through his activities like mining/quarrying/road construction leads to weathering.

Factors influencing weathering-kcse 2011

 Climate (Temperature and Rainfall)
 Nature of the rock
 Relief/angle of the slope
 Living organisms (flora and fauna)
 Time
 Human activities.

(i) Climate of the area.

 Equatorial regions that experience hot and humid climatic conditions are prone to
chemical weathering.
 Physical weathering is more prevalent in areas with large diurnal temperature ranges,
low rainfall and high evaporation rates.

(ii) Nature of the rock

 Dark colored rocks break up more rapidly compared to shiny or light-colored rocks
because of their higher rates of absorbing heat.
 Fine grained rocks are greatly affected by chemical weathering compared to coarse
grained rocks.
 Well jointed rocks easily break upon exposure to agents of weathering.
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(iii) Living organisms (plants and animals)
 Hooved animals e.g. cattle/elephants trample on the surface rocks causing them to
break and disintegrate.
 Plants such as mosses and lichens keep rock surfaces moist facilitating chemical decay.
 Activities of burrowing animals such as rodents and termites provide passage through
which air and moisture can reach below the surface.
 Plants’ roots may cause rocks to crack as they penetrate, breaking the rocks in the
process.
 Bacteria may facilitate the decay of other organisms to produce organic acids that react
with certain minerals in a rock and causing them to decay.

(iv) Relief/angle of the slope.

 On steep slopes, weathered materials are quickly removed by wind, water and ice;
thereby exposing the rock surface to further or continued weathering.
 Gentle slopes allow accumulation of rock materials in one place covering the rock
below and reducing the rate of weathering

(v) Human activities.

 Human activities such as digging, mining, quarrying, rock blasting and construction
lead to break up of rocks thus weathering.

(vi) Time.
 Rocks that have been exposed to agents of weathering over a long period of time are
deeply weathered compared to rocks exposed for a short duration.

Types of weathering-kcse 2020

(a) Mechanical or physical weathering
(b) Chemical weathering
(c) Biological weathering

1. Mechanical or physical weathering-kcse 2001

 Mechanical weathering is the physical breakdown of rocks into smaller particles
without any alteration in their chemical composition.
Causes of mechanical weathering.
 Temperature changes - Rain water
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 Frost action - Crystal growth

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 Pressure release

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 Processes of Mechanical/Physical Weathering-kcse 2015
 Block disintegration - Exfoliation
 Granular disintegration - Pressure release/unloading
 Frost action - Crystal growth
 Rain water action/slaking

(i) Block disintegration

 This results from alternate heating and cooling, causing rock breakage along the lines of
weakness into blocks.
 It is common in arid and semi-arid lands with large diurnal temperature ranges
 During the day, the temperatures are high causing the rocks to expand along the bedding
planes and joints.
 At night, the temperatures fall leading to contraction of the rocks along the bedding
planes and joints.
 This repeated expansion and contraction causes the rock mass to break along the lines of
weakness into blocks thus block disintegration

(ii) Granular disintegration

 This results from alternate heating and cooling that make rocks to break into small
particles/grains.
 During the day when temperatures are high, different minerals forming the rocks are
heated and expand at different rates.
 At night, the minerals lose heat and contract at different rates.
 The repeated differential expansion and cooling causes strain and stress within the rocks
causing individual rock grains to break off from the main rock mass as granular
disintegration

(iii) Exfoliation/Spalling/Onion weathering-kcse 2012

 This results from unequal expansion and contraction of the surface and inside of the rock
causing the rock to peel off in shells.
 In arid/semi-arid areas, there is large diurnal ranges of temperature.
 During the day, a homogenous rock is intensely heated.
 At night, the rock loses heat rapidly.
 The differential heating causes the outer layer to expand/contract faster than the inner
layer.
 When this expansion and contraction takes place repeatedly, stress develops in the outer
layer of rocks.
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 Cracks appear on the surface layer.

 Eventually the outer layer peels off, a process called Exfoliation.
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 The peeling off leaves behind a rounded mass of rock known as Exfoliation dome.

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(iv) Frost action/Frost wedging (freeze and thaw action)-kcse 2012
 Occurs due to repeated freezing of water into ice and thawing to water that penetrates
deeper into cracks.
 In temperate/ high mountain areas, water may occupy crevices/ cracks in the rocks during
the day.
 At night the temperatures drop below freezing point causing the water to freeze and
expand exerting pressure in the cracks.
 During the day, temperatures rise causing the ice to melt thus releasing pressure in the
cracks.
 This alternate freeze-thaw action weakens the rock causing it to disintegrate. This process
is known as Frost action/Frost wedging.

(v) Pressure release/unloading/sheeting.

 Deeply seated igneous and metamorphic rocks are under pressure from the overlying
rocks.
 With time, denudation may remove the overlying rock layers and expose the underlying
rocks at or near the earth’s surface
 The upper parts of the exposed rocks expand slightly due to the reduced pressure.
 This leads to big shells rock breaking away from the parent rock. This process is known
as Pressure release/unloading.

(vi) Crystal growth/Crystallization.

 Occurs due to growth of salt crystals after evaporation of water that contained dissolved
minerals from the cracks.
 During the long dry season, water in the rocks is drawn to the surface through capillary
action.
 High temperatures make the water to evaporate depositing tiny salt particles in the rock
cracks and pores.
 The salt crystals accumulate and grow inside, exerting pressure and widening the cracks
further.
 Eventually the rock pieces fall off leading to weathering. This process is known as
Crystal growth.

(vii) Slaking/Rain water action

 This is alternate wetting and drying-kcse 2015
 During the wet season, surface rocks such as clay/shale absorb water causing them swell.
 During the dry season, these rocks dry out causing the outer surface to shrink.
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 Repeated wetting and drying weakens the rocks leading to cracking/ slaking.
 These rocks break away from the main rock. This process is known as Slaking/Alternate
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wetting and drying.

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Quiz: Name three processes of mechanical weathering caused by temperature changes
 Exfoliation
 Granular disintegration
 Block disintegration

Kcse 2023: Identify three ways in which temperature change influences physical
weathering.
 It causes block disintegration.
 It causes exfoliation.
 It causes granular disintegration.
 It causes frost action.
2. Chemical Weathering.
 Chemical weathering is the breakdown of rocks by alteration of the chemical
composition of the minerals that make up the rock structure.
 During chemical weathering:
i. New minerals may be formed
ii. Some minerals may undergo chemical change
iii. Some minerals may dissolve in water

Causes of chemical weathering.

 Presence of moisture (or water)
 Presence of gases
 High temperatures

Processes of Chemical Weathering- kcse 2006

 Hydrolysis
 Solution
 Carbonation
 Hydration
 Oxidation
(i) Hydrolysis- kcse 2015
 This is a process in which hydrogen ions/hydroxyl ions in water react with mineral ions
in a rock.
 This reaction leads to formation of new chemical compounds in the rocks.
 With alteration of the original minerals, the rock becomes weak and
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disintegrates/decays. This process is known as hydrolysis.

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(ii) Solution

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  Occurs when soluble minerals within the rock dissolve in water and come out.
 The minerals in rocks change from solid to solution state.
 This weakens the rocks hence disintegrate. This process is known as solution.
(iii) Carbonation-kcse 2015
 This involves rain water dissolving carbon dioxide in the atmosphere forming a weak
carbonic acid.
 The carbonic acid reacts with calcium carbonate in limestone rocks to form calcium
bicarbonate solution.
 This leads to the weakening/disintegration of the rock. This process is known as
carbonation.
(iv) Hydration-kcse 2012
 Occurs when some minerals in the rock take up water, causing them to swell and
disintegrate.
 Certain minerals in a rock absorb water causing them to expand.
 As they swell, the rock mass expands creating internal stress within the rock that leads
to disintegration of the rock. This process is known as hydration.
(v) Oxidation-kcse 2012
 Occurs when iron in rocks react with oxygen in the presence of moisture leading to
rusting away.
 Oxidation takes place in rocks that contain iron.
 The iron combines with oxygen forming iron oxides.
 Such rocks change colour and crumble easily/disintegrate. This process is
known as oxidation.

3. Biological weathering
 Biological weathering is the breakdown of rocks due to action of living organisms such
as plants and animals.
 These organisms break down the rocks through physical and chemical processes.

i. Action of Plants-kcse 2020

 Roots of plants/trees penetrate into the joints/cracks of rocks widening them hence
causing the rock to disintegrate.
 Mosses and lichens moisten rock surfaces facilitating chemical weathering.
 Plants decompose/rot forming organic/ humic acids which causes rock decay/
disintegration.
 Widening of cracks and joints by plant roots allows water and air to enter into the
rocks hence accelerating weathering.
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 Plants absorbs minerals from rocks and this weakens the rocks causing them to
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disintegrate.

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 ii. Action of Animals
 Burrowing animals such as rabbits, moles, termites and earthworms lead to
mechanical weathering by breaking up the rocks through digging.
 Hooved animals like cattle and elephants exert pressure on the rocks as they walk
directly on them leading to breaking and disintegration.
 Some animals also excrete chemical substances/acids that when in contact with the
rocks may lead to chemical weathering
 Decaying animal remains give off organic fluids that may react with the rocks and
lead to chemical weathering.
iii. Human Activities
 Rocks are broken up when they are blasted with explosives in quarries.
 Rocks are also scooped and carried away during open cast mining.
 Air pollution leads to the formation of acid rain which causes chemical weathering
when it falls on rocks.
 Bush fires caused by human heat rocks and cause exfoliation.
 Rocks are affected by chemicals released into the environment by industrial activities.
 Movement of heavy machinery like caterpillars/trains breaks up rocks.
 Clearing of vegetation to create room for settlement exposes the rock to agents of
weathering.

Significance of weathering.
1. Positive effects.
i. It is the initial stage of soil formation supporting crop growing.
ii. It produces other natural resources e.g. bauxite – (aluminium ore) and clay used in brick
making
iii. It weakens the surface rocks making them easier for mining/quarrying.
iv. Some weathered rocks e.g. the granitic tors are of tourists’ attraction thus sources of foreign
revenue.
v. It reduces rock size forming rock blocks used for building and construction.

2. Negative effects.
i. It destroys existing landforms forming new ones making landscape ugly limiting
settlement.
ii. When weathered materials are moved by agents of erosion, they may block transport
networks like roads and railway.
iii. Weathered materials may be transported and deposited in dams hence causing siltation.
iv. Weathered rocks may weaken thus becoming susceptible to mass wasting like rock fall
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which may cause death of people and destruction of properties.

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MASS WASTING
Definition:- kcse 2023

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- Mass wasting is the down slope movement of weathered materials under the influence of
gravity.
- Mass movement is the movement of weathered materials down the slope after lubrication by
rain water or snow melt.
Ways in which materials move down the slope.
 Creeping
 Flowing
 Sliding
 Falling of rocks
 Slipping

Factors Influencing Mass Wasting-kcse 2012/2013

a) The angle of the slope-kcse 2012/2018
- Movement of weathered material is faster on steep slopes than on gentle slopes due to the
influence of gravity.
b) Climate of an area-kcse 2012/2018
- Weathered material in areas receiving heavy rainfall move faster since wet materials have
less cohesion.
- Alternate freezing and thawing encourages movement of weathered materials down the
slope.
c) Nature of the rock-kcse 2022
- Massive rocks overlying weak rocks move/ slide faster along the slope.
- Large rocks are likely to be overcome by gravity more easily than finely weathered materials.
- Steeply dipping rocks will easily experience movement.
- When materials contain a lot of water they are lubricated/ saturated and become susceptible
to rapid movement.
d) Vegetation cover in an area –kcse 2012
- Surfaces with vegetation experience less mass wasting because it binds weathered material
together.
- Bare surfaces are more likely to experience mass wasting because there is no vegetation to
bind the materials together.
e) Earth movements-kcse 2020
- Volcanic eruptions/earthquakes cause tremors which may trigger displacement of
materials/wide spread mass wasting.
f) Human activities –kcse 2022
- Ploughing/ clearing of vegetation/ mining/ quarrying affect the stability/ loosen the surface
materials causing their movement downslope.
- External forces from moving vehicles/ earth tremors from explosives shake the ground
causing some materials to move downslope.
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Types of Mass Wasting

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1. Slow mass wasting

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 2. Rapid mass wasting

1. Slow Mass Wasting

- It is the slow movement of weathered materials down a slope under the influence of gravity.
- The movement is gradual and hardly noticeable most of the time.
- It is also called creep.
Types/Processes of slow mass wasting-kcse 2007/2009
 Soil creep
 Talus creep
 Solifluction
 Rock creep

a) Soil Creep.
- It is the slow and steady movement of soil and other fine materials along a gentle slope.
Causes of soil creep-kcse 2007/2018
 Temperature change causes soil particles to expand and contract hence they shift position
downslope.
 Alternate wetting and drying of the soil whereby when it rains, the soil wet becoming
compact and upon drying, soil particles become loose and shift their position down slope.
 Moisture/rainwater acts as lubricant to soil particles causing their movement down slope.
 Trampling and burrowing of animals have a trigger effect on soil particles on the upper
part to shift downslope.
 External forces such as shaking by earthquakes/explosives/heavy vehicles have a trigger
effect which causes down slope movement of soil particles.
 Huma activities like ploughing down the slope causes soil particles to shift their position
downslope since the soil is disturbed and loosened.
 Freezing of soil water expands the soil pores and when water thaws, the soil particles fall by
gravity and may shift position downslope.

Indicators of the occurrence of soil creep-kcse 2012

 Telephone/fence poles that are inclined down a slope.
 Bent tree trunks
 Accumulated soil at the foot of a slope/behind walls/on roads/railways.
 Existence of bare rock/exposed upper slope.
 Presence of dipped rock strata in the direction of the slope.
 Presence of overhanging banks above roads or rivers.
 Presence of slope retreat.
 Presence of a ribbed or stepped pattern across the slope.
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Quiz: State four effects of soil creep (4marks)

b) Talus Creep/Scree creep.

- It is a slow movement of granular rock debris down a slope under the influence of gravity.
- It occurs on mountains located in areas where temperature fluctuate below and above the
freezing point.
- Freeze-thaw action along joints of rocks results in the breaking off of angular rock pieces of
different sizes from the rock mass.
- The resultant angular rock fragments move slowly down the slope due to gravity in a process
known as Talus creep/Scree creep.
- The presence of melt water lubricates rock fragments facilitating their down slope
movement.

c) Solifluction-kcse 2018
- It is a slow movement of saturated soil, gravel and weathered rock materials down a
moderate gentle slope under the influence of gravity.
 In moderately/gently sloping areas during winter water in the soil freezes thus
freezing the soil.
 When the weather becomes warm, the top soil thaws.
 Overtime the top soil becomes saturated with water while the sub-soil remains frozen
(permafrost).
 The saturated mass of top soil creeps over the frozen ground (permafrost). This
process is known as Solifluction.

d) Rock Creep.
- It is the slow movement of individual rocks which lie on clay at a very low speed down slope
in the presence of moisture.

2. Rapid Mass Wasting.

- It is a sudden and fast movement of weathered materials down a slope under the influence of
gravity.
- It is common on steep slopes.
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- It occurs in various forms like; -Flowage

-Sliding
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-Falling
Factors that trigger rapid mass wasting.

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  Collapse of a dam
 An earth tremor/Earthquake
 Burrowing of animals
 Quarrying
 Felling of trees from a hill side
 Ploughing up or down a slope

Processes of Rapid mass wasting-kcse 2022

(a) Earthflows
(b) Mudflows
(c) Landslides
(d) Avalanche

a) Earth Flows-kcse 2020

- An earth flow is a sudden and rapid flow of saturated loose weathered materials down a
steep slope.
 It occurs in humid conditions.
 It occurs on moderate slopes.
 Materials on the surface get saturated with water.
 They flow/slide down the hill under the influence of gravity.
 They leave behind shallow scars.
 They form small bench like terraces at their destination. This process is known as
Earth flows.

b) Mud Flows-kcse 2009

- It is a rapid flow of saturated soil and other weathered rock materials down a steep slope
under the influence of gravity following established valleys.
 Wet and loose soil materials saturated with water will move down the hill.
 As the semi-liquid mud collects more materials, it becomes heavier until it comes to
rest at the foot of the slope. This process is Mudflows.

Types of mudflow.
Lahar
Debris flow

- Factors influencing mudflows are;

 Presence of loose/unconsolidated materials on the earth surface.
 Presence of steep slopes.
 An abundant but intermittent supply of water.
 Scarcity of vegetation for faster movement.
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c) Land Slide/Land slip

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- It is a rapid movement of a large mass of earth and rocks down a hill with little or no flowage
of materials.

Causes of Landslides-kcse 2009

 Steep slopes which allow soils to move down easily.
 Presence of loose soil/absence of firm rock which means that soils are easily
destabilized.
 Occurrence of earthquakes which interferes with stability of soils.
 Heavy rains facilitate movement of materials downslope.
 Deep undercutting of the base of a steep slope by a river/road construction.
 Melting of ice may cause large masses of ice embedded with rocks to move down a
slope at high velocity.

Forms/Types of landslides-kcse 2018

i. Rock slump/slip
ii. Debris slide/Earth slide/Soil slip
iii. Debris fall
iv. Rock fall
v. Rock slide
vi. Avalanches
vii. Rain wash/Downwash

i) Rock Slump/Slip-kcse 2020

- It occurs on very steep concave slopes.
- A massive sedimentary strata overlying weak rock materials e.g. clay.
- The underlying rock material is saturated with water.
- This causes undercutting/breaking off of the overlying rock materials.
- The large mass of rock and loose materials shear/tear away along the concave plane.
- The rock materials slide downhill causing a slump.
-

ii) Debris Slide/Earth slide/Soil slip.

- It is the sudden downhill movement of accumulated rock debris and other loose material
downhill as a whole.

iii) Debris fall.

- It is the sudden free fall of debris from a vertical or hanging cliff to the base of the slope.

iv) Rock fall-kcse 2020

- It involves free fall of detached rocks down a steep/vertical slope.
- They may fall directly downwards or bounce and roll down the slope.
- It may occur due to freeze-thaw process/loosening action of plant roots/heating and
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cooling/Earth movements. This process is Rock fall.

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 v) Rock Slide.
- It is the movement of a mass of rock sliding down a gentle slope which is facilitated by
water lubrication of the surface.

vi) Avalanche-kcse 2020

- It is the sudden slipping and falling of a large mass of snow, ice and loose rock materials
down a mountain side.
 It occurs when a fresh fall of snow is not firmly consolidated hence slides over the
older snow/ice rapidly.
 The thawing action of ice lubricates weathered rock and large ice blocks making
them slide downhill rapidly. The process is Avalanche.

vii) Rain Wash/Down wash.

- It is the movement of unconsolidated materials down slope due to rain splash, run-off and
overland flood.
- It is common on slopes with little or no vegetation.

Types of Down wash

a) Sheet wash/Sheet flooding.
- It is the uniform removal of soil over a large area on a slope by heavy rainfall.

b) Gulleying
- Removal of soil through wide and deep channels called gullies due to running water on soft
rocks.

Effects of Mass Wasting-kcse 2007

1. Positive effects
(a) It forms beautiful sceneries like avalanches which attract tourists earning a country
foreign exchange-kcse 2009
(b) Materials from landslides may create a barrier across a river valley forming a lake that
provides water for irrigation/domestic use.
(c) Rock materials deposited at the base of slopes form deep, well drained soils supporting
crop growing-kcse 2009
(d) Rock fall also provide stones/boulders used in building and construction.
(e) Some rock debris contain mineral deposits hence promoting mining.
(f) Areas affected by mass wasting have become centres of research.
(g) Areas prone to mass wasting have encouraged environmental conservation strategies like
afforestation/gabion building/agroforestry/reafforestation.
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2. Negative effects-kcse 2018

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 (a) It leads to loss of life when people/animal are buried under large quantities of rock waste.
(b) It leads to destruction of vegetation.
(c) It leads to exposure of land to agents of soil erosion.
(d) Soil creep may destroy walls built across the slope when creeping soil exerts pressure on
them.
(e) It leads to blockage of rivers/disruption of flow of rivers reducing volume of water
downstream.
(f) It leads to formation of scars on the land/derelict land destroying the beauty of land.
(g) Earthflows/mudflows cause siltation of dams reducing its capacity to hold more water.

Quiz: kcse 2022- Explain the effects of mass wasting on the environment (8marks)
 Landslide may cause rivers to change their course reducing the water volume
downstream.
 Mass wasting leads to formation of derelict land with scars which spoils the beauty of the
environment.
 Mass wasting leads to slope retreat.
 Some mass movement bury people and animals under large materials leading to loss of
lives.
 Landslides cause damage to property when materials cover roads/ farms/ homes.
 Movement of materials downslope facilitates the loosening of the top soil increasing
erosion.
 Mass movement may create sceneries that may become tourist attractions.
 Materials from a landslide may create a barrier across a river valley thus leading to
eventual formation of a lake.

QUESTIONS
❖ Causes of soil creep 2018q9
❖ Conditions influencing occurrence of landslides 2003q3,2009q7
❖ Describe alternate wetting and drying 2015q9
❖ Describe carbonation 2015q9
❖ Describe chemical weathering 2006 q2
❖ Describe frost action 2012q8
❖ Describe how exfoliated dome is formed 2001q3, 2012q8
❖ Describe how mud flows occur 2009q7
❖ Describe how rock fall occur 2009q7,2020q9cii
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❖ Describe how subsidence occur 2009 q7

❖ Describe hydration 2012q8
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❖ Describe hydrolysis 2015q9

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 ❖ Describe oxidation 2012q8
❖ Describe physical weathering 2006 q2
❖ Describe Solifluction 2018q9
❖ Effects of mass wasting on soil fertility 2009q7
❖ Effects of mass wasting on the environment 2007q10,2022q9c
o Effects of mass wasting on tourism 2009q7
o Explain how plants cause weathering 2007q10,2020 q9aii
o Factors causing soil creep 2007q10
o Factors influencing mass wasting 2012q8, 2013q2
o Factors influencing rate of weathering 2007q10, 2011q2
o How avalanche occur 2020q9ci
o How climate affects mass wasting 2018q9
o How earth flow occurs 2020q9di
o How earth movements cause mass wasting 2020q9bi
o How nature of rock materials influence mass wasting
2020q9bii,2022q9bi
o How human activities influence mass wasting 20229bi
o How slope affects mass wasting 2018q9
o How slumping occurs 2020 q9dii
o Indicators of occurrence of soil creep 2012q8
o Negative effects of mass wasting 2015q9
o Processes of mechanical weathering 2015q9
o Types of landslides 2018q9
o Types of weathering 2020q9ai
o Forms of rapid mass wasting 2022q9a
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 ACTION OF WIND AND WATER IN ARID AREAS.

Introduction.
- Aridity is the state of insufficient moisture in an area leading to scanty vegetation and
deficiency in soil fertility.
- Arid lands are areas that receive insufficient rainfall (less than 250mm per annum) with
scanty vegetation cover.
- Desertification is the slow but steady encroachment of arid-like conditions onto
agricultural productive land.
- Desert is an arid area with scarcity of rainfall (below 250mm p.a.) and with scanty
vegetation.

Types/ kinds of desert landscape/ surfaces.

(a) Sandy desert surface (erg or koum).
- It is covered by extensive deposit of sand.

(b) Stony desert surface (Reg or Serir).

- It is covered by angular pebbles, gravels and boulders.

(c) Rocky desert surface (hamada).

- It is a bare rock surface.

(d) Badland.
- It is covered by deep, steep sided gullies and ridges.

Types/ categories of Deserts based on their location.

(a) The hot continental interior deserts e.g. Sahara and Arabian Desert.
(b) The coastal deserts of western margins of continents e.g. Atacama in South America,
Namib Desert in Namibia and Arizona desert in U.S.A.
(c) The mid-latitude desert of continental interior e.g. Gobi Desert in Central Asia.
(d) The ice and snow deserts of polar lands e.g. Greenland and Antarctica Deserts.

Major deserts in Africa –kcse 2021

 Sahara
 Kalahari
 Namib

Major deserts in Kenya.

 Chalbi
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 Kaisut
 Karoli
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@DAFIRM TECHS
 Factors for the development of deserts.
i. High temperatures leading to high evaporation rate.
ii. Prolonged drought/ insufficient rainfall.
iii. Presence of cold ocean currents on the path of rain bearing winds hence drop moisture.
iv. Rain shadow effect caused by relief barriers.
v. Continentality/ long distance from the sea.
vi. Human activities like deforestation/ overgrazing/ overstocking.
vii. Location of an area in a region of anticyclones where winds are descending and
diverging.

Reasons why wind action is distinct in hot deserts –kcse 2021

 There are a lot of loose/ unconsolidated dry materials which are easily eroded.
 Hot deserts experience strong, tropical storms which facilitate wind erosion.
 Hot desert surfaces are bare/ have scanty vegetation cover leaving most of the surface
exposed to wind erosion.

ACTION OF WIND IN ARID AREAS.

- The major processes resulting from wind action are;
 Wind Erosion
 Wind Transportation
 Wind Deposition

1. Wind Erosion
- It involves the wearing off of the desert surface by the action of wind.

Ways/ processes of wind erosion –kcse 2003

(a) Abrasion- The materials carried by wind scour, grind and polish desert rock surface eroding
them.

(b) Deflation- The dry/ loose unconsolidated materials are scooped and lifted to the air by wind
currents hence rock eroded.

(C) Attrition- The rock materials carried by wind collide with each other breaking into smaller
fragments/ particles.

Resultant features of wind erosion in arid areas –kcse 2011

 Rock pedestals.
 Mushroom blocks.
 Zeugen.
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 Yardangs.
 Depression/ Deflation hollows.
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 Millet seed/ sand grains.

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  Ventifacts and dreikanters.

a) Rock pedestals/ Gours.

- Rock pedestal is a tower like structure made up of heterogenous rocks shaped by wind
abrasion and weathering process.
- Formation;
 A large rock mass made up of horizontal alternating layers of resistant and less
resistant rocks lie on the path of prevailing wind.
 The rock mass undergoes erosion by abrasion.
 The less resistant layers are eroded more than the resistant layer of rocks.
 The base undergoes more erosion by abrasion since the wind is carrying more
load near the ground.
 This results in a rock pillar that has protruding resistant layer of rocks with narrow
less resistant layers of rock called a rock pedestal/ Gour.

b) Mushroom block.
- This is a massive block of homogenous rock with a smoothened and rounded top and
narrow intensively eroded bottom due to wind abrasion.
- Formation; –kcse 2023
 It is formed from a homogenous rock which lies vertically on the path of the
prevailing wind.
 There is wind abrasion by heavier materials near the ground resulting into
intensive undercutting of the rock.
 The top of the rock undergoes polishing and smoothening by fine airborne
materials.
 This results into a feature with a broad rounded top and a very narrow base/
bottom known as mushroom block.
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 c) Zeugen–kcse 2003
- It is a ridge and furrow landscape formed from a massive rock with alternating layers of
hard and soft rocks lying horizontally.
- Formation;
 It is formed in desert area where alternating horizontal layers of hard and soft
rocks occur.
 The top layer of hard rock is jointed and has cracks.
 Weathering opens up the joints deepening them to reach the soft layer of rocks.
 Wind abrasion deepens and widens the cracks into the softer rocks.
 The softer rocks are eroded faster than the hard rocks forming furrows.
 The hard rock forms ridges separating the furrows.
 This results into a ridge-furrow landscape. This ridge is called zeugen

d) Yardangs.
- They are elongated rock ridges which are vertically laid down separated by shallow
furrows/ grooves.
- Formation; –kcse 2023
 They are formed by massive alternating layers of hard and soft rocks which are
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vertical/ near vertical.

 The rocks lie parallel to the direction of prevailing wind.
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 Wind abrasion acts on the soft layers.

 The worn out materials are removed and transported by deflation.

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  The hard layers are left standing out as small ridges separated by furrows forming
features known as yardangs

e) Formation of Depression/ Deflation hollows.

- A pre-existing depression or localized fault is exposed to wind erosion.
- Wind eddies removes unconsolidated materials by wind deflation.
- Weathering aids in the breaking down of the exposed rock.
- Wind abrasion excavates the depression by eroding the rock along the weak lines.
- The depression is deepened and widened as deflation continues to remove the loose
materials forming deflation hollows.

Formation of an oasis –kcse 2021

- A pre-existing depression is exposed to wind erosion.
- Wind eddies remove unconsolidated materials through deflation.
- Wind abrasion deepens and widens/ enlarges the depression.
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- Further, abrasion and deflation lead to the depression reaching the water table.
- Water oozes out of the ground and collects into the depression to form a lake known as
Oasis.
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 f) Millet seed or Sand Grains.
- They are rounded sand grains produced by attrition.
- The wind borne materials knock against each other reducing in size to the size of the
millet seeds.
- They are common in extensive sandy deserts.

g) Ventifacts and Dreikanter.

- When boulders, stones or pebbles are polished and faceted through abrasion by wind-
blown sand in the desert, they form ventifact,
- When wind changes its direction, the lighter stones may be forced to lter their positions
resulting into a three faceted feature called dreikanter.

2. Wind Transportation.
- Wind transports its load in three ways/ processes namely; –kcse 2021
(a) Suspension: - It is where fine materials are picked by wind raised high and blown over
long distances.

(b) Saltation: - It is where coarse grained sand particles are transported through a series of
bouncing/ jumps along the surface.

(c) Surface Creep: - It is where large/ heavy materials are rolled/ pushed forward by the use
of wind along the surface.

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 Note: The process labelled A is Saltation, B is Suspension and C is Surface creep/
traction/ rolling.

Factors influencing wind transportation.

i. Strength and speed of wind – strong winds transport more and heavier materials compared to a
weak wind.
ii. Obstacles – Intervening obstacles e.g. rock outcrops/desert vegetation on the path of a
prevailing wind reduces its speed causing the wind to drop some of its load.
iii. Nature of load – Light particles such as fine dust are easily picked up by wind and blown to
far distances.
iv. Vegetation cover/water mass – areas where the surface is covered by vegetation/ a water
mass, the sand particles are bound together. This reduces the ability of wind to pick and transport
these particles.
v. Periodic changes in weather – e.g. sudden short rains may interfere with transportation.

3. Wind Deposition.
- It refers to when materials and particles transported come to rest.

Factors influencing wind deposition.

i. Presence of intervening obstacles – checks the speed of wind forcing it to drop some load.
ii. Nature of the desert surface – moist grounds impedes the transportation of materials close to
the ground due to friction. The materials are dropped.
iii. Strength and direction of wind – When the wind slackens, it begins to drop some of its
load. Similarly when winds blowing from different directions meet, collision occurs resulting in
some of the load being dropped.
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iv. Amount of load carried – Materials carried by overloaded wind constantly collide among
themselves causing some of them to be dropped.
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v. Variation in weather conditions – Moist conditions/showers lead to deposition of the load

suspended in the air.

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 Resultant features of wind deposition –kcse 2014
 Dunes
 Draas
 Loess

a. Sand dunes
- They are low ridges of drifted sand occurring in deserts.
- The following factors influence formation of a dune;
 Availability of sand.
 The strength and direction of the wind.
 The nature of the surface.
 The presence of an obstacle on the path of the wind movement.
 The presence of vegetation.
 The presence of the ground water reaching the surface.

Types of dunes –kcse 2018/ 2023

i. Barchans
ii. Seif dunes
iii. Transverse dunes/ wave dunes
iv. Wake dunes
v. Star dunes
vi. Draas dunes
vii. Linear/ longitudinal dunes/ lateral dunes
viii. Parabolicdunes

i. Barchans
- They are crescent shaped sand dunes which lie transversely to the direction of the wind.
- Formation; –kcse 2013
 It develops in arid areas when sand accumulates around an obstacle that lies in the
path of the wind.
 The gradual accumulation of sand forms a hill.
 Eddy currents on the leeward side of the dune causes the formation of a shallow
depression or concave/ steep slope.
 With time the prevailing wind forces the sand at the edge of the dune to move
forward forming the horns.
 The continuous extension of the horns lead to a crescent shaped feature called
barchans.
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 Characteristics of Barchans.
 Crescent shaped.
 Lie at right angle to prevailing winds.
 Have horns pointing downwards.
 Develop in places of steady winds.
 Formed where has been an obstruction in the path of wind.
 Steep leeward slope.
 Gentle windward slope.

ii. Seif Dunes.

- They occur as long ridges of sand extending many kilometres and lie parallel to the path
of the prevailing wind.
- Formed when barchans are stretched and straightened by wind action to form ridges of
sand.
- Cross winds interrupt the prevailing winds to drive sand from side to side.
- This breaks the crescent shape of barchans into longitudinal ridges.
- They extend to a length of over 100km and are parallel to each other to the path of
prevailing wind forming seif dunes.
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 iii. Transverse and wake dunes.
- They are long wave-like sand dune ridges separated from each other by troughs.
- They form when less strong winds blow from one direction, depositing huge dune fields
called transverse dunes/ lateral dunes.
- If a sand dune forms on the leeward side of the larger dune trailling away in the direction
of the wind movement forming a wake dune.

(b) Draas.
- They are formed from seifs or transverse dunes that attain very high heights.
- They are sometimes flat at the top thereby influencing formation of small barchans and
seif dunes due to their massive extent.
- They can accumulate to form high ridges or hills rising up to about 200m.

(c) Loess.
- These are fine particles of dust that are blown out of the deserts and deposited in other
areas.
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- They accumulate over time, forming deep soils with high mineral content suitable for
agriculture.
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 ACTION OF WATER IN ARID AREAS.
- Action of running water in arid areas forms features like;
 Wadis
 Inselberg
 Pediments and peneplains
 Pediplains
 Playa and Salinas
 Mesas and buttes
 Dry river valley
 Alluvial fan
 Bajada

a. Wadis
- They are deep desert valleys which are steep sided and rise from a flat floor.
- Formation; –kcse 2021
 Torrential rainfall in the desert causes flash floods.
 The flash floods cut small channels known as rills.
 With increased rain, the rills widen and deepen to form gullies.
 Temporary streams occupy and rapidly enlarge and deepen the gullies.
 This results into a deep steep sided rocky valley (occasionally occupied by a
seasonal stream) known as a wadi.

b. Inselberg
- It is a prominent residual rock mass in a desert.
- Wind erosion attacks the soft part of the rock or cracks formed due to weathering.
- Water may remove weathered materials thereby exposing the rock in an extensive flat
area, leaving a mass of hard rock standing as residual hills called inselbergs.
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 c. Pediment and peneplains.
- A pediment is a broad gentle lying rock surface which resembles a platform.
- Weathering and erosion processes attack the base of a slope on a highland in the desert
areas resulting in slope retreat.
- During sudden rainstorms, flash floods water falls from the highlands into the lower
surfaces enhancing erosion.
- The slope of a highland retreats slowly forming a gentle sloping surface called pediment
at the base of the highland.
- The low level plain is called peneplain.

d. Pediplains/Pediplanes.
- They are multi-concave or steep surface features which result from the coalescence of
several large scale adjacent pediments.
- Pediplains develop when pediments form around highland areas in deserts.
- During sudden rainstorms, flood water falls from the highlands into the lower surfaces
enhancing erosion.
- Both slopes of a highland retreat slowly until they form an extended gentle sloping
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surfaces called pediments at the base of the highland.

- Eventually, the main highland is weathered and eroded forming residual hills which are
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reduced to an extensive land with curved surfaces forming pediplanes /pediplains.

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 e. Mesas and Buttes
- They develop on sedimentary rocks that are capped with hard rocks.
- The soft surface is eroded until the horizontal hard rocks are exposed.
- These resistant rocks form residual hills which have a table-like shape called mesas.
- Continued erosion by wind and water reduces mesas thus forming buttes.

f. Dry river valleys.

- Sheet floods and flash floods collect in river valleys during the short wet season to form
fast flowing streams.
- The streams deepen the valleys through vertical erosion and widens the banks through
lateral erosion.
- During dry season, these river beds remain dry forming dry river valleys.

g. Alluvial fans.
- Streams from hills/ uplands flow to the lowlands.
- At the foot of these uplands, the speed of the running water is reduced leading to
deposition of large amounts of sediments.
- Overtime these deposits accumulate spreading outwards to form a feature made up of
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coarse material called alluvial fan/ alluvial cone.

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 h. Bajada/ Bahada.
- Temporary streams emerge from the highlands in desert areas during sudden rainstorms
and flow into the lowland.
- The speed of such stream reduces as they reach the base of highlands depositing large
amounts of sediments.
- These materials are deposited at the point where the temporary streams join a wadi.
- Continued deposition results in an accumulation of cone-shaped features called alluvial
cones/ alluvial fans.
- When several alluvial cones/ fans along the wadi join, they form a continuous gentle
feature called bajada with coarse sand.

i. Playas and Salinas.

- A playa is a temporary lake in the desert in an inland drainage basin.
- Wind erosion by deflation processes erodes the surface forming shallow depressions
called deflation hollows.
- Surface run-off from sudden rainstrorms flow into the deflation hollows or other existing
basins to form temporary lakes called playas.
- Water in these playas is salty due to high temperatures experienced in desert areas.
- The high temperatures cause salinization in desert areas.
- Eventually, such playas may dry up and leave salty crystals called salina/ salar.

Significance of the resultant features of action of wind and water in arid areas –kcse 2021
i. The unique desert features like barchans/ zeugen are tourist attraction that earns the
country foreign exchange.
ii. Loess form deep soils that promote agriculture.
iii. The extensive desert landscape form appropriate site for military training/ nuclear testing.
iv. The extensive desert landscape is ideal for film making.
v. Salt flats are economically used for salt production.
vi. Wind deflation hollows/ oasis are sources of water for agriculture/ domestic use/ attract
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settlement.
vii. Sand harvested is used for building and construction.
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viii. Shifting sand dunes hinder transport activities which hinder settlement.
ix. Extensive desert landscape form appropriate site for testing car and jet engines.

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 ACTION OF WATER IN LIMESTONE AREAS.

Surface water.
- This is water found on the earth surface.
- Surface water include rain water falling directly, Run-off water, River water, lake
water, sea water and ocean water.
- Sources of surface water;
 Precipitation
 Springs
 Melting ice

Underground/ Ground water.

- This is water found below the earth surface.
- Sources of underground water/ Ground water include;
 Precipitation/ Rainwater.
 Melting glacier/ Melt water.
 Water bodies like sea/ ocean/ lake water.
 Magmatic water- water tapped in the rocks underground during
volcanicity (plutonic water).

Ways in which underground water may reach the surface of the earth.
a) Through wells drilled into artesian basin.
b) Capillary action i.e. upward movement of water through the rocks.
c) Springs – occur in areas where saturated rock layer is exposed to the surface.
d) Through streams.

Factors influencing the occurrence of underground/ Ground water.

i.) Precipitation/ Rainfall –kcse 2015
- When rains last for long hours it enhances infiltration thereby replenishing the
underground water sources.
- Heavy rains saturate the surface blocking air spaces thus reducing the rate of infiltration
leading to low amount of underground water.
- High rainfall leads to high rate of infiltration hence high amount of underground water.
- Little rainfall/ no rainfall leads to low rate/ no infiltration hence low amount of
underground water.

ii.) Gradient of the slope.

- The more gentle a slope is the greater the percolation of water into the ground than steep
slope which allow fast surface runoff.

iii.) Amount of Vegetation cover –kcse 2015

- Presence of vegetation cover reduces the speed of surface run-off hence increasing the
rate of infiltration leading to high amount of underground water.
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- Presence of vegetation cover breaks the force of rain drops giving water more time to
infiltrate hence increasing the amount of underground water.
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 - In areas of scanty vegetation/ on bare ground the surface run-off is high hence reducing
rate of infiltration leading to low amount of underground water.

iv.) Nature of the rocks.

- Rocks with large spaces have high ability of allowing water to percolate through them
thus availing underground water.
- Permeable rocks allow easy water infiltration than impermeable rocks thus availing
underground water.

v.) Level of saturation of the ground.

- The drier the ground, the higher the rate of infiltration. Pore spaces of wet ground are
blocked hence reducing water infiltration.

vi.) Level of saturation of the atmosphere.

- When the atmosphere has a low moisture content, there is increased evapo-transpiration
due to high temperatures reducing water infiltration into the ground.

The water table.

- This is the upper surface of the zone of saturation of water in permeable rocks.
- The highest level nearer to the surface reached during the rainy season is called
temporary water table.
- The lower level reached during the dry season and is permanently saturated is called
permanent water table.
- The stratum of a permeable rock which hold water in its mass and allows it to pass
through is called Aquifer (aquafer).

Layers/ Zones of saturation/ ground water

a) Zone of non-saturation: - This is found immediately below the earth’s surface
(permeable layer). It allows water [Link] top part of this zone is called the soil
water belt.

b) Zone of intermittent saturation: - This is located below the zone of non-saturation. Its
water content fluctuates according to season i.e. contains water during rainy seasons but
unsaturated during dry season.

c) Zone of permanent saturation: - This is the region where all the rock pores/air spaces
are permanently filled with water. It contains water in both wet and dry seasons. The
upper level of this zone is called permanent water table. It is also called phreatic zone.
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NOTE: Phreatic zone is a zone of saturation while vadose zone is a zone of intermittent and
non-saturation.

Features formed by underground water.

a) Springs
b) Wells
c) Boreholes
d) Artesian basin
e) Artesian well

i. Springs.
- A spring is a natural outflow of water from the rocks.
- The natural outflow of water from the ground all year round is called permanent
springs.
- The natural outflow of water from the ground after a period of heavy rainfall is called
intermittent springs.

Ways in which springs occur.

a) Where a permeable rock overlies an impermeable rock. A spring occurs where the two
rock layers meet the earth’s surface.

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 b) Where an igneous dyke cut across a layer of permeable rock.

c) At the foot of a steep scarp slope underlain by impermeable rock layers.

d) Where there is well jointed rocks e.g. limestone are saturated to the level of the water
table. The water guided by the joints flow out of the junction with impermeable rock and
runs down the hill side as a spring.
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 ii. Wells and boreholes.
- These are holes sunk/dug into a permeable rock to reach the water table.
- Water from the underground seeps out of the water table into the well.
- Permanent wells are sunk below the water table hence they don’t dry.

- Wells A and B are permanent.

- Well C is an intermittent well.
- Wells D and E are dry wells.

iii. Artesian Basin and Artesian wells.

- Artesian basin is a saucer-shaped depression consisting of a layer of permeable rock
lying between two layers of impermeable rocks with part of permeable rock exposed to
the surface along the edges of basin- kcse 2009
- Artesian well is a hole sunk into a permeable rock in an artesian basin.
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 - Aquifer is a permanently saturated permeable rock that lies in between two layers of
impermeable rocks.
- Aquifuge are impermeable rock layers that sandwich an aquifer/ permeable rock.

Conditions that favour the formation of an artesian basin –kcse 2023

a.) The aquifer must be exposed in an area of sufficient precipitation/ water source to
provide more water into the well preventing it from drying.
b.) The aquifer must be sandwiched/ lie between two impermeable rock layers so that it
can retain water.
c.) The mouth of the well must be lower than the intake area to ensure water has
sufficient pressure to flow out naturally.
d.) The rock structure must form a shallow syncline such that the mouth of the well is at a
lower level to ensure sufficient pressure to naturally force out water.
e.) The margins of the aquifer must be exposed to allow water to infiltrate.
f.) There must be a partial or total blockage of exit for the water to be replaced under
pressure.
g.) The aquifer must be of the same permeable materials so as to retain water.

Problems of/ Dangers that face artesian wells.

 Water from the wells may come in contact with salt bearing rocks hence becoming salty
reducing its use.
 Excessive use of water from the wells with less intake to refill them may eventually lead
to its drying up.
 Percolation of surface run-off from polluted land and rain water result in pollution of the
water in the artesian well.

Importance of underground water.

a.) Underground water provides sites for settlement e.g. spring line settlement.
b.) It can be sued for irrigating land increasing agricultural production.
c.) Springs form major sources of water for both domestic and industrial use.
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d.) Springs form major sources of various rivers that provide water for industrial and
domestic use.
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e.) Underground springs helps to keep lakes fresh e.g. Lake Naivasha.

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 f.) Hot springs, geysers and steamjets can be harvested to produce geothermal energy.
g.) Hot springs and geysers attract tourists earning a country foreign exchange.
h.) Some hot springs are health spas.
i.) Hot water from the ground is pumped into houses to heat them during winter.
j.) Hot springs deposit some minerals like salt particles which are useful to man.

Carbonation process –kcse 2004

- Rain water absorbs carbon (iv) oxide in the atmosphere to form a weak carbonic acid.

Rain water + carbonic (iv) oxide carbonic acid

- The rain falls on jointed limestone rocks.

- The percolating rain water reacts with limestone rock (calcium carbonate) to form a
soluble calcium bicarbonate.

Limestone rock + carbonic acid calcium bicarbonate

NOTE: Carbonation solution process above leads to the development of various features in Karst
or limestone regions.

Karst landscape.
- It is an area of limestone chalk or dolomite with uniquely developed features/ scenery.
- It is a limestone region with unique features resulting from chemical weathering of rocks.

Characteristics of karst landscape.

a. It has thin soils.
b. It has deep steep sided dry valleys.
c. It lacks surface drainage.
d. Its surface is rocky and rugged.
e. It exhibits numerous residual hills and solution hollows.
f. It has a subterranean network of underground drainage, caves and caverns.
g. It has poor/ scrub vegetation as well as some shrubs and grasses with stunted growth.
h. It has many solution depressions.

Karst scenery –kcse 2021

- Karst scenery is a limestone/ dolomite/ chalk area/ region where water action has
created unique rugged features on the surface and underground.

Conditions necessary for the development of karst scenery –kcse 2021

 The rainfall should be moderate to high/ humid conditions.
 The temperatures should be high/ hot conditions.
 Presence of hard/ well jointed rocks.
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 The water-table should be deep below the surface.

 The area should have thick limestone/ chalk/ dolomite on the surface and beneath.
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 Reasons why there are few settlements on the karst landscape –kcse 2021
 The landscape is rocky/ rugged thus discourages settlement.
 The region experiences inadequate water supply both on the surface and underground
discouraging settlement.
 The surface in most places has thin soils which discourages crop farming.
 There is scarcity of vegetation in most places limiting rearing of livestock.
 The landscape is rugged hindering development of transport network.

Quiz; State three ways in which limestone landscape influences human activities.
 Features like caves attract tourists earning a country foreign exchange.
 Limestone rocks are used for cement manufacture promoting industrial growth.
 Limestone rocks are used in building and construction.
 Limestone areas are used for grazing sheep as soils are thin and dry and has poor
vegetation like scrub, shrubs and grasses.
 Limestone regions are rugged with grikes and clints making development of
infrastructure difficult discouraging settlement.
 Limestone regions have intermittent surface drainage hence shortage of water thus
discouraging settlement.

Surface features in limestone regions.

 Grikes and clints.
 Shallow/ sink holes.
 Dolines
 Uvala
 Polje
 Limestone gorge
 Dry valleys
 Blind valleys

(a) Grikes and Clints.

- Rain water reacts with carbon (iv) oxide in the atmosphere forming a weak carbonic acid.
- When acidic rain falls, it reacts with limestone rocks forming a soluble calcium
bicarbonate.
- Water infiltrating the rocks through the joints enlarges them through solution process.
- The joints are enlarged to become gullies called grikes.
- The grikes are separated by ridges/ blocks of limestone called clints.
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 (b) Swallow/sink holes.
- Rain water reacts with carbon (iv) oxide in the atmosphere forming a weak carbonic acid.
- When acidic rain falls, it reacts with limestone rocks forming a soluble calcium
bicarbonate.
- The calcium bicarbonate is easily carried away by water in solution form where the joints
converge.
- As a result, deep oval-shaped vertical holes called sink holes are formed.
- If a river disappears through an enlarged sink hole, the hole will be called a swallow
hole.

(c) Dry Valleys

- A river originating from a non-limestone area flows into a region where the surface rock
is limestone.
- The river cuts a deep steep-sided valley as it flows down hill.
- Weathering by solution process occurs along vertical joints where the joints converge
forming a swallow hole.
- Eventually, the river disappears into the swallow hole and continues flowing
underground.
- The river re-emerges at a point further downhill where the limestone and impermeable
rock meet at the earth surface.
- A section of the river valley between the swallow hole and the point where the river re-
emerges on the surface is called dry valley.

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 (d) Dolines.
- Rain water reacts with carbon (iv) oxide in the atmosphere forming a weak carbonic acid.
- When acidic rain falls, it reacts with limestone rocks forming a soluble calcium
bicarbonate.
- Calcium bicarbonate is carried by water in solution form along the joints forming sink/
swallow holes.
- Continued solution enlarges the sink/ swallow holes forming a large shallow elliptical
shaped-depression called a doline.

(e) Uvalas
- Rain water reacts with carbon (iv) oxide in the atmosphere forming a weak carbonic acid.
- When acidic rain falls, it reacts with limestone rocks forming a soluble calcium
bicarbonate.
- Calcium bicarbonate is carried by water in solution form along the joints of limestone
rocks enlarging them forming swallow holes which are later enlarged forming dolines.
- Further carbonation and solution results in the merging of several dolines forming a large
depression called uvalas.

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(f) Poljes –kcse 2021

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 - Rain water absorbs carbon (iv) oxide from the atmosphere to form weak carbonic acid.
- When acidic rain falls, it reacts with limestone rocks forming a soluble calcium
bicarbonate.
- The solution reacts with joints of limestone rocks forming a deep vertical hole called sink
hole.
- Further solution on two or more adjacent sink holes leads to the formation of dolines.
- Continued solution on the walls of adjacent dolines leads to the formation of a large
depression called uvala.
- Several uvala join/ collapse to form a very large steep sided depression called polje.

(g) Limestone gorge.

- It is a deep, steep sided valley.
- Gorges in limestone areas can be formed by permanent rivers whose origin is a non-
limestone area.
- The larger river flows through the limestone area where it erodes and deepens its valley.
- There is more vertical erosion and minimal lateral erosion leading to a deep steep-sided
river valley called a limestone gorge.

(h) Blind valley.

- It is a valley closed at the lower end by a rock wall and its base is a shallow hole through
which the surface stream disappears underground.

Underground features in limestone regions.

 Limestone caves/ caverns
 Stalactites
 Stalagmites
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 Limestone pillar
 Underground streams
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 Karst windows, karst bridge and Hums.

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 (a) Limestone caves/ caverns.
- They are underground chambers formed in limestone areas.
- Carbonation and solution occurs along the joints and bedding planes of limestone rocks
forming a tunnel.
- Further carbonation and solution enlarges the joints/ tunnel to form underground
chambers called caves.
- Further solution enlarges the cave to form a larger chamber called a cavern.

(b) Stalactites.
- They are underground finger-like projections formed by accumulation of calcium
carbonate hanging vertically from the roof of a cave.
- Formation;
 Rainwater water absorb carbon (iv) oxide in the atmosphere forming a weak
carbonic acid.
 The weak carbonic acid percolates through the joints in the rocks on the roof of a
limestone cave.
 It reacts with limestone rocks forming a soluble calcium bicarbonate.
 The solution trickles down slowly through the roof of a cave/ cavern.
 Solution droplets hang on the roof of the cave.
 Water evaporates and calcium carbonate is precipitated.
 Precipitated calcium carbonate gradually builds downwards.
 Over a period of time, as the solution continue to drip from the roof, a finger-like
projection hanging vertically from the roof of a cave is formed. This is called
stalactite.
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 (c) Stalagmites
- They are underground stumpy rock masses which grow from the floor of the cave
upwards.
- Formation; –kcse 2021
 Rain water absorbs carbon (iv) oxide in the atmosphere forming a weak carbonic
acid.
 The weak carbonic acid percolates through the joints in the rocks on the roof of a
limestone cave.
 It reacts with limestone rocks forming soluble calcium bicarbonate.
 The solution drips slowly from the roof of the cave to the floor.
 On the floor, the solution spreads out and water evaporates leaving crystals of
calcium carbonate.
 As more solution falls on the floor and water evaporates, more crystals are
formed.
 The accumulated crystals form a column of limestone rising towards the roof of
the cave known as stalagmite.

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 (d) Limestone pillar.
- This is a column of limestone which form a pillar-like structure joining the roof and floor
of the cave.
- Formation; –kcse 2009
 Rainwater water absorbs carbon (iv) oxide in the atmosphere forming a weak
carbonic acid.
 The weak carbonic acid percolates through the joints in the rocks on the roof of a
limestone cave.
 It reacts with limestone rocks forming a soluble calcium bicarbonate.
 The solution trickles down slowly through the roof of a cave/ cavern.
 Solution droplets hang on the roof of the cave.
 Water evaporates and calcium carbonate is precipitated.
 Precipitated calcium carbonate gradually builds downwards over a period of time
from the roof of the cave forming stalactite.
 The solution also splashes on the floor and water evaporates.
 The precipitated calcium carbonate gradually builds upwards forming stalagmite.
 Over time, the stalactite and stalagmite join to form a pillar-like structure called
limestone pillar.

(e) Underground streams/ rivers.

- They are natural mass of water flowing below the surface of the earth.
- When rain water infiltrates the limestone rocks, it continues moving downward until it
encounters an impermeable rock llayers.
- The water flows on the impermeable rock layer as underground streams.
- The streams flow for long distances until they re-emerge on the surface as springs.
- The point at which the stream appear at the surface is called a resurgence.

Types of underground streams.

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a) Effluent streams.
- They are underground natural mass of water fed by a water table over their level.
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- They are underground natural mass of water which get their water from the ground water.

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 b) Influent streams.
- They are underground natural mass of water fed by water table below their level.
- They are underground natural mass of water that loses water as it flows downstream since
water infiltrates into the ground.

(f) Karst windows, Karst bridges and Hums.

- Carbonation and solution processes occur along the joints and bedding planes of
limestone rocks.
- Joints are enlarged forming underground chambers called caves/ caverns.
- Continuous growth of the cavern makes its roof to collapse leaving a hole called karst
window.
- Karst window enlarges due to continuous collapse until a small part of the roof is left
known as a karst bridge.
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- When the limestone between the valleys eventually dissolves, some residual hills rounded
by solution remain of the floor. These residual hills are called hums.
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Significance of the karst scenery/ resultant features of action of water in limestone areas.
a. Features like limestone pillars and caves attract tourists earning a country foreign
exchange.
b. Collapse of dolines and poljes in water table forms solution lakes that provide water for
domestic and irrigation use.
c. Limestone blocks are used for building houses.
d. Limestone rocks are raw material in the manufacture of cement used in building and
construction.
e. Limestone is used in iron and steel industry to separate iron from other impurities.
f. Limestone regions are very good for grazing sheep.
g. Karst landscape is rugged/ rocky discouraging settlement/ agriculture.
h. Karst landscape has intermittent streams/ no streams leading to scarcity of water supply.
i. Karst landscape has outcrop of bare rocks/ steep sided dry valleys/ gorges hindering
development of transport networks.

GUIDE
DESERTS
❖ Processes of wind erosion2003 q9
❖ Ways of wind transportation 2003 q9,2021q10b
❖ 2007q3, 2013q10, 2018q5
❖ Describe how oasis form 2003 q9,2021q9ci
❖ how wadi is formed 2021q10cii
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❖ How Zeugen form 2003q9

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❖ Features of wind abrasion/erosion in the deserts 2011q5

@DAFIRM TECHS
 ❖ Describe how a barchan is formed 2013q10
❖ Significance of desert features 2013q10,2021q10d
❖ Why wind is a dominant agent of erosion in arid areas
2014q4,2021q10aii
❖ Features of wind deposition in arid areas 2014q4
❖ deserts of africa2021q10ai
❖ Types of dunes 2018q5

19. UNDERGROUND WATER AND KARST SCENERY

❖ Conditions necessary for the development of karst
scenery2003q2, 2009q10,2021q9aii
❖ reasons why there are few settlements in karst areas2003q2,
2015q10,2021q9c
❖ Describe carbonation process 2004 q2
❖ How limestone pillar/earth pillar form 2009 q10
❖ How rainfall influence amount of underground water 2015q10
❖ How vegetation cover influence amount of underground water
2015
❖ Underground features of karst landscape 2015q10
❖ How stalagmite form 2019q10,2021q9bii
❖ What is karst scenery 2021q9ai
❖ Formation of polje 2021q9bii

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 THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE.

Definition –kcse 2017

- Hydrological cycle is the continuous movement of water from the air to the earth surface and
back to the air.

Processes of hydrological cycle.

1. Input process.
- The main input process in hydrological cycle is precipitation.
- Forms of precipitation are rainfall, dew, mist, fog and snow.
- Conditions for the formation of precipitation are;
 Air must be saturated.
 Contain hygroscopic particles like dust, salt particles, pollen grains, gases and
smoke.
 Air must cool below its dew point.

2. Output processes.
- The major output processes in hydrological cycle are;
a) Evaporation.
- It is the loss of water vapour from the earth surface/ open water surfaces into the
atmosphere.
- The rate of evaporation depends on;
 Availability of moisture at the surface of the earth (humidity). Wet surfaces
result into higher rates of evaporation and vice versa.
 Increase in temperature leads to higher evaporation rate.
 Wind i.e. the higher the wind speed, the higher the evaporation rate and vice
versa.
 Sunshine duration. Longer hours of sunshine increases the period of the process
of evaporation and vice versa.
 Characteristics of water. Evaporation from sea/ salty water is less than
evaporation from fresh water.

b) Transpiration.
- It is the loss of water vapour from vegetation/ plants to the atmosphere.
- Transpiration rate depends on;
 Time of the year. Transpiration rate is high during dry season.
 The type and the amount of vegetation cover in the region.
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NOTE: Evapotranspiration is the loss of water vapour from both open water surfaces (sea/
ocean/ lake) and plants to the air.
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3. Internal transfer process.

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 - It is the extensive movement of water which takes place in the atmosphere, land and
oceans.
- It redistribute water so that the inputs and the outputs are kept in balance.
- The major internal transfer of the hydrological cycle includes;
a) Interception.
- It is the process by which the first rain drop of a storm will fall on trees or plants which
shelter the underlying ground.
- When the rain persists, the water may reach the ground in the following ways;
 Through fall i.e. water flowing down the trunk of the vegetation before reaching
the earth surface.
 Secondary interception i.e. water is temporarily stored on the vegetation by any
undergrowth.

b) Surface run-off/ overland flow.

- This is the excess water flowing away over the earth surface which is incapable of
absorbing all the rain after very heavy rainfall.
- The excess water flows over the earth surface into lakes, swamps, seas and rivers.

Factors influencing the occurrence of surface run-off –kcse 2017

 The amount of rainfall. There should be sufficient rainfall to make the soil saturated in
order to allow excess water to flow on the earth surface.
 The gradient of the land. The gradient of the slope should be steep to allow flow of
water by gravity.
 The nature of the rock/ soil. The rocks/ soils should be impermeable to allow for limited
infiltration and percolation for the excess water to form surface run-off.
 The water table. The water table should be high to reduce infiltration and allow surface
run-off.
 Vegetation. Absence of vegetation will increase the rate of run-off.
 Human activity. Construction of pavements or roads in built up areas prevent infiltration
and arouse surface run-off.

c) Infiltration.
- It is the process by which rain water seeps into the ground vertically through the surface
rocks like sandstones and limestones.
- It is the vertical seeping of water into the earth surface to the lower layers through pores/
joints/ cracks that are in rock.
- The speed at which water is absorbed into the soil through infiltration is called
infiltration capacity/ infiltration rate.
- Infiltration depends on;
 The amount of water already in the soil.
 The porosity and the structure of the soil.
 The type of the soil.
 The amount and seasonal changes in the vegetation cover.
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d) Percolation.
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 - It is the process by which water below the earth surface moves horizontally through the
rocks.

4. Storage process.
- Once water is on the earth surface, it may be stored in many forms like;
a) Surface water storage.
- Rain water reaches rivers through rain falls, surface run-off, ice flow and springs.
- River water then flow towards surface storages like seas, oceans, lakes and swamps.

b) Ground water storage.

- This is the water that collects above an impermeable rock or fills all the pore spaces in
rocks creating a zone of saturation.
- It is the zone that forms the water table.
c) Cryosphere.
- It refers to the water stored in the vast ice covered regions of the world.
- Water enters this storage through snow fall.

Kcse 2014: Give three processes in the hydrological cycle.

 Evaporation/ evapotranspiration/ moist air rising.
 Condensation/ moist air cooling.
 Infiltration/ percolation.
 Interception.
 Surface run off/ overland flow.
 Precipitation/ rainfall/ snow fall.

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Significance of the hydrological cycle –kcse 2017

i.) Evapotranspiration increases water in the atmosphere which forms rain that provide
water for irrigation/ crop farming.
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ii.) It helps to regulate the surface water/ underground water and water in the atmosphere.

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 iii.)It provides underground water through percolation.
iv.) Large rivers drain into oceans and lakes to form water bodies.
v.) It controls the elements of weather such as temperatures, humidity and rainfall.
vi.) Water evaporates from the ground causing drying up of water bodies/ causes arid
conditions.
vii.) Water vapour maintains heat energy in the atmosphere.
viii.) Moisture in the atmosphere influences solar/ terrestrial radiation.

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 ACTION OF RIVERS.
Definition of terms associated with rivers
- A River is a natural stream of water flowing in a valley on the surface of the earth.
- River source is where the river originates from.

Sources of a river –kcse 2008

 Lakes
 Melting ice/ snow
 Springs
 Swamps
 Surface run-off
 Oceans/ sea
 Mountains/ highlands
 Marshes

- River mouth is the end point/ terminus of a river in its lower course.

Possible river mouth.

 Lakes
 Oceans
 Seas
 Swamps
 Deserts

- River system is a composition of the main river and all its tributaries.
- Streams are rivers that are small in size.
- Tributaries are small rivers/ streams flowing into main rivers.
- Confluence is a point at which a tributary joins the main river.
- Drainage is the process of removing water from one area to another through natural
streams.
- Drainage basin/ water catchment area is a unit area of land which is drained by a river
and its tributaries–kcse 2005
- A watershed/ a river divide is a line/ boundary of dry land separating two drainage basins
–kcse 2005
- Interfluves are high areas in between the tributaries.
- A river channel/ river valley is a groove/ furrow through which the river water flows. Its
size depends on;
 Volume of water flowing through it.
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 Load carried by the river.

 Velocity of the water.
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 - River discharge is the amount of water passing through a particular point on the river’s
course.
- River regime is the seasonal fluctuation/ variation in the volume of water in the river.

Factors influencing river regime.

 Seasonal precipitation/ rainfall.
 Change in temperature/ melting of ice.
 Nature of rocks/ permeability of rocks.
 Characteristics of vegetation along river valley.
 Rate of evaporation/ evapotranspiration.

Types of Rivers.
a.) Permanent River is a natural mass of flowing water in a valley on the earth surface
throughout the year.

b.) Seasonal/ intermittent river is a natural mass of flowing water in a valley on the earth
surface during some periods of the year e.g. rainy season.

c.) Disappearing river is a natural mass of flowing water in a valley that ends up abruptly
on the earth surface.

The work of a River.

- This involves erosion, transportation and deposition.

1) River Erosion.
- It involves the wearing away of the earth’s surface through the action of naturally flowing
water/rivers.

Factors that influence the rate of river erosion –kcse 2023

i. Volume of the river water i.e. the larger the river volume, the greater the force of moving
water and hence the greater the erosion and vice versa.
ii. Nature/ amount of load i.e. large and hard load cause more erosion compared to smaller
and finer load.
iii. The gradient of slope/ velocity i.e. steep slopes increases river velocity hence high river
erosion and vice versa.
iv. Nature of the river bedrock i.e. river beds with less resistant rocks/ soft rocks are easily
eroded compared to hard rocks.

NOTE: Load is the material carried by a river.

Ways in which river water flows on its channel.

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i. Laminar flow is the flow of river water that is smooth, slow and does not mix with itself.
ii. Turbulent flow is the flow of river water that is rough, fast and mixes together. It is
characterized by eddies and rapids.
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iii. Plunge flow is the flow of river water in a deep depression in a stream bed at the base of
a waterfall.
iv. Helicoidal/ corkscrew flow is the flow of the river water in a meander. Leads to
formation of slip-off slopes and river cliffs.

Ways/ Processes of River Erosion.

i. Hydraulic action/ Quarrying process.
- This is where a river uses the force of the moving water to remove loose rock
materials from the river banks and river beds.
- Some of the river water surges over into cracks/ crevices of rocks found along river banks
and beds scooping out rock particles and then transport them downstream. This process is
hydraulic action.
ii. Attrition –kcse 2012
- As rock materials are transported by a river downstream, they constantly collide against
each other.
- The materials gradually wear down or reduce in size. This process is attrition.

iii. Corrasion/Abrasion –kcse 2018

- This is where a river uses its load as a tool of erosion.
 The materials are used by the river as tools for scouring.
 The load is hurled by the water against the banks and dragged along the river bed.
 The load chips off the rocks on the bank and river bed.
 The load being dragged smoothens the river bed.
 The eddy currents rotate the load in the hollows on the river bed widening into
potholes. This process is Abrasion/ corrosion.

iv. Solution/ corrosion –kcse 2018

- This is where the running river water dissolves soluble minerals in rocks found in the
river banks over which it flows.
 River water contains both organic and weak inorganic acids.
 It reacts with some minerals in some rocks in the river bed to form soluble
minerals.
 The soluble minerals are carried downstream in soluble form. This process is
solution/ corrosion.

Types of River Erosion.

- These are ways through which a river cuts its channel in its erosive process.
- Types of river erosion are; –kcse 2018
 Head ward erosion.
 Vertical erosion.
 Lateral erosion.
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 a.) Head-ward erosion.
- This is where the river increases its length by cutting back at its source.
- Caused by rain wash, gullying, soil creep and spring sapping.

b.) Vertical erosion.

- This is where the river deepens its channel.
- Caused by hydraulic action, solution and abrasion processes.

c.) Lateral erosion.

- This is where the river widen its channel through wearing away of the river banks.
- Caused by abrasion, hydraulic action and solution processes.
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 Resultant features of river erosion.
i.) Stream cut/V shaped valleys.
- As river water moves down slope over the earth’s surface, it cuts a depression/channel
that starts as a gulley.
- With time the gulley widens through lateral erosion and deepens through vertical erosion
forming a V shaped valley at the source of a river.
- At the mouth of a river, lateral erosion creates a very wide, shallow channel with a U-
shaped cross-section forming U-shaped valley.

ii.) Gorges.
- Gorges are deep, narrow and steep-sided river valleys.
- Gorges are formed in the following ways;
 Gorges are formed where a river flows across a plateau composed of
horizontal and alternate layers of hard and soft rocks. Such gorges are called
Canyons.
 Gorges are formed where a river flows along a line of weakness/ cracks. The
river erodes more vertically along the line of weakness.
 Gorges are formed where a river maintains its course across a landscape
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which is being slowly uplifted. Such gorges are called antecedent gorges.
 Gorges are formed where a waterfall retreats upstream. When water retreats
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upstream, it leaves a deep valley on the downstream side.

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  Gorges are formed where there is an abrupt fall in the base level causing river
to renew its erosive activity.
 Gorges are formed due to river rejuvenation forming rejuvenated gorges.

iii.)Waterfalls.
- A waterfall is a steep fall of river water where a river bed has sudden vertical/ near
vertical drop.
- Cataracts are series of almost equal short falls of water where the river floor is rough.
- A cascade is a small waterfall with a series of falls formed by water in its descent over
rocks.

- Waterfalls are formed in the following ways;

a.) Waterfalls formed where a river channel passes over underlying hard rock.
 When a layer of more resistant rock lies across a river bed horizontally, vertically
or inclined, the less resistant rock on the downstream is eroded faster than the
more resistant rock upstream leading to a steeper gradient that develops into a
waterfall.
 Examples: i) On River Tana- Gura falls, Tana falls, Grand falls, Adamson falls.
ii) River Athi- Fourteen falls.
iii) Ewaso nyiro- Thompson falls.

b.) Waterfall forms when there is a vertical hard rock along the river channel.
Continuous waterfalls can form along its course known as rapids.
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c.) Waterfalls formed where a river course flows over a fault scarp. The river enters rift
valley through a fault scarp forming waterfall.
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 d.) Waterfalls formed where a river entres a coastal plain from a plateau. The river
descends a sharp edge of a plateau.

e.) Waterfalls formed as a result of river rejuvenation. This takes place at a knick point.

f.) Waterfalls formed when a river channel flows over underlying volcanic dykes, lava
dams or plugs.

g.) Waterfalls formed where a river entres the sea through a cliff. The river water drops
into an ocean/ sea above the cliff forming waterfall.

h.) Waterfalls formed in a glaciated upland. It occurs where a river descends a hanging
valley into a glacial trough forming waterfalls.

iv.) Rapids.
- This is a section of the river with accelerated current where the stream descends at high
speed without a break in the slope of the river bed sufficient enough to form a waterfall.
- Rapids occur under the following conditions:
 Where a layer of resistant rock lies across the river’s bed and dips down-stream.
 When waterfalls recede upstream.
 Where a waterfall has been eroded by head ward erosion thus reducing in height.
- If the section of the uneven bed covers an extensive region, it results in formation of a
series of rapids known as cataracts.

v.) Interlocking spurs.

- These are projections of land in the upper course of a river that overlaps with each other.
- They form when a river comes across an obstacle/ resistant rock, hence will tend to curve
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round these rocks, following areas of least resistance, making the river to have a winding
course.
- With time the bends are extended and become more pronounced.
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 vi.) Potholes.
- These are circular depressions in the river bed.
- When water in a river is flowing rapidly over shallow depressions on the river bed, it
develops strong currents called whirlpools that flow in circular manner.
- This also keeps the river load in circular manner too causing the rock fragments to erode
the river bed leading to formation of circular depressions called potholes.

2) River Transportation.
- This is the carrying away of the eroded materials/ load by flowing water downstream.
- River competence/ stream capacity is the ability of a river to transport its load.

Factors influencing river transportation –kcse 2019

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 The volume of water.

 The gradient of the slope.
 The nature of the load.
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 The velocity of the river.

 The amount of the load.

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 a.) Nature and amount of the load: - small and lighter particles can be transported over
longer distances/ larger and heavier particles like boulders are transported over shorter
distances.
b.) Gradient and velocity of the river: - steep slope increases river velocity hence
transporting more load/ Gentle slope decreases river velocity hence transporting less load.
c.) Volume of river water: - large volume of river water transports a greater quantity of load/
small volume of river water transports small quantity of load.
d.) Presence/absence of obstacles along the river channel e.g. rock outcrops, swamps,
vegetation that check the river velocity thus reducing its ability to transport.

Processes of river transportation –kcse 2020

(a) Solution: - Soluble materials are dissolved in the water and carried down the stream in
form of solution.

(b) Suspension: - Light insoluble materials such as silt and sand are carried in suspension
and maintained within the turbulence of the water. Some of them float on the surface of
the water.

(c) Traction: - Large particles/ boulders are pushed and rolled along the river bed by the
force of gravity and moving water.

(d) Saltation/hydraulic lift: - Some particles/ pebbles which are fairly heavy are moved in a
series of short hops and jumps along the river bed.

Note: The load which is carried in solid form is called clastic load.

3) River Deposition.
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- This is the process by which a river lays down the material it is transporting due to
reduction in its competency.
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Factors that facilitate river deposition –kcse 2014

a.) Reduction in river gradient/ decrease velocity of river water leads to river deposition.

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 b.) Freezing of river water leads to embedments of the load in the ice leading to deposition.
c.) River entering a large/ calm waterbody reduces the speed of the river flow leading to
river deposition.
d.) Presence of obstacles on the river course which blocks some of the load leading to
river deposition.
e.) Reduction in river volume which reduces the strength of the river hence deposition.
f.) Increase in the width of the river channel makes water to spread over wide area
leading to river deposition.
g.) Increase in the amount/ size of the load in the river channel leads to collision within
leading to deposition.

Note: The deposited materials are called alluvium e.g. boulder, pebbles, gravel, sand, silt and
mud.

Resultant features of river deposition.

 Alluvial fans
 Meanders and ox bow lakes
 Braided river channels
 Natural levees and deferred tributaries
 Flood plains
 Deltas and distributaries.

1. Alluvial fans.
- These are fan-shaped alluvial deposits found at a point where a river enters a plain from
higher land.
- Formation;
 A river transport large load.
 The river flowing through a narrow channel enters a plain from a higher ground.
 An increase in channel width leads to decrease in gradient causing abrupt
deposition.
 The river scatter alluvium all around to form an alluvial fan.
- Alluvial fans are formed on land hence called dry/ inland deltas.
- When alluvial fans merge, they form on continuous fan called piedmont alluvial fan/
Bajada.
- Alluvial fans with very steep slopes are called alluvial cones.
- Examples;
 Ombei Fan in Kano plains (Kenya).
 On the Ramisi river.
 At the confluence of Ewaso Nyiro and Ewaso Narok rivers.
 Lumeno and Luri alluvial fans on Lumeno and Luri rivers.
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 2. Meanders
- These are curved loop-like bends in the river’s course.
- Formation;
 Develops in the old stage of a river where its gradient is very low.
 The presence of obstacles such as a rock outcrops on the river’s course forces the
river to flow around them.
 The flowing of a river around these obstacles results in bends and loops.
 Erosion occurs on the outside curve resulting in the formation of steep banks
called bluffs.
 Deposition of sediments occurs on the inside part of the meander.
 Continued erosion on the outer bank and deposition on the inner bank causes the
meander to grow outwards.

- Examples of rivers with meanders are Yala, Sondu Miriu, Nzoia, Nyando, Tana,
Sabaki Galana, Semliki, Rufiji and Benue.
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3. Ox bow lakes.
- These are horse-shoe/ crescent shaped lake formed on the flood plain of a river.
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- Formed from the cutting off of a formerly pronounced meanders.

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 Conditions necessary for the formation of ox-bow lakes –kcse 2013
 Presence of pronounced meanders in the flood plain.
 Heavy load being carried by the river.
 A reduction in the river gradient/ low river velocity.
 Lateral erosion on the outer side of the river banks.
 Deposition on the inner side of the river banks.
 Periodic flooding to cut off neck of pronounced meanders.

Formation of an ox-bow lake –kcse 2006

- An ox-bow lake forms when a river starts to meander on a flood plain.
- Lateral erosion dominates on the outer side of the bend.
- Deposition takes place on the inner bank.
- Lateral erosion results in the reduction of the neck of land between adjacent bends.
- The neck of land is eventually worn away.
- Deposition on the meander side, especially during floods blocks off the meander cut that
was the neck of land.
- The abandoned meander with its water forms an ox-bow lake.

Examples of ox-bow lakes.

 Lake Kanyaboli on River Yala.
 Lake Kamnarok in Baringo.
 On river Nzoia in Bunyala.
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 Lake Shakababo
 Lake Gambi on lower part of R. Tana
 Lake Bilisa
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 Lake Mukunguya

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Note: When an ox-bow lake fill up with alluvium, it dry out forming a meander scar. It also
result in the migration of meanders.

4. Flood plain.
- This is a wide flat or gentle sloping plain of alluvium which covers the valley floor where
rivers commonly flood.
- Formation;
 A river flows through a flood plain in its old stage where gradient is low.
 Frequent floods occur forcing the river to spill its water over the banks thus
depositing various materials such as coarse rocks.
 Light silt materials are deposited far in the flood plain.
 Large and rough particles are deposited on the river’s banks forming natural
levees.
 Repeated deposition of different materials by the river far from its banks results in
formation of a gently sloping plain of alluvium called a flood plain.
 Some water that moved far in the flood plains during floods fail to return in the
river channel due to presence of levees forming lakes and swamps.

Examples of rivers with flood plains.

 Nzoia forms Nzoia/ Yala flood plain.
 Yala
 Nyando on Kano plains
 Ombeyi
 Tana
 Sabaki
 Rufiji in T.Z
 Benue in Nigeria
 Nile in Egypt
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 Chari in Cameroon/ Chad

Characteristics of a flood plain –kcse 2006

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 They have a gently sloping gradient/ flat surface.

 They have thick alluvial deposits/ silt.

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  They have levees on either side of the river banks/ raised river beds.
 Some flood plains have marshes or swamps.
 Some flood plains have braided channels.
 Some have deferred tributaries.
 Flood plains have river bluffs.
 They have meanders or bends.
 Some have ox-bow lakes at their edges.
 Some have wide river valleys.
 Some have deltas or distributaries.

5. Natural levees and raised river beds.

- Natural levees are raised river banks made of alluvial materials –kcse 2001
- Formation:
 They start forming when a river floods.
 Deposition of alluvial materials takes place when the river spills over its banks.
 Coarse materials are deposited first followed by finer alluvium that are carried
further into the flood plain.
 The accumulation of alluvial materials raise the river banks to form natural
levees.
 During the low season when the river does not flood, deposition takes place on
the river bed raising it forming raised river bed.

Factors that lead to flooding of a river with natural levees.

 The river bed and channel have been elevated above the general level of the plain.
 The river channel has become narrower and shallower due to deposition of alluvium.
 The deferred tributaries created by the deposition may also flood.
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Examples of rivers with natural levees.

 Hwang Ho
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 Yang tse-kiang
 Mississippi- North America

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  Omo- Ethiopia
 Rivers Nyando, Nzoia and Yala entering lake Victoria.

Effects of levee formation.

 Creation of deferred tributaries and deferred confluences.
 Destructive flooding.

Deferred tributaries and Deferred confluences.

- A deferred tributary is a stream which is forced to flow parallel to the main river in the
flood plain before joining it.
- Formation;
 Frequent floods occur forcing the river to spill its water over the banks, thus
depositing materials like coarse rocks and silt.
 Light silt materials are deposited far in the flood plain.
 Large and rough particles are deposited on the river’s banks forming levees.
 This blocks the tributary from joining the main river.
 As a result, a stream is forced to flow parallel to the main river for a long distance
before joining the main river at a point called a deferred junction.

6. Braided river channels/ River braids.

- A braided channel is a wide and shallow channel consisting of a tangled network of
diverging minor channels separated from each other by low sandbanks and islands of
alluvium.
- Formation;
 Forms when a river is carrying very heavy load.
 The load is deposited in form of ridges.
 This leads to a subdivision of the river channel and ends up flowing in a targeted
network of channels.
 The sand ridges continue to build up through increased deposition to form alluvial
islands called eyots.

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 Factors that favour the formation of braided channels –kcse 2020
 The river must be carrying large load.
 There should be reduction in the stream gradient.
 There should be presence of obstacles.
 There should be reduction of volume of water in the river.
 The river flows at low velocity.
 Widening of the river channel.

Rivers with braided channels.

 Nzoia
 Yala
 Sondu
 Nyando
 Rufiji
 Omo
 Zaire
 White Nile

7. Deltas
- A delta is a large, low-lying plain of alluvial deposits at the mouth of a river.
- It is usually triangular in shape and extends beyond the shoreline.
- Deposition at the mouth of a river is caused by a decrease in velocity due to stagnant
ocean/ sea/ lake water.
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- Heavy loads are deposited first while lighter materials like silt are deposited further
seawards.
- A delta formed at the river mouth emptying into a sea/ ocean is called marine delta.
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- A delta formed at the river mouth emptying into a lake is called lacustrine delta.

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 Conditions ideal for the formation of deltas –kcse 2002
 The river must have a larger load of sediments to be deposited at the mouth.
 The river velocity must be low at its mouth to allow deposition of the load to take place.
 The river’s load should be deposited faster than it can be removed by currents and tides.
 The river course should not have obstacles like vegetation that would act as filters
reducing the quantity of sediments.
 A shallow continental shelf/ shore around the river mouth hence depositing its load.
 The area experiencing a low tidal range.

Formation of Deltas.
- Velocity of a river reduces as it meets sea/ lake water.
- Heavier load is deposited immediately the river enters the sea.
- Lighter materials are carried further into the water.
- Finer particles are deposited when river water mixes with sea water in a process called
coagulation.
- As the materials accumulate, that part of the sea becomes shallower.
- In some cases, the river bursts its banks and divides up into smaller channels called
distributaries.
- Distributaries spread river deposits too thus helping to build the delta.

Types of Deltas.
1. Coastal or marine deltas –kcse 2007/ 2009
a.) Arcuate delta.
b.) Estuarine delta.
c.) Bird’s foot delta.
d.) Cuspate delta.

2. Inland deltas/ Lacustrine deltas.

a.) Arcuate delta.

- It has the shape of letter D/ it is convex in shape in the seaward end.
- It has many distributaries.
- It occurs where;
 Sediments consists of both fine and coarse materials.
 Offshore currents are strong enough to enable the convex shape seaward.
 River has many distributaries to spread materials.

- Examples of arcuate delta;

 Niger delta in Nigeria.
 Nile delta in Egypt.
 River Rufiji delta in Tanzania.
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 Irrawady delta in Burma.

 Indus delta in Bangladesh.
 Tana, Yala and Sondu river deltas in Kenya.
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 b.) Bird’s Foot Delta
- Also called digitate/ elongated delta.
- It resembles the foot of a bird.

- Formation of a bird’s foot delta; –kcse 2009

 It forms at the river mouth where waves, tides and currents are very weak.
 Deposition of large amounts of fine sediments occur at the river mouth.
 The deposits block the channel of the river.
 The river divides into few distributaries.
 Each distributaries continues to deposit its load maintaining levees as it extends
into the sea.
 Some distributaries extend further than others creating the shape of a bird’s foot.

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 Conditions for the formation of Bird’s foot delta.
 The river must carry large load.
 There should be no obstacles in the river’s course.
 The gradient should be gentle.
 The rate of deposition should be higher than the rate of removal of materials.
 River velocity should be low to ensure more deposition.

Examples of bird’s foot delta.

- The following rivers forms bird’s foot delta in their mouths: Nyando, Miriu, Kuja, Nzoia,
Malewa, Omo, Turkwell, Ombeyi, Kerio, Lokichar, Awach Tende, Awach Kibuon,
Nyaidho and Mississippi.

c.) Estuarine Delta.

- Develops when alluvium is deposited in the submerged mouth of a river (rias).
- When there is an increase in the level of water in the sea or a fall in the level of land, the
mouth of the river is drowned.
- This forms an estuary.
- Successive layers of sediments will be deposited, forming islands.
- The river passes through the deposited sediments without splitting into distributaries
forming an estuarine delta.
- It is characterized by numerous sandbanks and island along the river channel.
- Examples are deltas on River Zambezi (Mozambique), River Volta (Ghana) and
Betsiboka delta (Malagasy).
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 d.) Cuspate delta.
- It is a broad triangular shaped feature formed from deposits projecting seawards.
- It is formed by convergence of two spits growing towards each other.
- The enclosed lagoon is filled with more deposits.
- Examples- rivers Congo, Gabon and Sierra leone.

Inland Deltas
- Forms along the course of a river before it reaches the mouth; lake/sea.
- Develop when the velocity of the river is reduced on entering a relatively flat land,
especially a swampy one.
- During floods, the river builds up levees, which cause distributaries to develop.
- Alluvial deposits are spread over vast area when the river floods.
- Examples include Niger Delta (Mali) and Okavango Delta (Botswana).

The Development of a river profile.

- The cross profile of a river is the appearance of the slope of the river from one bank to
the other. This may be V-shaped or U-shaped.
- The long profile of a river is a line that joins a river’s source to its mouth. It has a
concave slope.
- River profile is the longitudinal section of a river from source to mouth.
- The river profile is developed through 3 stages namely;
(a) Youthful stage.
(b) Mature stage.
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(c) Old stage.

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 a) Youthful Stage/ Torrential stage.
- It is the upper stage of a river.

Characteristics-kcse 2018
 The river gradient is steep.
 The river valley is deep.
 The river channel is narrow.
 The cross profile of the valley is V-shaped.
 The flow of the river is fast.
 Vertical erosion is dominant.
 The river has interlocking spurs.
 Some parts of the river course have rapids/ waterfalls/ cataracts.
 The river has a small volume of water.

Resultant features –kcse 2020

 Gorges/ canyons.
 Waterfalls/ rapids/ cataracts/ cascades.
 Interlocking spurs.
 Potholes.
 V shaped valleys.
 Plunge pools.

b) Mature stage/ Valley stage.

- It is the middle stage of a river.

Characteristics –kcse 2015

 The river flow is moderate.
 The river has a gentle gradient.
 Lateral erosion is dominant.
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 The river has increased volume of water.

 The river begins to meander.
 The river has several tributaries.
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 Flood plains begin to form.

 The main features are river bluffs/ slip off slopes/ open V-shaped valleys

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 Resultant features –kcse 2008
 U shaped river valleys/ wide V-shaped valleys.
 Meanders.
 River cliffs/ bluffs.
 Slip off slopes.
 Alluvial fans.
 Braids.

c) Old stage/ Plain stage.

- It is the lower stage of a river.

Characteristics.
 The river flows at a low speed.
 The river has a very low river gradient.
 Deposition is dominant.
 Seasonal floods are common.
 River valley is shallow, broad and flat.
 The river has large volume of water and large load.
 The river has pronounced meanders.
 The river meanders in the flood plain.

Resultant features –kcse 2008

 Distributaries/ deltas.
 Natural levees.
 River terraces.
 Flood plain.
 Braided channel.
 Meanders.
 Ox bow lakes.
 Bluffs/ meander scar.

RIVER CAPTURE AND RIVER REJUVENATION

RIVER CAPTURE/ River piracy –kcse 2017

- This is the diversion of the headward waters of one river into the system of an adjacent
more powerful river.
- The captured river is called a victim/ a misfit/ under-fit/ beheaded river while the one
capturing is called a pirate river/ consequent river.

How a river capture occurs –kcse 2020

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- River capture may occur where there are two adjacent rivers/ share a watershed.
- One of the rivers has more erosive power than the other.
- The more powerful river erodes vertically faster than the weaker one thus it flows at a
lower level than the other one.
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 - The more powerful river erodes its valley towards the valley of the other river through
headward erosion.
- Eventually the powerful river joins the valley of the weaker river.
- The powerful river diverts the head waters of the weaker river into its channel.
- The diversion of the head water is called River capture.

Conditions necessary for river capture.

- The pirate and Misfit river must flow in adjacent valleys.
- The pirate river should have a wider valley than the misfit river.
- The pirate river must have more active headward erosion than Misfit River.
- The pirate river must be flowing at a lower level than the misfit river.
- The pirate river must be flowing on soft rocks to be eroded more easily.

Examples of river capture in Africa.

 R. Miriu captured to form R. Sondu.
 R. Galana (Athi) captured by River Tiva into River Tana.
 R. Mwine captured R Mizmui – Tanzania.
 R. Tano captured by Black Volta River – Ghana.
 R. Gongola captured by R. Benice – Chad.
 R. Eyong captured by R. Imo – Nigeria.

Features associated with river capture –kcse 2020

 Elbow of capture- The point where the waters of a misfit river are diverted into the
pirate stream.
 Wind gap- The dry valley remaining at the beheaded point of a former misfit.
 Misfit river- The beheaded stream containing less water causing it to appear too small.
 Point of incision- A point where there is increased vertical erosion.
 Pirate stream- A river capturing a misfit river waters.
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 RIVER REJUVENATION –KCSE 2018
- It is the renewal of the erosive power of a river.

Causes of river rejuvenation –kcse 2018

i) A fall in sea level increases the velocity of the river thereby increasing the erosive
power of the river.
ii) Regional uplift of land which increases the gradient along the river to renew its
erosive activity.
iii) Unequal regional subsidence of the land along the river course increases the erosive
power of the river.
iv) Vertical erosion by the river may expose resistant rock which creates a knick point
thus renewing the river’s erosive power.
v) Increase in a river discharge due to increased precipitation or river capture causes a
river to renew its erosive power.
vi) Presence of a lake along the river course leads to deposition of alluvium in the lake
and as the river flows out, its erosive power increases.

Types of river rejuvenation.

I. Dynamic rejuvenation- Renewal of the river’s erosive activity due to change in the
river’s base level.
II. Static rejuvenation- Renewal of the river’s erosive activity due to increased river
discharge.

Features resulting from river rejuvenation –kcse 20018

 River terraces.
 Incised meanders.
 Rejuvenation gorges.
 Knick points/ waterfall.
 Valley within a valley.
 Abandoned/ cut-off meanders.

(a) River Terraces.

- They are step-like benches develop on the river banks as it increases its erosive power
vertically into a flood plain.
- Each time vertical erosion takes place, a new step is formed on the new bed rock that
forms the river banks.
- This is usually covered with alluvial deposits.
- River terraces can be either paired or unpaired.
- Paired terraces have valley levels on the opposite side with equal elevation.
- Unpaired terraces have benches on the opposite sides do not match.
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 (b) Incised meanders.
- They are deep river bends formed when a rejuvenated river vertically erodes into its
original meander deepening it.
- The river vertically erodes creating a new valley which has the same shape as that of the
old meandering valley forming incised meander.

Types of incised meanders.

i) Intrenched incised meanders.
- Caused by vertical erosion which makes the cross profile of a river to be symmetrical i.e.
steep slopes on both sides on soft rocks.

ii) Ingrown incised meanders.

- Caused by a change in the river base level making the cross profile of a river to be
asymmetrical on resistant rocks.

(c) Rejuvenation gorges.

- A gorge is a small incised (down cut) deep and steep valley within a major river valley.
- They develop as a result of intense vertical erosion by the river which makes its valley
deeper bounded by steep walls.
- Example: Turkwel Gorge on Kerio River in Kenya.

Causes of Rejuvenantion gorges.

 Antecedence where the river maintains its course while the surrounding area is being
uplifted.
 Climatic change where heavy and reliable rainfall increases the river volume which cut
down rapidly forming a gorge.
 An abrupt fall in the river base level causes rejuvenation gorge.

(d) Knick points.

- They are sharp breaks of the bed on which the river is flowing.
- They occur anywhere along the river course either due to change in rock resistance or due
to tectonic disturbances like folding.
- This results in unequal level of the river bed forcing the river to experience a sharp break
that forms a waterfall.
- The sharp point at which a river plunges into a new river bed is called a knick point.
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 (e) Abandoned meanders.
- They develop where part of a winding course of a river is cut off as the river flows
downstream.
- The land initially enclosed by the meander is raised due to deposition of sediments.
- The meander cut off therefore forms an abandoned meander.

(f) Valley within a valley.

- Rapid rejuvenation due to a fall in a river’s base level may produce a steep-sided valley
within a former river valley.

Negative effects of river rejuvenation.

 It causes river flooding leading to loss of human life/ displacement of people/ destruction
of crops/ property.
 Wide/ deep rivers are a barrier to transport/ makes it difficult and expensive to construct
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bridges.
 River water provide breeding sites for mosquitoes and snails spreading malaria and
bilharzia to people.
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 Some rivers are habitat for dangerous animals which may attack people/ destroy crops.

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 DRAINAGE PATTERNS.
- Refers to the layout of a river and its tributaries on a landscape.

Factors influencing the development of a drainage pattern –kcse 2012

 Difference in rock resistance/ hardness determines how deep and wide a river channel
will become.
 Direction of the slope of the land guides the direction of a river flow.
 The arrangement of rock layers/ the rock structure along a river’s profile guides the
direction of a river flow.
 Faulting/ fault guided guides the direction of a river flow.

Major drainage patterns

a. Dendritic drainage pattern.
b. Radial drainage pattern.
c. Centripetal drainage pattern.
d. Parallel drainage pattern.
e. Fault guided drainage pattern.
f. Trellis drainage pattern.

A. Dendritic drainage pattern –kcse 2008

- It develops in areas where rocks have uniform structures.
- The direction of flow is influenced by the slope of the land.
- The tributaries join the main river at acute angles.
- The tributaries converge on the main river forming a shape like that of a tree and its
branches called dendritic drainage pattern.
- Common on upper courses of rivers Sondu, Nzoia, Yala, Ewaso Nyiro, Athi and Tana.

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B. Radial drainage pattern.

- It develops around a volcanic dome.
- It is controlled by the slope of the mountain.
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- Rivers flow outward from a central point like a mountain downstream.

- This resembles the spokes of a bicycle wheel forming Radial drainage pattern.

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 C. Trellis/Rectilinear drainage pattern–kcse 2008
- It develops where soft and hard rocks alternate vertically.
- Tributaries joins the main river at right angles.
- The consequent streams are parallel to the main river.
- Some obsequent streams flow to the opposite direction of the main river.
- The main river and its tributaries form a rectilinear pattern called Trellis drainage
pattern.
- Common on rivers Kerio, Galana and Tana.

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 D. Centripetal drainage pattern –kcse 2004
- It develops where rocks are either homogenous or heterogenous.
- The river is guided by the slope which dips towards the depression.
- Many rivers flowing from different directions discharge their water into an inland basin
like a lake/ swamp/ sea forming centripetal drainage pattern.

E. Parallel drainage pattern.

- It develops on areas with jointed rocks.
- It also develops in faulted areas.
- Rivers flow along the parallel joints/ faults.
- Rivers run parallel to each other forming parallel drainage pattern.
- Examples are rivers Tana, Athi, Chania, Thika and Mathioya.

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F. Fault guided drainage pattern.

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 - Faulting create fault lines on the landscape.
- The fault guides the direction of flow of the river and tributaries.
- Tributaries joins the main river at right angles forming fault-guided drainage pattern.

Drainage System.
- This refers to the flow of rivers in relation to the direction of the slope and the nature of
the bed rock.

Significance of Rivers and the resultant features.

1. Positive effects.
i) Rivers supply water for domestic and industrial use.
ii) Some rivers provide water for irrigation e.g. Rivers Thiba and Nyamindi to Mwea-
Tebere irrigation scheme.
iii) Some rivers provide port facilities e.g. Kilindini harbour on river mwachi
(Mombasa)
iv) Navigable rivers provide route-ways for transportation e.g. river congo, River
Rhine.
v) Some rivers provide sites for generation of H.E.P e.g. seven forks dams on River
Tana and owen falls on river Nile.
vi) Some rivers are sources of building materials like sand.
vii) Some rivers are sources of alluvial minerals like gold and diamond which are mined
and sold earning income.
viii) Some rivers deposit alluvial soils along their flood plains hence supporting
agriculture.
ix) Some rivers form natural boundaries between countries e.g. River Ruvuma between
Tanzania and Mozambique.
x) Some rivers provide rich fishing grounds which provide fish as a source of protein
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for people e.g. rivers Tana and Nile.

xi) Some rivers provide spectacular features like waterfalls/ rapids attracting tourists
earning a country foreign exchange e.g. fourteen falls on River Athi.
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xii) Rivers add to the aesthetic value of the landscape.

2. Negative effects of rivers to the human environment- Kcse 2020

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 (a) Some rivers with almost stagnant water harbour waterborne diseases.
(b) Some rivers flood during rainy seasons causing destruction of property and life.
(c) Some rivers are home to dangerous animals which may attack human beings/ destroy
crops.
(d) Rivers which are unnavigable hinder transportation.
(e) River flooding causes displacement of people.

GUIDE
o Causes of river rejuvenation 2006q7,2018q10
❖ Characteristics of a river at its middle stage 2015q5
❖ Characteristics of a river at youthful stage 2012q9,2018q10
❖ Conditions for the formation of an ox bow lake 2013q3
❖ Conditions necessary on the formation of a delta 2002q2
❖ Conditions that lead to deposition of silt at the delta 2007q2
❖ Describe abrasion/ attrition 2012q9, 2018q10
❖ Describe corrosion/ solution 2012q9,2018q10
❖ Describe dendritic pattern 2004q8, 2008q8
❖ Describe how birds foot delta is formed 2009 q9
❖ Describe how ox bow lake is formed 2006q7
❖ Describe trellis pattern 2004q8, 2008q8
❖ Factors favoring the formation of a braided channel 2020q10aii
❖ Factors influencing development of drainage patterns 20012q9
❖ Factors influencing occurrence of surface run off 2000q2,
2004q8
❖ Factors influencing rate of erosion by a river 2003q1
❖ Factors influencing river transportation 2019q4
❖ Features formed by a river at the middle stage 2008q8
❖ Features formed by the river at the youthful stage
2008q8,2020q10ai
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❖ Features resulting from river capture 2010q9,2020q10c

❖ Features resulting from river rejuvenation 2003q1,
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2010q9,2018q10

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 ❖ Negative effects of rivers on the physical environment 2012q9
❖ Negative effects of rivers to the human environment 2020q10d
❖ Processes through which a river transports load 2004
q82008q8,2020q10b
VEGETATION
Definition of vegetation –kcse 2013
- Vegetation refers to plant cover that grows in a given area.
- Vegetation is the total mass of plant life that occupies a given area.
- Plant community refers to plants that grow together in a particular physical habitat.

Types/ Categories/ Divisions of vegetation.

1. Natural/ Climax vegetation –kcse 2005
- Natural vegetation refers to the plant cover that grows wildly on the earth surface
without interference from man and his animals.
- Climax vegetation refers to the plant cover that has established itself without
interference from man in relation to the particular physical environment of climate, relief
and soils.

2. Derived/ Semi-natural/ Secondary Vegetation.

- Refers to the plant cover that is in the process of recovering from human interference and
is yet to reach a new climax.

3. Cultivated/ Planted Vegetation.

- Refers to the plant cover that grows in an area under the influence of people.

Factors influencing vegetation Distribution

- Factors that influence the distribution of natural vegetation are; -kcse 2022
 Altitude
 Terrain/ slope/ gradient
 Aspect
 Drainage
 Climate
 Soils/ edaphic factors
 Biotic factors
 Human activities

1. Physiographic/ Geomorphic factors/ Relief.

a) Relief –kcse 2013
- High altitude areas have low temperatures which encourage scanty/ no vegetation.
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- Low altitude areas have moderate temperatures which encourage dense vegetation.
- There is no vegetation on mountain tops due to very low temperature which inhibit plant
growth.
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- Gently sloping areas are well drained hence encouraging dense vegetation growth.

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 - Steep slopes experience excessive drainage that discourage plant growth hence scanty or
no vegetation.
- Flat areas tend to be water logged hence covered by swamp plant species.

b) Aspect –kcse 2022

- Windward slope of mountains/ hills support growth of a wide variety/ dense vegetation.
- The leeward side supports scanty vegetation.
- The south facing slopes of temperate latitude areas of the Northern hemisphere tend to
favour luxuriant growth of forest, while the North facing slopes encourage the growth of
grass.
- The North facing slope of the temperate latitude areas of the southern hemisphere tend to
favour luxuriant growth of forests while the south facing slope encourages growth of
grass.

2. Climatic/ Atmospheric factors.

a. Rainfall –kcse 2020
- Areas receiving high rainfall encourage growth of many varieties of tree species/
luxuriant vegetation/ forest.
- Areas receiving low rainfall have few species/ scanty vegetation.
- Areas of low rainfall have stunted vegetation.

b. Temperature
- Areas experiencing moderate temperatures have a variety of tree species.
- Extreme temperatures/ very low/ very high temperatures leads to scanty vegetation in an
area.
c. Wind
- Very strong winds lead to breakage of tree branches or lead to physical damage inhibiting
plant growth.
- Winds helps in dispersing seeds and pollination thus enhancing the distribution of
vegetation on the Earth’s surface.
- Moist winds cause increased precipitation in areas they blow over hence large number of
plants.
- Hot dry winds cause dry conditions in areas they blow over hence scanty vegetation.

3. Edaphic/ Pedological/ soil factors –kcse 2013/ 2020

- Deep, well drained soils support growth of dense vegetation.
- Shallow/ thin soils support scanty vegetation.
- Medium textured soils are well drained thus support a variety of plants/ dense vegetation.
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- Coarse/ fine textured soils are poorly drained leading to scanty/ no vegetation.
- Deep soils enable the penetration of long roots thereby supporting trees/ forest.
- Thin soils support vegetation with shallow roots thereby supporting grass vegetation.
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4. Anthropogenic/ Biotic/ Biological Factors.

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i.) Competition
- Plants compete with one another for water, light and space.
- As vegetation density increases, competition also increase and the dominant species kill
the weaker ones.

ii.) Effects of living organisms.

- Bacteria, earthworms and burrowing animals improve soil fertility resulting into more
vegetation growth.
- Insect and birds pollinate plants enhancing their propagation.
- Some insects like termites and aphids may attack some trees like pine destroying them
reducing vegetation cover in an area.
- Large herds of wild animals can destroy vegetation through over grazing and can turn
grasslands into deserts.
- Animals, birds and some insects aid in seed dispersal and this facilitates the thriving of
certain plants in certain regions.

iii.) The effects of human beings.

- Afforestation and reafforestation creates forest in an area.
- Deforestation leads to no vegetation in an area.
- Pollution from industries limits growth of plants.
- Forest fires destroy plant species reducing vegetation cover.
- Poor agricultural practices lead to soil erosion limiting plant growth.

MAJOR VEGETATION REGIONS OF KENYA.

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 1. FOREST VEGETATION IN KENYA.
- The area under forest is less than 7%. The bulk is found in central highlands.
- Characteristics:
 The forests contain indigenous trees.
 Trees have different layers.
 Trees grow close to each other.
 Climbing plants like lianas are common.
 Trees have broad leaves.
 Forests are evergreen.
 Tree species include bamboo, olive and podo trees.
- The forested areas of Kenya can be sub-divided into :
a) Plateau forests.
- Covers extensive areas around L. Victoria but there are few patches around the lake in
Maragoli, Kakamega, Kaimosi, Malava, Turbo and Tinderet forests.
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- They are tropical rainforests with tall trees standing among shorter trees intertwined with
creepers.
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b) Lowland forests.
- Found along the Kenyan coast.

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 - The main types are;
 Mangrove forests which grow in shallow water.
 Tropical rainforests in Shimba hills in Kwale district and Arabuko Sokoke in
Kilifi.

c) Mountain/ Highland/ Closed forests.

- Found on the slopes of Mt. Kenya, Mt. Elgon, Aberdares, Mau, Nandi, Kakamega
forests, Marsabit forest, Iveti, Mbooni e.t.c.
- Characteristics:
 Forests are evergreen.
 Trees are closely spaced with a variety of species.
 Trees are tall and form a dense canopy.
 Main tree species are podo, cedar, oak and camphor.
 Indigenous hardwoods are Olive, Meru oak, Mvule, Elgon teak and Camphor.
 Indigenous softwoods are Podocarpus, African pencil, Cedar and Bamboo.
 Planted exotic hardwoods are Eucalyptus and Silver oak.
 Planted exotic softwoods are Pine, Cypress, Fir and Wattle.

2. SAVANNA VEGETATION IN KENYA.

- Most widespread vegetation covering about 65% of the total area.
- Occupies areas like Lake Victoria region, south and East of Mt. Kenya, parts of Coastal
region, Southern Kenya e.g. Taita Taveta.
- Characteristics: -kcse 2013
 Savanna vegetation is a mixture of trees and grass.
 The dominant type of vegetation is grass.
 In the wetter areas, the vegetation consists of tall scattered trees, woodland.
 The wetter areas have a continuous cover of long thick grass.
 In the drier areas, trees are shorter, fewer and scattered.
 In the drier areas, grass is short and course/ tufts.
 Most of the trees have umbrella shaped crown.
 Most of the trees are deciduous/ shed their leaves.
 Most trees are acacia.
 Along the river valleys, there are tall trees, thick bushes.
 Dominant grass species are elephant grass, kikuyu grass, cloves and the red oat.
 Some trees have long tap roots.
 Some trees have small/ waxy/ shiny/ thin leaves with thorny spines.
 Most seeds are dormant during dry season.
 Grass sprouts with the onset of rain.

Types of Savanna Vegetation.

a) Savanna woodland.
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- Has variety of trees with canopies.

- Consists of grass of 1m.
- Main trees are thorny acacia and baobab.
- There are large trees along water courses/ wetter areas.
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- Trees shed their leaves during dry season.

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 - In drier areas, trees are few and short.
- In drier areas, grassland becomes more open.
- Found along the coastal strip and on the plateau bordering highlands east of rift valley.

b) Savanna grassland/ Scattered tree grassland.

- Has extensive grassland and fewer scattered trees.
- Dominant grass species are elephant grass, red oat, kikuyu grass, manyatta grass and wire
grass.
- Consists of tall grass of about 2m.
- Found in Nyika region and Rift valley plains.
- Grass withers and turns brown during dry season and sprouts with the onset of rain.
- In drier areas, grass is short and coarse/ tufts.
- In wetter areas, there is continuous cover of long thick grass.

c) Bushland and Thicket.

- Covers about 48% of savannah.
- Found between coastland and machakos and extends into Kitui, Mwingi, Garissa, Wajir
and Mandera districts.
- Consists of a mixture of thorny acacia and shorter thorny shrubs between forming thorn
bush with gaps between bushes which are bare or covered by scattered varieties of grass.
- Plants are adapted by;
 Having thin leaves and hard cuticles to reduce transpiration.
 Baobab has large trunk to store water for use during long dry period.
 Shedding leaves to conserve water.
 Acacia have long tap roots.
Kcse 2017- State four ways in which savannah grasslands have adapted to climatic conditions
(4mks)
 Some trees have thick stem, scaly bark.
 Grass is tufted/ short.
 Some trees shed their leaves.
 Grass withers during the dry season.
 Grass roots/ seeds remain dormant during the dry season.
 Some trees are umbrella shaped.
 Some trees/ grass have thin, spiky leaves.

Kcse 2020- State five uses of savannah vegetation (5mks)

 The grassland area is used for livestock farming/ grazing.
 The vegetation provides habitat for wild animals.
 Trees are used for bee keeping.
 Some of the vegetation is used for medicinal purposes.
 Some of the vegetation provides wild fruit.
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 Trees are a source of wood fuel.

 Some of the vegetation provide building materials.
 Grass forage decompose to form humus.
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3. ARID AND SEMI-ARID VEGETATION IN KENYA.

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 - Covers 21% of Kenya.
- Found on the parts of N.E and N. Kenya including Nyika, Marsabit and Turkana districts.
- Dominant vegetation is scrub with underdeveloped shrubs.
- Tree species are acacia, comiphora and baobab.
- Has hard and short grass.

Adaptation of arid and semi-arid vegetation (Xerophytes).

 Some plants have thick/ fleshy/ succulent leaves to enable them store water.
 Some plants have long roots to tap underground water.
 Some plants have needle-like leaves to reduce transpiration.
 Some plants have thick/ hard barks to reduce transpiration.
 Some plants have shiny surfaces to reflect light.
 Some trees are deciduous/ shed their leaves during dry season to reduce transpiration.
 Some plants have thorns to protect themselves from browsing animals.
 Plant seeds remains dormant awaiting the short rains.

4. HEATH AND MOORLAND VEGETATION.

- Found at 3500m above sea level on Mt. Kenya, Aberdare ranges above the tree line.
- The vegetation here is characterized by afro-alpine plants which are adapted to extreme
cold and strong winds.
- Heath vegetation is of the scrubby type.
- It consists of low-growing evergreen shrubs with small bell-shaped pink or purple
flowers.
- The term moorland describes hand area covered with heath vegetation, coarse grass and
mosses.
- At lower altitudes there is groundsel, lobelia and heather.
- Where there is poor drainage, there is mountain swamp vegetation called bogs.
- At high altitudes there is tussock grasses, flowering plants and alchemilla shrubs.

5. SWAMP VEGETATION/ TROPICAL MANGROVE.

- Grows in waterlogged environments.
- Main swampy areas are;
 Around L. Victoria with rivers like Yala, Nzoia, Nyando and Sondu flowing into
it.
 Along the course of river tana ending in Tana delta in Tana River county.
 Lorian swamp covering Garissa, Wajir and Isiolo counties.
- Common plants are papyrus, marshes and grasses.
- Plants have aerial roots for breathing.
- Plants have complicated root systems which provide anchorage and act as aerating
organs.
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MAJOR VEGETATION REGIONS OF THE WORLD.

1. Forests.
2. Grasslands.
3. Desert vegetation.
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4. Alpine or montane vegetation.

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 5. Mediterranean vegetation.

1. FORESTS
- A forest is a continuous growth of trees and undergrowth covering a large tract of land.
a.) Tropical rainforest/ Equatorial forests.
- Found in the Amazon and Congo basin, West Africa coast, New Guinea, Burma,
Vietnam and Malaysia.

Characteristics –kcse 2020

 The trees grow close to each other/ closely packed.
 The trees form canopies/ form three distinct layers.
 The trees have straight, smooth trunks.
 Most of the tree species are hardwoods.
 The forests/ trees are evergreen.
 The trees have broad leaves, drip-tipped leaves.
 The forests have little or no undergrowth.
 Forests consist of a variety of tree species.
 Some of the trees have buttress roots.
 The trees are tall.
 The forest has climbers/ epiphytes.
 Trees take long to mature.
 The forest consist of a variety of tree species like camphor, mvuli, elgon teak,
plateau bamboo, ebony and mahogany.

b.) Tropical Monsoon Forests.

- Found in India, Bangladesh, Burma, Vietnam, Philippines, Australia, Indonesia, Sri
lanka, Southern china, Pakistan and Thailand.
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 Characteristics
 Most trees are deciduous/ shed their leaves during dry season.
 Trees grow fast.
 Tree species are camphor, ebony, sapele, teak, rosewood and bamboo.
 Have wide variety of hardwood tree species e.g. teak and rosewood.
 Trees have waxy, leathery and hairy broad leaves.
 There is dense undergrowth comprising of shrubs.
 Some trees have deep roots.
 Particular tree species dominate an area for example teak in Burma, Sal in India and
eucalyptus in Queensland.
 The trees are tall.
 Trees lack a continuous canopy.

c.) Coniferous Forests/ Boreal or taiga forests.

- Found in North America, Western Europe, Eastern Asia, Siberia (Russia) southern Chile,
Scandinavian countries.

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 Characteristics.
 Coniferous forests are conical in shape to combat the snow fall during winter.
 Trees have needle-like leaves to reduce transpiration.
 Trees are found in uniform/ pure stands.
 The major tree species are spruce, fir, pine and larch.
 They have a thick carpet of mosses.
 Some trees like pine have flexible branches to withstand snow fall.
 Most trees are evergreen to allow maximum use of sunlight during short summers.
 Trees have flexible trunks to allow swaying in order to withstand strong winter winds.
 Trees have wide spread root system for maximum utilization of moisture from top soil
since sub-soil is permanently frozen.
 Tree leaves have a tough waxy skin to protect them from winter cold/ prevent snow from
damaging plant cells.
 Most trees are softwoods.
 Trees mature after a long period of time.
 Trees have big proportion of stem compared to leaves.
 Very little undergrowth due to acidic humus from leaf fall.

QUIZ: Explain how coniferous forests adapts to the environmental conditions of their regions.
(Answers from notes)

Kcse 2010- Explain how climate has influenced the growth of coniferous forests.
 The long cold winter and short summers make trees grow at a slow rate.
 The long cold winter and short summers make the forests have limited variety of plant
species.
 The low rainfall received in an area/ permanently frozen subsoil makes the trees develop
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shallow roots that spread widely to utilize the moisture in the top soil.
 Precipitation in the region is mainly in form of snow makes trees to have flexible
branches.
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 Strong winter winds make the trees to have flexible trunks.

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 Uses of coniferous forests.
 Softwoods like pine are used for construction.
 Wood pulp is used in paper manufacture.
d.) Deciduous Forests/ summer greeds/ temperate deciduous forests.
- Found in central and western Europe, north western USA, British Columbia (Canada),
southern Chile, Tasmania (Australia) and south island (Newzealand).

Characteristics.
 Trees are tall.
 Trees have broad leaves.
 Trees are hardwoods.
 Tree species include oak, birch, ash, sycamore, basswood, maple, chestnut, hickory
hornbeam and beach.
 Trees shed their leaves in autumn and remain bare in winter.
 Trees grow in pure stands.
 Trees have thick undergrowth like shrubs, blueballs and mosses.
 Between tall trees there are weak shrubs and small trees.
 Trees are smaller in size.

Uses of temperate deciduous forests.

 Hardwoods like oak and birch provide timber, wood fuel and charcoal.
 Chestnut and walnut are edible.
 Oak tree fruits are used for feeding pigs.
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 Tung tree yields oil for making paint and furnish.

 Maple sap is used for making maple syrup.
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e.) Mixed Forests.

- Found in;

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  Albert and Saskatchewan provinces in Canada.
 Central Siberia in Russia.
 Scottish highlands in Europe.
 North America- Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York.
 Southern hemisphere- Chile, Newzealand, Tasmania, South Africa.
 Eastern Asia- North Korea, Manchuria, Japan

Characteristics.
- Mixed forests may take on characteristics of either the coniferous or deciduous forests.
- Main tree species are oak, birch pinel and fir.

Uses.
 Cedar and hazel are used for fencing posts.
 Grazing activities are carried out where forests are open.
 Softwoods like spruce, fir and pine are used to make wood pulp for paper manufacture.
 Hardwoods like oak and birch provide timber, wood fuel and charcoal.
 Maple tree is used for making maple syrup.

f.) Mangrove forests/ mangrove swamp.

Found along the lowlying muddy coast of the tropical seas e.g. along the east coast of Africa,
near estuary of Amazon river in S. America and along east coast of Sumatra and Borneo in S.E
Asia.
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Characteristics.
 Trees are of medium height.
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 Trees are slender and strong.

 Trees have special/ aerial roots.

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  Dominated by mangrove trees.
 Trees are of various species.
 Trees are evergreen.
Uses –kcse 2004
 Mangrove trees provide tannin used for tanning leather.
 Mangrove poles are used for building and construction.
 Mangrove trees are also used for firewood.
 Mangrove forests are habitat for marine life used for tourist attractions.

2. GRASSLANDS
- Grasslands can be categorized into;
 Tropical/ Savanna grasslands.
 Temperate grasslands.
 Arid grasslands.
 Montane grasslands.

A. Tropical/ Savanna grasslands.

- Found in;
 Africa- East African plateau, N & S of Congo basin, West Africa.
 S. America- Lowlands of Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil.
 Australia- North East of Australia desert.

Characteristics –kcse 2013

 Savanna vegetation is a mixture of trees and grass.
 The dominant type of vegetation is grass.
 In the wetter areas, the vegetation consists of tall scattered trees, woodland.
 The wetter areas have a continuous cover of long thick grass.
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 In the drier areas, trees are shorter, fewer and scattered.

 In the drier areas, grass is short and course/ tufts.
 Most of the trees have umbrella shaped crown.
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 Most of the trees are deciduous/ shed their leaves.

 Most trees are acacia.

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  Along the river valleys, there are tall trees, thick bushes.
 Dominant grass species are elephant grass, kikuyu grass, cloves and the red oat.
 Some trees have long tap roots.
 Some trees have small/ waxy/ shiny/ thin leaves with thorny spines.
 Most seeds are dormant during dry season.
 Grass sprouts with the onset of rain.

Uses.
 Grass is for grazing and commercial ranching.
 Cereals e.g. wheat farming.
 Vegetation act as soil cover to reduce soil erosion.
 Habitat for wild animals which attract tourists.
 Some shrubs and herbs are used for medicine.
 Trees like acacia provide wood fuel and charcoal.

B. Temperate Grasslands/ mid-latitude grasslands.

- The five main zones of temperate grasslands are: -kcse 2010
 The prairies of North America.
 The steppes of Eurasia.
 The Pampas of Argentina.
 The Veldt of South Africa.
 Downs of Australia and New Zealand.

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a.) The Prairies of North America.

- Covers Canadian provinces (Alberta and Saskatchewan) and the neighbouring states of
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U.S.A.
- Sub-divided into three i.e. True prairie, mixed prairie and Pacific & Palouse prairies.

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 Characteristics of the Prairies.
 Continuous tuft grass.
 Grasses are nutritious.
 Grass is short.
 Grass is interspersed with bulbons and leguminous plants.
 Grass is mixed in some areas with species like stipa, buffalo and gramma grass.
 Tall grasses in areas with rainfall of over 500mm.

b.) The Steppes of Eurasia.

- Found in temperate interiors of Europe and Asia e.g. semi-deserts of Caspian sea and
Central Asia.

Characteristics.
 Rich carpet of grass.
 Have numerous broadleaved herbs.
 Grass is short.
 Grass is tuft.
 Grass does not form a continuous cover on the ground.

c.)The Pampas of Argentina.

- Found in Argentina in South America.

Characteristics.
 Predominantly grass covered.
 Feather like grass.
 Grass forms individual tussocks with patches of bare soil.
 Forests are present in some areas due to increased moisture.
 Xerophytic shrubs are present in some areas.

d.)The veldt of South Africa.

- Found to the eastern parts of South African interior.

Characteristics.
 Grasses are extensively spread.
 There is little or no mixture of trees or shrubs.
 There is a uniform cover of grass on high plateaus. 140

e.)The Downs of Australia and New Zealand.

- Found in the coast of the south eastern Australia.
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Characteristics.

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  Tall grass mixed with trees.
 Semi-desert areas have patches of dominant grass.
 Mixture of temperate and tropical grass species.
 Grass is nutritious for livestock.

Uses of temperate grasslands.

 For grain cultivation e.g. wheat.
 For cultivation of other crops e.g. oil seeds, soya beans, vegetables, millet and sorghum.
 For livestock farming e.g. cattle, sheep, goats and horses.

C. Arid Grasslands.
- Found in sandy areas, saltpans and limestone areas in mid-latitude areas.

Characteristics.
 In the bog areas of Britain, heath is found where the dominant plants are present.
 The herbaceous dwarf shrubs, like the ling, occur in some parts while Blanket bog
formations occur in Western Ireland.
 Bog moss is also dominant in N.W. Scotland.
 In wet bog areas, lofty hygrophytic and halophytic grasses grow.
 On the chalk areas of S.E. England, the calcareous heath occurs.
 Tropical species include the wild olive, the oak and the broom.
 It is dominated with shrubs.
 Plants are near- leafless with leathery drought- resistant foliage called maquis.

D. Montane Grasslands.
- Occur on mountainous areas of the world e.g. Sri Lanka, East Africa and Europe.

Characteristics.
 Occur in irregular patches of grass.
 Found above the tree line in higher latitudes.
 Mature within a short vegetative period.
 Occur as rich grasses used as patures.
 Form thick tufts of grass.

3. DESERT VEGETATION
- There are two types of desert vegetation:
a.) Hot desert vegetation
b.) Cold desert vegetation

a) Hot Desert/ Tropical desert Vegetation.

- Found in tropical deserts like Africa (Sahara, Namib and Kalahari), in Asia (Arabian and
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Iranian), in S. America (Atacama and Chilean) and in N. America (Arizon and Mexican).
Characteristics –kcse 2002
 Scarce vegetation cover.
 Comprises of drought resistant plants like acacia, cactus trees and short coarse grass like
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elephant grass.

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  There are more plants on oasis e.g. date palms and shrubs.
 Some plants have thick/ fleshy/ succulent stems to enable them store water.
 Some plants have long roots to tap the ground water.
 Some plants have needle like leaves to reduce transpiration.
 Some plants have thin waxy cuticles to reduce transpiration.
 Some plants have thick/ hard barks to reduce transpiration.
 Some plants have shiny surfaces to reflect light.
 Most trees produce seeds with hard cones which are dormant during dry season and
germinate during short heavy rainstorms.
 Some plants are deciduous/ shed their leaves during dry season to reduce transpiration.
 Some trees like acacia are umbrella-shaped providing shade to their stems reducing
transpiration.
 Some plants have spines/ thorns to protect them from animals.
 Some are salt tolerant (halophytes) by having many water storing cells to counter soil
salinity/ alkalinity.

Kcse 2010- Explain how climate has influenced the existence of hot desert vegetation.
 The area receives low rainfall leading to scarce/ stunted vegetation.
 The high rate of evaporation/ high temperatures in the area leaves the ground dry leading
to scarce vegetation.
 The long periods of drought causes some seeds to exist in a dormant state only to
germinate during the short rains/ causes scarce/ stunted vegetation.
 The higher rainfall along the margins of the region lead to more luxuriant vegetation in
the areas.
 Strong winds may uproot some of the plants leaving the ground bare.
 Strong winds disperse seeds from one part of the region to another leading to
establishment of plant species far and wide in the region.

b) Cold Desert Vegetation.

- Found in warm temperate deserts and arctic climates e.g. Alaska, Canada, Coastlands of
Greenland, Arctic Sea board of Eurasia e.t.c.

Characteristics.
 Has no trees.
 Dominant plant species are mosses, lichens and grass.
 Shrubs have shallow roots.
 Plant flower and produce fruits within short hot season.
 There is scarce vegetation.
 Shrub vegetation like crowberry and bilberry have woody stems that are twisted.
 Comprises of grass and woody plants.
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Uses of Desert vegetation.

 Bilberries bear edible fruits.
 Small trees are source of fuel in arctic region.
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 Vegetation arrest sand dunes preventing them from burying oasis and settlements.

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  Fringes vegetation is valuable food for animals.
 Date palm is cultivated for its fruit.

4. ALPINE OR MONTANE VEGETATION.

- Mountain vegetation is influenced by factors like altitude, aspect, slope, temperature and
availability of moisture.
- Found on mountains like Kilimanjaro, Meru, Kenya, Aberdares and Elgon.

NOTE: Different Mountains have different zoning depending with their location hence having
different characteristics.
: Reasons why mountain tops have no vegetation –kcse 1999
 Very low temperatures hinders vegetation growth.
 There is bare rock/ no soil to support vegetation.
 The ground is frozen most of the year limiting vegetation growth.

Uses of montane vegetation.

 Grasslands are used for grazing.
 Mt. forests provide timber for building, woodfuel and charcoal.
 They make mountains be water catchment areas/ sources of rivers.
 Alpine meadows in temperate regions provide summer grazing pastures.
 Mountain forests are habitat for wild animals like elephants.
 It is used for research.
 Mountain forests help to purify air.

5. MEDITERRANEAN VEGETATION.
- Found in S. Europe and N. Africa areas bordering Mediterranean Sea, around Cape
Town, central coast of California and around Perth in S.W Australia.
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Characteristics –kcse 2005

 Some plants have small/ thick-skinned/ leathery/ spinny leaves.
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 Some plants have long roots.

 Grasses dry off during summers and germinates during winter.

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  Some trees are deciduous.
 Some plants have freshy leaves.
 Some plants have thick barks.
 Vegetation is adapted to long hot and dry summers.
 Some plants have large fleshy bulbous roots.
 Some plaants are evergreen.
 Some plants have long tap roots.
 Woody scrubs are common in very dry areas.
 Tree species are olive, sweet chestnut, beech, cedar, cypress, eucalyptus e.t.c.
 Many plants are sweet smelling (aromatic) e.g. rosemary, lavender, oleander, broom and
myrtle.
Uses.
 Cork oak is used to make corks for bottling wine.
 Olive tree fruits are used for cooking and extraction of olive oil.
 Timber from sweet chest nut, beech, cedar is used for building and making furniture.
 Shrubs and grasses are used as pastures for goats.

Significance of Vegetation.
 Vegetation like flowers, grass and trees add beauty to the landscape.
 Vegetation protects soil from erosion by wind and rain water.
 Vegetation partly decays forming humus making the soil fertile.
 Vegetation like cinchona tree and neem tree (mwarubaini) are source of medicine.
 Vegetation like forests and savanna are habitat for wild animals attracting tourists.
 Forested areas are water catchment areas/ sources of rivers.
 Vegetation like trees provide timber for building and making furniture.
 Vegetation purify air by maintaining O2 – CO2 balance in the air.
 Vegetation like softwoods are used as raw materials in the pulp and paper industries.
 Vegetation like trees provide poles used for fencing for security purposes.
 Some plants like bamboo shoots and wild fruits are consumed as food.
 Negative;
 Vegetation provide breeding grounds for tse tse flies and mosquitoes that
spread diseases to animals and people.
 Vegetation are habitat for wild animals like snakes which attack people.
 Some vegetation like Datura stramonium is poisonous to people and animals.

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