ECE 2101

ANALOG ELECTRONICS-II
Oscillators

Md. Khorshed Alom

Dept. of ECE, KUET

Department of ECE, KUET 1

 Introduction to Oscillators
 Many electronic devices require a source of energy at a specific
frequency which may range from a few Hz to several MHz. This
is achieved by an electronic device called an oscillator.
 Oscillators are extensively used in radio and television receivers
to generate high frequency wave (called carrier wave) in the
tuning stages.
 Oscillators are also widely used in radar, electronic computers
and other electronic devices.
 Oscillators can produce sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal (e.g. square
wave) waves.

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 Introduction to Oscillators
 Oscillators can produce sinusoidal or non- sinusoidal waves at
different frequencies which may range from a few Hz to several MHz.
 At frequency under than 1 MHz:
 𝑅𝐶 oscillators are used to produce perfect sine wave.
 This low frequency oscillators use op-amp and 𝑅𝐶 resonant circuit
to determine frequency of oscillation.
 At frequency above than 1 MHz:
 𝐿𝐶 oscillators are used.
 This high frequency oscillators use transistors and 𝐿𝐶 resonant circuit
to determine frequency of oscillation.

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 Sinusoidal Oscillator
 An electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired
frequency is known as a sinusoidal oscillator.
 An oscillator as “generating” a frequency, it does not create energy,
but merely acts as an energy converter.
 It converts DC energy into AC energy of desired frequency.
 The frequency of oscillations depends upon the constants of the device.
 An alternator produces sinusoidal oscillations of 50Hz, but it cannot be
called an oscillator. As Firstly, an alternator is a mechanical device
having rotating parts. Secondly, an alternator converts mechanical
energy into AC energy. Thirdly, an alternator cannot produce high
frequency.

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 Advantages of Oscillator
 An oscillator is a non-rotating device. Consequently, there is little
wear and tear and hence longer life.
 Due to the absence of moving parts, the operation of an oscillator
is quite silent.
 An oscillator can produce waves from small (20 Hz) to extremely
high frequencies (> 100 MHz).
 The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed when desired.
 It has good frequency stability, i.e. frequency once set remains
constant for a considerable period of time.
 It has very high efficiency.

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 Types of Sinusoidal Oscillations (1/2)
 There two types of sinusoidal oscillations:
𝑖 Damped Oscillations
(𝑖𝑖) Undamped Oscillations
𝑖 Damped Oscillations
 The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time
are called damped oscillations.
 Obviously, the electrical system in which these
oscillations are generated has losses and some
energy is lost during each oscillation. However,
the frequency of oscillations remains
unchanged.
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 Types of Sinusoidal Oscillations (2/2)
𝑖𝑖 Undamped Oscillations
 The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant with
time are called undamped oscillations.
 Although the electrical system in which these oscillations are being
generated has also losses, but now right amount of energy is being
supplied to overcome the losses.
 Consequently, the amplitude of
the generated wave remains
constant.

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 Oscillatory Circuit
 A circuit which produces electrical oscillations of any desired frequency is
known as an oscillatory circuit or tank circuit.
 A simple oscillatory circuit consists of a capacitor (𝐶) and inductance coil
(𝐿) in parallel.
 This electrical system can produce electrical oscillations of frequency deter-
mined by the values of L and C.
 To understand how this comes about,
suppose the capacitor is charged from
a dc source with a polarity as shown in
Figure.

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 Oscillatory Circuit
𝑖 At the initial condition the switch ‘S’ is open.
 As shown in Fig. (i), Here, the capacitor
contains some charges as electrostatic
energy.
𝑖𝑖 When the switch ‘S’ is closed: Flow of
electron
 The capacitor will discharge through inductance. This current flow sets up
magnetic field around the coil.
 Due to the inductive effect, the current builds up slowly towards a
maximum value. At maximum current, electrostatic energy is zero but
because electron motion is greatest.
 The magnetic field energy around the coil is maximum.

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 Oscillatory Circuit
𝑖𝑖𝑖 When the switch ‘S’ is closed:
 Once the capacitor is discharged, the magnetic field will begin to
collapse and produce a counter emf.
 According to Lenz's law, the counter emf will keep the current flowing in
the same direction.
 The result is that the capacitor is now
charged with opposite polarity, making
upper plate of capacitor negative and lower
plate positive as shown in Figure (iii).

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 Oscillatory Circuit
𝑖𝑖𝑖 When the switch ‘S’ is closed:
 After the collapsing field has recharged the capacitor, the capacitor
now begins to discharge; current now flowing in the opposite direction.
 Again, this current flow sets up magnetic field around the coil. Figure (iv)
shows capacitor fully discharged and maximum current flowing.

Flow of
electron

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 Oscillatory Circuit
 The sequence of charge and discharge results in alternating motion of
electrons or an oscillating current.
 The energy is alternately stored in the electric field of the capacitor (𝐶) and
the magnetic field of the inductance coil (𝐿).
 This interchange of energy between 𝐿 and
𝐶 is repeated over and again resulting in
the production of oscillations.
 Frequency of oscillation: The actual
frequency of oscillations is the resonance
frequency of the tank circuit:
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

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 Undamped Oscillations from Tank Circuit
 If there were no losses in the tank circuit to consume the energy, the interchange of
energy between L and C would continue indefinitely.
 In a practical tank circuit, there are resistive and radiation losses in the coil and
dielectric losses in the capacitor. Therefore, the tank circuit by itself will produce
damped oscillations.
 Therefore, in order to make the oscillations undamped, the following conditions
must be fulfilled :
 It is necessary to supply correct amount of energy to the
tank circuit at the proper time intervals to meet the losses.
 The applied energy should have the same frequency as
that of the oscillations in the tank circuit.
 The applied energy should be in phase with the
oscillations set up in the tank circuit.
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 Positive Feedback Amplifier-Oscillator
 A transistor amplifier with proper positive feedback can act as an oscillator
i.e., it can generate oscillations without any external signal source. Figure
shows a transistor amplifier with positive feedback.
 A positive feedback amplifier is one that produces a feedback voltage (𝑉𝑓 )
that is in phase with the original input signal.
 When we open the switch S, the input signal
(𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) is removed. However, 𝑉𝑓 is still applied
to the input signal. The amplifier will respond
to this signal in the same way that it did to Vin
i.e., 𝑉𝑓 will be amplified and sent to the
output. The feedback network sends a portion
of the output back to the input.
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 Essentials of Transistor Oscillator
𝑖 Tank circuit: It consists of inductance coil (𝐿) connected in parallel with
capacitor (𝐶). The frequency of oscillations in the circuit depends upon the
values of inductance of the coil and capacitance of the capacitor.
(𝑖𝑖) Transistor amplifier: The transistor amplifier receives dc power from the
battery and changes it into ac power for supplying to the tank circuit. The
oscillations occurring in the tank circuit are applied to the input of the
transistor amplifier.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Feedback circuit: The feedback circuit
supplies a part of collector energy to
the tank circuit in correct phase to aid
the oscillations i.e. it provides positive
feedback.
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 Barkhausen Criterion
 In order to produce continuous undamped oscillations at the output of an
amplifier, the positive feedback should maintain the following criterion, it is
called Barkhausen criterion:
𝑚𝑣 𝐴𝑣 = 1
Here, 𝑚𝑣 is the feedback fraction and 𝐴𝑣 is the gain of amplifier
 Mathematical Explanation: The voltage gain of a positive feedback amplifier
is given by:
𝐴𝑣
𝐴𝑣𝑓 =
1−𝑚𝑣 𝐴𝑣
If 𝑚𝑣 𝐴𝑣 = 1, then 𝐴𝑣𝑓 → ∞
 Thus once the circuit receives the input trigger, it would become an oscillator,
generating oscillations with no external signal source.
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 Different Types of Transistor Oscillators
 A transistor can work as an oscillator to produce continuous undammed
oscillations of any desired frequency if tank and feedback circuits are
properly connected to it.
 However, the major difference between these oscillators lies in the
method by which energy is supplied to the tank circuit to meet the losses.
 The Commonly used transistor oscillator circuits are :
𝑖 Tuned collector oscillator (𝑖𝑣) Phase shift oscillator
(𝑖𝑖) Colpitt’s oscillator (𝑣) Wien bridge oscillator
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Hartley oscillator (𝑣𝑖) Crystal oscillator

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 Tuned Collector Oscillator
 It contains tuned circuit 𝐿1 − 𝐶1 in the collector. The frequency of
oscillations depends upon the values of 𝐿1 and 𝐶1 and is given by :
1
𝑓=
2𝜋 𝐿1 𝐶1

 The feedback coil 𝐿2 in the base circuit

is magnetically coupled to the tank
circuit coil 𝐿1 .
 The biasing is provided by potential
divider arrangement. The capacitor 𝑐
connected in the base circuit provides
low reactance path to the oscillations.
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 Tuned Collector Oscillator
 When switch S is closed, collector current starts increasing and charges
the capacitor 𝐶1 . When this capacitor is fully charged, it discharges
through coil 𝐿1 , create an oscillation.
 These oscillation induce some voltage in the coil 𝐿2 by mutual induction.
 The voltage across 𝐿1 is applied
between base and emitter and appears
in the amplified form in the collector
circuit, thus overcoming the losses
occurring in the tank circuit.
 The energy supplied to the tank circuit is
in phase with the generated oscillations.
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 Colpitt’s Oscillator
 In Colpitt’s oscillator, the tank circuit is made up of 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐿. The
frequency of oscillation is given by
1 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑓= Where, 𝐶𝑇 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 +𝐶2
 When the circuit is turned on, the capacitors 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are charged.
 The capacitors discharge through 𝐿 ,
setting up oscillations of frequency
determined by above expression.
 The output voltage of the amplifier
appears across 𝐶1 and feedback volt-
age is developed across 𝐶2 .

Department of ECE, KUET 20

 Colpitt’s Oscillator
 A phase shift of 180° is produced by the transistor and a further phase
shift of 180° is produced by 𝐶1 − 𝐶2 voltage divider.
 In this way, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous
undamped oscillation.
 Feedback fraction 𝑚𝑣 :
 The amount of feedback voltage in Colpitt’s
oscillator depends upon the feedback
fraction 𝑚𝑣 of the circuit.
𝑣𝑓 𝑋𝐶2 𝐶1
𝑚𝑣 = = =
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑋𝐶1 𝐶2

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Colpitt’s Oscillator

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 Hartley Oscillator (1/2)
 It is similar to the Colpitt’s oscillator with minor modification.
 It uses two inductors 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 instead of using two capacitors 𝐶1 and
𝐶2 .
 The tank circuit is made up of 𝐿1 𝐿2 and 𝐶.
 Frequency of oscillation:
1
𝑓=
2𝜋 𝐶𝐿𝑇
Where, 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀
𝑀 = Mutual inductance between
𝐿1 and 𝐿2 .

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 Hartley Oscillator (2/2)
 Circuit Operation:
 When circuit is ‘on’ capacitor 𝐶 is charged and it discharged
through 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 .
 Output voltage appears across 𝐿1 . Feedback voltage appears across
𝐿2 .
 Voltage across 𝐿2 is 180° out of phase with voltage across 𝐿1 .
 A phase shift of 180° is produced by
transistor and another 180° phase shift is
produced by 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 voltage divider.
𝑣𝑓 𝑋𝐿2 𝐿2
 Feedback fraction 𝑚𝑣 : 𝑚𝑣 = = =
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑋𝐿1 𝐿1

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 Principle of Phase Shift Oscillators
 In this oscillator resistive and capacitive elements are used to obtain
good frequency stability and waveform.
 The RC or phase shift oscillators have the additional advantages that
they can be used for very low frequencies.
 Phase Shift Circuit:
 A phase shift circuit consists of an 𝑅𝐶 network.
 From the elemental theory of electrical
engineering we can say the voltage 𝑉 ′1 across 𝑅
leads the applied voltage 𝑉1 by 𝜑°.
 The value of 𝜑 depends on 𝑅 and C, if 𝑅 is varied the value of 𝜑
also change. If 𝑅 is reduced to zero then 𝜑 = 90°.
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 Principle of Phase Shift Oscillators
 But 𝑅 = 0 is impracticable because it would lead to no voltage across 𝑅.
 In practice, 𝑅 is varied to such a value that makes by 60°.
 To obtain 180° phase shift three 𝑅𝐶 networks should be connected in
series.

 In above Fig., each section produces a phase shift of 60°. Consequently

a total phase shift of 180° is produced. i.e., voltage 𝑉2 leads the voltage
𝑉1 by 180°.
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 Phase Shift Oscillator

 If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅 and 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶3 = 𝐶 then frequency of oscillation

is:
1 1
𝑓0 = or 𝑓0 = Where 𝑁 = Number of stages.
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 6 2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝑁

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 Phase Shift Oscillator
 Circuit Operation:
 The output 𝐸𝑜 of the amplifier is feedback to 𝑅𝐶 feedback network.
This network produces a phase shift of 180° and a voltage 𝐸𝑖 is
applied to the transistor amplifier.
 The feedback fraction, 𝑚 = 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑜
 Total phase shift is 360°. Because phase shift produced by RC
network = 180° and phase shift produced by transistor = 180°.
 Advantages:  Disadvantages:
 It does not require transformers.  Difficult to start oscillations as
 It can produce very low frequency. the feedback is generally small.
 The circuit provides good frequency  The circuit gives small output.
stability.
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Mathematical Problem

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Mathematical Problem

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 Wien Bridge Oscillator (1/4)
 It is used to produce oscillation in the range of 10 Hz to about 1 MHz
frequencies.
 It is most widely audio oscillator as the output is free from circuit
fluctuations and ambient temperature.

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 Wien Bridge Oscillator (2/4)
 Circuit Operation:
 The bridge circuit has the arms 𝑅1 𝐶1 , 𝑅3 , 𝑅2 𝐶2 and tungsten lamp 𝐿𝑃 .
 Resistance 𝑅3 and 𝐿𝑃 are used to stabilize the amplitude of the output.
 The transistor 𝑇1 serves as an oscillator and amplifier. While the
transistor 𝑇2 serves as an inverter.
 The circuit uses positive and negative feedbacks. The positive feedback
is through 𝑅1 𝐶1 , 𝑅2 𝐶2 to the transistor 𝑇1 . The negative feedback is
through the voltage divider to the input of transistor 𝑇2.
 The frequency of oscillation is determined by the series element 𝑅1 𝐶1
and parallel element 𝑅2 𝐶2 of the bridge.
1
𝑓=
2𝜋 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2

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 Wien Bridge Oscillator (3/4)
1
 If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅 and 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶 then 𝑓 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
 The two transistors produce a total phase shift of 360° so that proper
positive feedback is ensured.
 The negative feedback in the circuit ensures constant output.
 This is achieved by the temperature sensitive tungsten lamp 𝐿𝑃 . Its
resistance increases with current. Should the amplitude of output tend to
increase, more current would provide more negative feedback.
 The result is that the output would return to original value. A reverse
action would take place if the output tends to decrease.

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 Wien Bridge Oscillator (2/4)
 Advantages:
 It gives constant output.
 The circuit works quite easily.
 The overall gain is high because of two transistors.
 The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed by using a
potentiometer.
 Disadvantages:
 The circuit requires two transistors and a large number of
components.
 It cannot generate very high frequencies.

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Mathematical Problem

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 Limitations of LC and RC Oscillators
 The major problem in the LC and RC oscillators is that their operating
frequency does not remain strictly constant. There are two principal
reasons for it,
 As the circuit operates, it will warm up. Consequently, the values of
resistors and inductors, will change with temperature. This causes the
change in frequency of the oscillator.
 If any component in the feedback network is changed, it will shift
the frequency of oscillation.
 Solution: In order to maintain constant frequency,
 Piezoelectric crystals are used in place of LC or RC circuits. Oscillators
of this type are called crystal oscillators.
 The frequency of a crystal oscillator changes by less than 0.1% due
to temperature and other changes.
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 Crystal Oscillators (1/4)
 In order to maintain constant frequency Piezoelectric crystals are used in
place of LC and RC circuits. This type of oscillators are called crystal
oscillators.
 Piezoelectric Crystals:
 Rochelle salt, quartz and tourmaline are piezoelectric crystals.
 This crystal vibrate at the frequency of applied voltage. In contrast,
when they placed under mechanical stain to vibrate, they produce an
ac voltage.
 Frequency of Crystal:
 Each crystal has a natural frequency like a pendulum.
𝑓=𝐾 𝑡
where, 𝐾 is a constant and 𝑡 is the thickness.
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 Crystal Oscillators (2/4)
 Equivalent Circuit of Crystal:
 Case 1: When the crystal is not vibrating,
 It is equivalent to capacitance 𝐶𝑚 because it has two
metal plates separated by a dielectric.
 This capacitance is known as mounting capacitance.

 Case 2: When a crystal vibrates,

 It is equivalent to 𝑅 − 𝐿 − 𝐶 series circuit.
 Therefore, the equivalent circuit of a vibrating crystal
is 𝑅 − 𝐿 − 𝐶 series circuit shunted by the mounting
capacitance 𝐶𝑚 .

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 Crystal Oscillators (3/4)
 Frequency Response of Crystal: If the crystal is vibrating the frequency
response is shown in the figure.
𝑖 At low frequencies: The crystal impedance is
controlled by extremely high values of 𝑋𝐶𝑚 and 𝑋𝐶 .
So, at low frequencies the impedance of the network
is high.
𝑖𝑖 When the frequency is increased: At this stage, the 𝑅 − 𝐿 − 𝐶 branch
approaches its resonant frequency. At 𝑓𝑠 , the 𝑋𝐿 will be equal to 𝑋𝐶 .
The frequency at which the vibrating crystal behaves as a series
resonant circuit is called series resonant frequency 𝑓𝑠 .
𝑓𝑠 = 1 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
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 Crystal Oscillators (4/4)
𝑖𝑖𝑖 At a slightly higher frequency: At this stage, The
𝑅 − 𝐿 − 𝐶 branch becomes inductive and equal to
𝑋𝐶𝑚 . The crystal acts as a parallel-resonant circuit.
The frequency at which crystal acts as a parallel-
resonant circuit is called parallel-resonant
frequency 𝑓𝑃 .
1 𝐶×𝐶𝑚
𝑓𝑃 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶𝑇
where 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶+𝐶𝑚

𝑖𝑣 At frequencies greater than 𝑓𝑃 : The value of 𝑋𝐶𝑚 drops and the

crystal acts as a short circuit.

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 Crystal Stability
 The frequency of any oscillator tends to change slightly with time.
 This drift is produced by -
 Temperature
 Aging
 and other causes
 In crystal oscillator frequency drift is very small- typically less than 1
part in 106 per day.
 Clock uses quartz crystal oscillator as the basic timing device. A clock
with this drift will take 300 years to gain or lose 1s.

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 Transistor Crystal Oscillator (1/2)
 It is a colpitt’s oscillator modified to act as a crystal oscillator.
 Only a crystal is added in the feedback network and it will act as a
parallel-tuned circuit.
 Here, L is replaced by the crystal Y and resonance is formed by the (C1
+ C2).
 Feedback is positive. 180° phase
shift is produced by the transistor and
another 180° phase shift is produced
by the capacitor voltage divider.
 This oscillator will oscillate only at 𝑓𝑃 .

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 Transistor Crystal Oscillator (2/2)
 Advantages:
 They have a high order of frequency stability.
 The quality factor of the crystal is very high.
 Disadvantages:
 They are fragile and consequently can not be used in low power
circuit.
 The frequency of oscillations can not be changed appreciably.

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Mathematical Problem

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 Assignment
Pb 1: A crystal has these values: L= 3 H, C = 0.05 pF, R = 2 KΩ, and 𝐶𝑚
= 10 pF. What are the series and parallel resonant frequencies of the
crystal?

Pb 2: A crystal oscillator has the value of inductance L = 2 H, and the

frequency of oscillation is between 1223 KHz and 1225 KHz.
Calculate the values of capacitances C and 𝐶𝑚 .

Pb 3: A Hartley oscillator has the values of 𝐿1 = 1000 μH, 𝐿2 = 100 μH

and C = 20 pF, find the (i) operating frequency and (ii) feedback
fraction.
 Self Study: All the examples of VK Mehta
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 UJT Construction
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor switching device.
The three terminals are base-one 𝐵1 , base two 𝐵2 and emitter lead 𝐸 where
emitter is shown closer to 𝐵2 than 𝐵1 .
 Since the device has one pn junction
and three leads, it is commonly called
a unijunction transistor.
 The emitter is heavily doped having
many holes. The n region, however, is
lightly doped. For this reason, the
resistance between the base terminals
is very high ( 5 to 10 kΩ) when emitter
lead is open.
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 Operation of UJT
 Figure shows the equivalent circuit of a UJT. The resistance of the silicon bar is called the
inter- base resistance 𝑅𝐵𝐵 . 𝑅𝐵𝐵 is represented by two resistors in series.
 𝑅𝐵2 is the resistance of silicon bar between 𝐵2 and emitter junction and 𝑅𝐵1 is the
resistance of the bar between 𝐵1 and emitter junction. 𝑅𝐵1 is shown variable because its
value depends upon the bias voltage across the 𝑃𝑁 junction. The 𝑃𝑁 junction is
represented in the emitter by a diode 𝐷.
 With no voltage applied to the UJT, 𝑅𝐵𝐵 is given by
𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵1 + 𝑅𝐵2
 If a voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐵 is applied between the bases with
emitter open then
𝑅𝐵1
Voltage across 𝑅𝐵1, 𝑉1 = 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑉𝐵𝐵
𝐵1 𝐵2

Or, 𝑉1 = 𝜂 𝑉𝐵𝐵
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 Operation of UJT
𝑅𝐵1
 The ratio 𝑉1 𝑉𝐵𝐵 is called intrinsic stand-off ratio and is represented by, η = . The
𝑅𝐵1 +𝑅𝐵2
value of 𝜂 usually lies between 0.51 and 0.82.
 The voltage 𝜂 𝑉𝐵𝐵 appearing across 𝑅𝐵1 reverse biases the diode. Therefore, the emitter
current is zero.
 If a progressively rising positive voltage is applied to the emitter, the diode will become
forward biased when input voltage exceeds 𝑉𝑃 , the forward voltage drop across the
silicon diode is, 𝑉𝑃 = 𝜂 𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 . Where, 𝑉𝑃 is peak point voltage and 𝑉𝐷 = 0.7 V.
 When the diode D starts conducting, holes are injected from p-type material to the n-type
bar. These holes are swept down towards the terminal 𝐵1 . This decreases the resistance
between emitter and 𝐵1 and hence the internal drop from emitter to 𝐵1 . The emitter
current now increases until it is limited by the emitter power supply. The device is now in
the ON state.

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 Characteristics of UJT
 Figure shows the curve between emitter voltage (𝑉𝐸 ) and emitter current (𝐼𝐸 ) of a UJT at a
given voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐵 between the bases.
 Initially, in the cut-off region, as 𝑉𝐸 increases from zero, slight leakage current flows from
terminal 𝐵2 to the emitter.
 Above a certain value of 𝑉𝐸 , forward 𝐼𝐸 begins to flow, increasing until the peak voltage
𝑉𝑃 and current 𝐼𝑃 are reached at point 𝑃.
 After the peak point 𝑃, an attempt to increase 𝑉𝐸
is followed by a sudden increase in emitter current
𝐼𝐸 with a corresponding decrease in 𝑉𝐸 . This is a
negative resistance portion of the curve because
with increase in 𝐼𝐸 , 𝑉𝐸 decreases.
 The negative portion of the curve lasts until the
valley point V is reached. After the valley point,
the device is driven to saturation.
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 UJT Relaxation Oscillator
 Figure shows UJT relaxation oscillator where the discharging of a capacitor through UJT can
develop a saw-tooth output as shown.

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 References

[1] V. K. Mehta, Rohit Mehta− “Principles Of Electronics.”

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