Benha University

GEN 201 Technical Report Writing

Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

Lectures #2, 3 and #4

Introduction to Technical Report
1. Introduction Writing

Report writing is an essential skill for engineering students. Therefore, this course
provides guidelines to engineering students for writing technical reports (for example on
experiments, and final year projects). Engineering reports usually present results, analyze
data, and make recommendations in a logical, precise, and accessible manner. Report
writing is a requirement for:

 Completing bachelor’s degree in Engineering qualification at Benha University

 Central part of succeeding in future employment.

The ability to prepare professional engineering reports is one of the competencies

standards specified by NAQAAE (The National Authority for Quality Assurance and
Accreditation of Education).

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (1)

 Benha University
Faculty of Engineering at GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Credit-Hour Programs

One of the main forms of communication in engineering is the technical report. In the
workplace, the report is a practical working document written by engineers for
clients, managers, and/or other engineers.

We cannot all be William Shakespeare or Ernest Hemingway, but it is possible to acquire

enough writing skill to write simple, declarative sentences and readable reports. Subjects
you know about; you can also learn to write about.

If you know clearly "why" you are writing and "who" will read your report, you have the
basis for the report design.

In engineering practice, the reader can be a client, a colleague, or a manager. In academic

writing, the target reader is usually the examiner. The author must therefore ensure that
sufficient background and details are given to convince the examiner. Therefore, the target
audience determine the degree of technicality of the language and concepts involved in the
report. Consequently, you need to analyze your audience.

2. Audiences Analysis

Three broad categories of audiences for a technical report can usually be identified from
the beginning:

1. Technical
2. Non-Technical
3. Mixed

2.1 Technical Audiences are made up of people in the same field as yours. They are the
most obvious audience. They are people such as other engineers, technicians, or

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (2)

scientists. They may be people you know within your own organization, or they may
work outside.

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (3)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

Their interests may include other things as well, but it is almost certain that they will have an
interest in the subject of your report.

2.2 Non-Technical Audiences may include for example, citizen advisory boards,
financial experts, legal or administrative readers, and many, many others. Their needs will
be quite different from your "technical" readers. As they read your report, they are
looking for certain things which it is your job, as a technical writer, to provide.

2.3 Mixed Audiences are the most common audiences include both technical and non-
technical readers. Such audiences are more difficult to write for, but there are several
principals of report design which, if followed, will provide each reader with the
information he or she needs to use your report efficiently. Example for this category is an
engineer with financial experts.

For example, if the document is to be read only by engineers, use appropriate scientific
vocabulary and detailed supporting data. If it is a tool for executive decisions, present data
in lay terms, with clear supporting graphics.

Above all, there is one thing nearly all your readers have in common. They are usually busy
and have a great deal of reading to do every day. If you hand them a thick, boring,
complicated, and badly written report you will bother them immediately. Overcoming this
natural reaction is a challenge, but you can make it easier for them by design your report
properly. Principles of good report design are mainly covered later in this course. Once the
subject of your report has been identified and its purpose defined, your first task is to
analyze your audience.

One of your early tasks as a report writer is to identify and analyze your audiences. You want
to know things about them such as:

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (4)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

 What their technical background is,

 What their function in the organization is,
 What their interests are,
 what level of detail they need from your report?

Your Audience(s), no matter what their background, training, interest, or position of

authority, all have two things in common: what your idea will cost? and how long it takes
to accomplish? If your report doesn’t answer these two questions, it is dead on arrival.

3. Report Purposes

Every report has a purpose. Some common purposes are:

 To convince the reader of something. For example:

 to convince a government agency of the effect of a particular course of action
 to convince a client that your solution will fulfill their needs
 to convince the public that a proposed project will bring benefits

 To encourage the reader to do something. For example:

 to encourage a government or council to adopt a particular course of action
 to encourage a client to choose one design over another
 to encourage an organization to partner with your company on a project

 To inform the reader about something (usually for a further purpose). For example:
 to provide a government department with information they will base policy on
 to instruct other engineers who will work from your plans
 to present the outcomes of a project to stakeholders

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (5)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

When planning an assignment report, your first step is to clarify its purpose; that is, what you
want it to achieve: A technical report is meant to convey a specific message or to perform
a particular function, rather than to ‘teach' the reader about the topic.

The general rule is to begin writing the sections of the report as soon as possible. The table of
contents should be drafted very early in the process of writing the report since the table of
contents provides a good overview of the entire document and, while the report is being
written, provides an indication of which sections still need to be done.

Regardless of the order of the report, a chapter, or an appendix (with tables and figures)
should be written as soon as that part of the work has been completed, for example when
some apparatus has been developed or set up, a section of theory has been derived, a
computer program has been written, or a set of readings has been taken. It is also a good
idea to give the written work to a fellow student or a supervisor as early as possible to
criticize constructively. Some sections written as appendices in the early phases will
remain appendices, while others will later be included in the main text, and some will not
be included in the final report.

4. Getting Started

To create a useful report, you need to express the purpose of the report and identify the
audience for it. You need to define the following items:

 Define the purpose of the report and the key information it needs to convey
 Define the audience and their level of technical understanding
 Determine the level of detail necessary for the report
 Organize the data
 Work with a team of authors

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (6)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

 Meet deadlines

4.1. When You Work with a Team

When a document is a group effort, first assign a task for each team member. Then, let each
team member know the level of detail required, the audience, and the deadlines. Everyone
in the team knows how their section fits into the whole document. Since team members
often have other responsibilities and busy schedules, follow up with each author to ensure
that the commitment is being met and whether any problems have occurred. Finally, you
must select one of the team to be an editor who can greatly enhance the final document.
The editor’s role is to ensure a single, coherent writing style, eliminate redundancies or
contradictions, and maintain consistent use of terminology.

4.2. Deadlines

Deadlines should be clear, and team members should commit to them in writing. Managing
the document is a project management task that requires frequent contact with all
members. One missed deadline can cause an avalanche of missed deadlines. Therefore, it
is important to be aware of potential problems before they occur. If possible, it is always
best to plan for some leeway in the schedule so that late members do not affect the quality
of the project. Remember to allow adequate time for the editor as well as for making
copies. Tools such as Microsoft Project are helpful for monitoring progress.

5. Employ Ethical Principles

Accuracy of technical information is the responsibility of the writer. Make sure you have the
information you need to write accurate reports by avoiding the following items:
 Avoid language that attempts to evade responsibility.

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (7)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

 Avoid language that could possibly mislead readers.

 Avoid plagiarism.
 Do not suppress important information.
 Do not emphasize incorrect information.
 Avoid hiding part of information that mislead others to follow up your research.

5.1. Plagiarism Definition

Plagiarism can be defined as follows: To use another person's words or ideas as if they were
your own. The following are seen as plagiarism:
 To steal or borrow another person's work
 To pay another person to write your assignment
 To copy directly from a source without referencing the original source
 To use another person's ideas without giving credit to the original ideas
 To paraphrase another person's work word for word
 To present false data (fabricated, altered or borrowed without permission)

The worst form of plagiarism is to do it intentionally: to pretend that another person's work
is your own; to buy a piece of written work from somebody (for example from the
Internet) or to pay somebody to write your assignment for you; or to write something
word-for-word from a source without acknowledging that source (or to "cut and paste"
from the Internet).

6. Wasted Words and Phrases to Avoid

After you write a sentence, look it over and ask whether there are any words you can cut
without affecting the meaning. If so, start cutting, because the shorter version is usually

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (8)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

better. Avoid words and phrases that don’t add meaning to a sentence. Some words and
phrases to avoid include:
 all of (replace with “all”)
 at the present moment in time (replace with “now”)
 in order to (replace with “to”)
 in near time (replace with “soon”)
 utilize or utilization (replace with “use”)
 actually
 as you know
 it can be seen that
 it has been indicated that
 it should be noted that

6.1. Grammar and Punctuation

A or An
Use an in place of a when it precedes a vowel sound, not just a vowel. This confuses
people most often with acronyms and other abbreviations. Often, writers think it’s wrong
to use “an” in front of an abbreviation (like MRI) because “an” only goes before vowels.
However, the sound determines which article to use. It’s “an MRI,” assuming you
pronounce it “em are eye.”
Every
Every requires a singular verb and singular pronouns. Do not write “Everyone are …”, use
“Everyone is …”
Different

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (9)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

The word different is often redundant, as in “several different options” or “many different
participants”. It is recommended to be “several options and “many participants”.
Affect versus Effect
Affect is usually a verb; effect is usually a noun. (AVEN)
A = Affect is a
V = Verb
E = Effect is a
N = Noun
For example, “The cold weather affected the crops.” If you can substitute affect with
another verb, you are using the right word: “The cold weather damaged the crops.”
So, when you want to use a word to express a change or to describe an action, choose
affect. Effect is used as a noun, meaning “result” or “consequence.” One way to decide if
effect is the correct word to use is to replace it with another noun. For example, “His
sunburn was an effect of exposure to the sun.” Another way to say it is, “His sunburn was
a result of exposure to the sun.”
Alternate, and Alternative
Alternate (as an adjective or verb) means to go back and forth between two things, as in
alternate Mondays (that is, every other Monday), or “we alternate between meeting here
and in Cairo.” Alternative means a different way of doing things. “One alternative is a
calculator; another is a computer.”
Among versus Between
Follow this simple rule: Use between for two things, among for more than two.
Ensure, Insure
Ensure means “to make certain.” For example, “the legislation ensures discipline.”
Insure is a specific word meaning to set aside resources in case of a loss: “We insure our

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (10)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

car against accidents.”

Compound Words as Adjectives
When you combine two words to describe a noun, use a hyphen between them if the
description comes before the noun. If it comes after the noun, don’t use a hyphen. For
example: “The report is well written”; “They were excited by the well-written report.”
Hyphen versus Dash
As before, hyphen is used in two-word adjective. For example: Three-Phase Circuits.
A dash is used to indicate a range, e.g., 19391945.
A long dash is an informal way of marking a parenthetical statement—or a diversion from
the main thought—during a sentence. Avoid using dashes in formal writing, use
parentheses.
e.g. versus i.e.
The abbreviation e.g. means “for example.” i.e. is means “that is.” A comma should
follow (and precede, if appropriate) both abbreviations. Because these terms are often
confused, it’s often clearer to use the words for example or that is instead of these
abbreviations.
Less versus Fewer
Use less for indefinite quantities, like water or satisfaction. If you can count the items,
however, use fewer. For example: “Nine items or fewer.”
Numbers
Spell out numbers less than 10; write numbers 10 or greater as figures. Spell out first or
fifth but use 14th or 122nd numbers.
Do not begin a sentence with a number: either spell out the number (however large), or
rewrite the sentence so it does not begin with a number.
Very large numbers are expressed in figures followed by the word million, billion, etc. For
example: not 1,000,000,000, but 1 billion.

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 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

Use figures for physical quantities and measurements. For example: 6 meters; 3 cubic feet;
9 gallons.
Punctuation in technical writing
The purpose of punctuation is to convey ideas clearly and without ambiguity.
Colon (:)
A colon marks a pause for explanation, expansion, enumeration, or elaboration. Use a
colon to introduce a list: item one, item two, and item three. Use it to provide an example.
Semicolon (;)
Connect two sentences which are closely connected, and often not joined with a linking
word e.g. The initial survey revealed a high interest; results showed that further
development is valid.
Separate complex items in a list e.g. The following factors are critical: the environmental
impact statement; the government and union policies; the approval of business and
council; and public opinion.
Comma (,)
Show a pause or natural separation of ideas
e.g. After the recommendations were implemented, further evaluations were conducted.
Separate information in a sentence
e.g. The additional results, which were withheld, raised doubts about the initial
hypothesis. Precede linking words, such as ‘but’, ‘so’, ‘hence’, and ‘whereas’
e.g. The aim was to test strength and density, but the measurements taken were not accurate.
Separate information in a list
e.g. The items included: circuit boards, several meters, wires and a power supply.
Capital letters
Used especially in titles and headings where small words such as ‘and’, ‘in’, ‘the’, ‘by’
should not be capitalized. Use also for a person’s name (e.g. ‘Ohm’s law’).

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (12)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

Apostrophes for ownership (‘)

Place the apostrophe at the end of the owner-word, then add a possessive s
e.g. The researcher’s results. (one researcher owns the results)
If the original word ends in an s, place the apostrophe at the end of the owner word without
adding a possessive s
e.g. The researchers’ results. (more than one researcher owns the results)

7. Spectrum of Technical Writing

Technical writing is a broad term that includes a wide variety of documents in science,
engineering, and the skilled trades. The major types of documents in technical writing can
be grouped into four major categories as shown in Fig. 1.

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (13)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

Lecture #5, 6 and #7

Characteristics of Effective Technical Writing
1. The four C’s that characterize reports
• Clarity -- it is easily understood by your intended audience
• Comprehensiveness -- all the necessary information is present
• Conciseness -- it is clear without redundancy
• Correctness -- it is grammatical and follows conventions

2. Formatting guidelines of technical report writing

Appropriate formatting of reports improves the readability of information. This lecture

outlines essential formatting guidelines. An important principle underlying all formatting
choices is consistency. Therefore, each report should maintain the same internal style and
structure, which can be achieved.

3. Basic Report Structure

Most reports contain the sections listed below. Where each report will differ is in the
body; the sections you decide to include will depend on the type of report and the specific
topic.
DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (14)
 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

A report usually has the following components:

 Cover Page
 Title page
 Abstract
 Dedication*
 Disclaimer*
Preliminary Pages
 Acknowledgement
 Table of contents
 List of Tables
 List of Figures
 Nomenclature* * Optional Pages
 Introduction chapter
 Central Chapters
Main Text Pages
 Conclusions
 References
 Appendices* Supplement Pages
 Bibliography*

3.1 Templates

One way in which consistency of a word-processed, or LaTex-processed report can be

achieved is using a template. The template forms the basis of a docx or tex processed
document as it determines the basic structure and formatting for the entire document. You
can use templates provided software processor or use the ones provided by your lecturers.
When using a template, styles can be created and modified to suit your purposes. For
example, you can create styles for the several levels of headings. Creating a style saves
you the tedium of applying the same font size, appearance, numbering and white space
every time you type a heading or sub-heading. The single most significant advantage is
that using styles allows you to automatically create a Contents page.
In the following section, each component of the report structure is explained:

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 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

3.2 Cover Page

The purpose of the cover page is to protect and identify the whole report. The cover page
should be simple and attractive. It should contain the following information:
University name & Faculty name with logo
Subject name and code
Project (report) title
Date of submission

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 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

The title of the report must be considered carefully. A good title is striking and clearly
reflects the contents of the report. The title of the report should indicate exactly what the
report is about. The reader should know not only the general topic, but also the specific
aspect of the topic addressed in the report. Compare the following pairs of report titles:

Weak titles Strong titles

Bridge Analysis Analysis of a prestressed concrete bridge
An evaluation of Internet based Automated Traveller
Internet-Based ATIS
Information Systems

Most of the reports you write at university will form part of the assessment for particular
units. You will therefore often talk about ‘Assignment 1’ or ‘the water project’, for
example. These terms can form part of the title, but the report will usually need a more
specific title too. Compare the following examples:

Weak titles Strong titles

Assignment 1 Assignment 1: Water consumption data collection
Laboratory Report 1: Experimental Determination of
Lab Report 1
Transformer Parameters

3.3 Title Page

The title page contains all information given on the cover page with white background with
extra information:
Student names and ID or affiliation
Supervisor name

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 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

3.4 Abstract
Abstracts highlight major points of the report and explain why your work is important.
Abstract is not an introduction to the report. It often provides no background information.
Abstract is also known as an overview, or short summary. The abstract is often written last
as its purpose is to provide a summary of the report’s essential information. All material in
the abstract will also be explained in more details through the report. The abstract should
appear on a separate page after the title page, and it is usually about 100–200 words in
length. The abstract should include the following elements:

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 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

• why? purpose of the report (Intro) P

• how? brief details of the approach/procedure/methods (Method) M
• what? important results/findings (Results) R
• so what? major conclusion(s) and recommendation(s) (Conclusion) C
When you are writing your abstract, you should avoid:

 Extensively referring to other works

 Defining any terms
 Adding information that isn't contained in the larger work
Abstract for the report with the title “Video Game Addiction and College Performance
Among Males”

This report explores the pattern of video game usage and video game addiction among
male college students and examines how video game addiction was related to expectations
of college engagement, and college Grade Point Average (GPA). More than 4-hundred
first- year students at faculty of Engineering are targeted. In the week before the start of
classes, participants are given two surveys: one of expected college engagement, and the
second of video game usage, including a measure of video game addiction. Results
suggested that video game addiction is (a) negatively correlated with expected college
engagement, (b) negatively correlated with college GPA that occurred during the first year
in college. Results are discussed in terms of implications for male students' engagement
and success in college, and in terms of the construct validity of video game addiction.

3.5 Dedication
This is a short sentence, in the middle of a separate page, in which the report is dedicated
to a family member, or a friend. It may be left out and is seldom included in short
technical reports. It is more suited to theses.

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (19)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

3.6 Disclaimer
A ‘disclaimer’ or declaration of authenticity is often required in major pieces of work such
as large reports, projects, and theses. It is a signed statement declaring that the report is the
work of the stated author(s). The disclaimer should appear on a page following the
abstract. This is an example of disclaimer statement:

I declare the following to be my own work, unless otherwise referenced, as defined by

the University’s policy on plagiarism … followed by the author’s signature.
Students are not guilty of plagiarism if they have correctly referenced the sources of
all material which is not their own work.

3.7 Acknowledgments
The acknowledgments page is optional; however, it is essential that significant assistance,
editing, or work carried out by another person or organization be acknowledged. Also,
students may wish to thank colleagues or supervisors. Also, we must acknowledge
institutions that provided money or made facilities available.

Thanks to my supervisor Dr. Ahmed for being so patient and to Dr. Essam from
Electrical Engineering lab for putting me right on how to use the equipment. Without your
help this project might never have got off the ground.

I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Ahmed M. Hussein, Benha University for his
encouragement and guidance throughout the project. Also, I would like to express deep
thanks to Dr. Mohamed Salah, Cairo University for his help in setting up my
experiments.

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (20)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

3.8 Table of Contents

The table of contents must begin on a new page. The page is provided with a heading,
such as “Contents” or “Table of Contents”, followed by a list of the three main levels of
headings and their page numbers. Journal papers do not have a table of contents.

The first item in the table of contents should be the first heading that appears after the
table of contents, for example List of Figures. Front matter that precedes the table of
contents are not listed. Appendices must be listed, each with their title and starting page.

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 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

3.9 List of Tables and List of Figures

These lists, arranged according to the table and figure number, each begin on a new page
and indicate the relevant page number in the right-hand column. The titles of tables and
figures must be descriptive enough so that a specific figure or table can be identified in the
list and must correspond to the title used for the figure or table in the text.

3.10 Nomenclature
The list of symbols that are used must begin on a new page. The list is arranged in the
following sequence: All the ordinary symbols are listed first, followed by the superscripts
and then the subscripts. Finally, the auxiliary symbols, for example overbar and
underscore for vectors and averages or accent marks for time-dependent components, are
listed. The following order must be used within each of these groups:

First, all the Roman letters (in alphabetical order, with the capital letter of each symbol
before the small letter, for example “A” followed by “a”, followed by “B”); Then all the
Greek symbols (in the order of the Greek alphabet, capital letters before small letters);

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 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

A consistent set of symbols should be used (for example do not use V, C and W for
velocity, unless there is a consistent difference, such as V for relative flow velocity, C for
absolute flow velocity and W for blade velocity). If equations are taken from sources that
use other symbols, the symbols should be “translated” into the set that has been selected
for the report.

3.11 Introduction
The introductory chapter should provide the reader with the following information:
 The context in which the report originated, how it links to or differs from
preceding or related work, the limitations that were placed on the work.
 The purpose of the report.
 The motivation for the work or report, that is, why the work was undertaken.
The introduction also contains a general overview of previous work in the field and
definitions of words or expressions that have a specific meaning in the document. This
what is called literature review. Literature is used to list the textbooks and journal
articles related to the report topic, it can also include official publications such as
engineering standards and government reports.

Example:
Introduction: Over one billion people in developing countries do not have access to
electricity [1]. Indoor lighting, where available, is therefore usually provided by kerosene
lamps or candles, which are expensive and can emit dangerous gases such as carbon
monoxide and sulphur dioxide [2]. Even when available, the light they produce is not
sufficient to read by. Many children in developing countries are therefore unable to study
outside of daylight hours, which negatively affects their potential to succeed at school. To
address this problem, an inexpensive, reliable, clean and safe source of reading light has
been developed. The portable LED desk lamp presented here …

DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (23)

 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

3.12 Conclusions
The conclusion of a report must be related to, and resulting from, the material which
appears in the report. it must not introduce any new material. Quite often present tense is
used. For example: “the cement tested in this project is a good candidate for the dense-
phase mode of pneumatic transportation”.
Conclusions quite often read by managers before the main text of the report and hence,
should summarize the main points clearly. This section also may include:

Aim(s) and objective(s) of the report,

application(s) of results,

limitations and advantages of the findings,

judgement/evaluation of the author(s).

The conclusion does NOT:

 provide background information on the topic

 explain the motivation for the project
 refer to figures, tables or references contained in the report.

3.13 Referencing
In-text citations are used throughout the report to acknowledge the sources of information.
The full references for the citations are then listed at the end of the report in the Reference
list.

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 Benha University
GEN 201 Technical Report Writing
Faculty of Engineering at
Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
Shubra
Credit-Hour Programs

Famous Types of referencing

Oxford Reference Harvard Reference APA Reference

Oxford Reference
Source Example
Simons, N. E., Menzies, B. & Matthews, M., A Short Course in Soil and Rock
Book: print
Slope Engineering, London, Thomas Telford Publishing, 2001.
Simons, N. E., Menzies, B. & Matthews, M., A Short Course in Soil and Rock
Book: online/electronic Slope Engineering, [Online] London, 2001, Thomas Telford Publishing. Available
from: http://www.myilibrary.com?ID=93941 [Accessed 18th June 2008].
Partridge, H. & Hallam, G., Evidence-based practice and information literacy, In:
Book: chapter in an Lipu, S., Williamson, K. & Lloyd, A. 2007, (eds.) Exploring methods in
edited book information literacy research. Wagga Wagga, Australia, Centre for Information
Studies, pp. 149-170.
Chhibber, P. K. and Majumdar, S. K., “Foreign ownership and profitability:
Journal article: print Property rights, control, and the performance of firms in Indian industry”,
Journal of Law & Economics, 2001, 42 (1), 209-238.
Wang, F., Maidment, G., Missenden, J. and Tozer, R., “The novel use of phase
Journal article: change materials in refrigeration plant. Part 1: Experimental investigation”,
online/electronic Applied Thermal Engineering, 2007, [Online] 27 (17-18), 2893-2901, Available
from: doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2005.06.011 [Accessed 15th July 2008].
Conference proceeding: Van Cotthem, A., Charlier, R., Thimus, J.-F. and Tshibangu, J.-P., “Multiphysics
individual paper coupling and long term behaviour in rock mechanics”, Proceedings of the
International Symposium of the International Society for Rock Mechanics,
EUROCK 2006, 9-12 May 2006, Liège, Belgium. London, Taylor & Francis. pp.
211-216.
Leatherwood, S., “Whales, dolphins, and porpoises of the western North Atlantic”,
Report
U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Report number: 63, 2001.
Wagner, G, Structural and functional studies of protein interactions in gene
Lecture / Presentation
expression, [Lecture] Imperial College London, 12th December, 2006.

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Harvard Reference

Source Example

Simons, N. E., Menzies, B. & Matthews, M. (2001) A Short Course in Soil and
Book: print
Rock Slope Engineering. London, Thomas Telford Publishing.

Simons, N. E., Menzies, B. & Matthews, M. (2001) A Short Course in Soil and
Book: online/electronic Rock Slope Engineering. [Online] London, Thomas Telford Publishing.
Available from: http://www.myilibrary.com?ID=93941 [Accessed 18th June
2008].
Partridge, H. & Hallam, G. (2007) Evidence-based practice and information
Book: chapter in an literacy. In: Lipu, S., Williamson, K. & Lloyd, A. (eds.) Exploring methods in
edited book information literacy research. Wagga Wagga, Australia, Centre for
Information Studies, pp. 149-170.

Chhibber, P. K. & Majumdar, S. K. (1999) Foreign ownership and profitability:

Journal article: print Property rights, control, and the performance of firms in Indian industry.
Journal of Law & Economics, 42 (1), 209-238.

Wang, F., Maidment, G., Missenden, J. & Tozer, R. (2007) The novel use of phase
Journal article: change materials in refrigeration plant. Part 1: Experimental investigation. Applied
online/electronic Thermal Engineering. [Online] 27 (17-18), 2893-2901. Available from:
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2005.06.011 [Accessed 15th July 2008].

Conference proceeding: Van Cotthem, A., Charlier, R., Thimus, J.-F. and Tshibangu, J.-P. (eds.) Eurock
individual paper 2006: Multiphysics coupling and long term behaviour in rock mechanics:
Proceedings of the International Symposium of the International Society for
Rock Mechanics, EUROCK 2006, 9-12 May 2006, Liège, Belgium. London,
Taylor & Francis. pp. 211-216.

Leatherwood, S. (2001) Whales, dolphins, and porpoises of the western North

Report
Atlantic. U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Report number: 63.

Wagner, G. (2006) Structural and functional studies of protein interactions in gene

Lecture / Presentation
expression. [Lecture] Imperial College London, 12th December.

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APA (American Psychological Association) Reference

Source Example

Dancey, C. P., & Reidy, J. (2004). Statistics without maths for

Book psychology: Using SPSS for Windows (3rd ed.). Harlow, England:
Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Kestly, T. (2010). Group sandplay in elementary schools. In A. A.

Book chapter in edited book Drewes & C. E. Shaefer (Eds.), School-based play therapy (2nd ed.,
pp. 257-282). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Nydegger, R. (2018). Clocking in: The psychology of work. Retrieved

Electronic book (eBook)
from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com

Archard, S., Merry, R., & Nicholson, C. (2011). Karakia and waiata
Course handout/ Lecture [Powerpoint slides]. Retrieved from TEPS757-11B (NET):
notes (electronic version) Communities of Learners website:
http://elearn.waikato.ac.nz/mod/resource/view.php?id=174650

Cavenagh, N., & Ramadurai, R. (2017). On the distances between

Journal article Latin squares and the smallest defining set size. Journal of
(academic/scholarly) with DOI Combinatorial Designs, 25(4), 147–158.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jcd.21529

Journal article with no DOI Germann, F., Ebbes, P., & Grewal, R. (2015). The chief marketing
officer matters! Journal of Marketing, 79(3), 1-22.

DOI (Digital Object identifier).

Example:

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Oxford Reference:
[1] Taha Selim Ustun, Cagil Ozansoy, and Aladin Zayegh, “Modeling of a Centralized
Microgrid Protection System and Distributed Energy Resources According to IEC 61850-7-
420”, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 2012, 27 (3), 1560-1565.

Harvard Refefence:
[2] Taha Selim Ustun, Cagil Ozansoy, and Aladin Zayegh, (2012) Modeling of a Centralized Microgrid
Protection System and Distributed Energy Resources According to IEC 61850-7-420, IEEE Transactions
on Power Systems, 27 (3), 1560-1565.

APA Reference:
[3] Taha Selim Ustun, Cagil Ozansoy, and Aladin Zayegh, (2012). Modeling of a Centralized
Microgrid Protection System and Distributed Energy Resources According to IEC 61850-7-420., IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, 27 (3), 1560-1565.

Example:
There are 3 authors (Lee Beveridge, Wigner Jordan, and Qamber Miller) published 12-
page article in IEEE Transaction on Electronic Devices journal in December 2021,
volume 46, number 3. The article is titled: “Theory of traveling wave optical laser”. The
starting page number of the printed article is 641. Write the citation of that article
according to:
a) Oxford Reference format,
b) Harvard Reference format,
c) APA Reference format.
a) According to Oxford reference format:
Beveridge, L., Jordan, W., and Miller, Q., “Theory of traveling wave optical laser”, IEEE
Transaction on Electronic Devices, December 2021, 46 (3), 641-652.
b) According to Harvard reference format:
Beveridge, L., Jordan, W., and Miller, Q., (December 2021) Theory of traveling wave
optical laser. IEEE Transaction on Electronic Devices, 46 (3), 641-652.
c) According to APA reference format:

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Beveridge, L., Jordan, W., and Miller, Q. (December 2021). Theory of traveling wave
optical laser. IEEE Transaction on Electronic Devices, 46 (3), 641-652.
3.14 Appendix
Explanatory material that would interfere with the logical continuity.
Supporting material not critical and may be of interest only to a few readers.
Supplementary calculations; detailed derivations; datasheets; charts, maps, graphs as
additional information; detailed experimental results; description of equipment;
description of software tool; Each item must have an identifying tag and a title.

 each appendix must be labelled with a number (or letter) and title
 the appendix numbers and titles must be listed on the Contents page under the
heading Appendices (if more than one) or Appendix (if only one)
 each appendix must be referred to by number (or letter) at the relevant point in
the text.

4. Format of pages

4.1 Paper and Margins

A4 paper is appropriate, and printing on one side only is often preferred for assessment
purposes.

Wide margins are recommended; for example, allowing 2.5 cm on all sides. Bound reports
have a left-hand margin of at least 3.5 cm, and 1.5 cm on the other three sides.

4.1.1 Page numbering

The title page should not be numbered. All other pages may be numbered either in the
right- hand upper corner, or in the center at the bottom of the page. Roman numerals — i,
ii, iii, iv etc. — are usually used to number the preliminary pages.

Arabic numerals — 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. — are used to number the main text. Pages in the
Appendices can be numbered internally, according to the letter of the individual appendix

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and the number of pages within each appendix — A1, A2, B1, C1, C2, C3 etc. (where
Appendix A has two pages; Appendix B has one page, and so on).

4.1.2 Headers and Footers

Headers or footers position page numbers automatically. Two different headers or footers
must be created so that the preliminary pages are numbered separately from the text of the
report. Student name and ID number can appear in a footer in 9-point size.

Font
A Times New Romans is usually chosen for the text of a report. A different font (such as
Arial) may be used for headings and tables. The same font should be used throughout the
whole report, unless a second font is chosen for headings and tables.

6 Size and style of type

12-point type is the normal size for the text of a report. 10-point may be used for figures
and tables.
First-level 16 bold 6 Environmental Impact
Second-level 14 bold 6.1 Chemical Waste
Third-level 12 bold 6.1.1 Cost Analysis
Fourth-level 12 bold italics 6.1.1.1 Equipment Costs

Headings without text should never appear on the bottom line of a page.
Technical reports use headings to divide information into sections. The headings
help reader locate relevant information quickly.
Capital letters are used for the first letter of the first word in each heading only;
except for any acronyms (e.g. IEEE), trade names, or personal names and places, which
may require more than one capital.

Format of text :Justification

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Text must be justified (right and left margins).

Line spacing
• 1.5 line spacing is generally used for work submitted for assessment.
• extra line spacing should be used in the following cases:
– to separate paragraphs
– to separate figures, tables, equations, and long quotations from the text
– to separate a main heading from the section of text which comes before
Indentation and centering
• Indenting text at the beginning of a paragraph is necessary. But if an extra line
space is inserted between paragraphs, no need for the indentation.
• indentation is appropriate for lists with bullet points (•)
• figures and tables may be centered in the text

Figures and Tables

Figures include diagrams, graphs, sketches, photographs, and maps
Tables summarize data in rows and columns; a dash (—) indicates no
data All figures and tables may be centered
All figures and tables should be labelled in bold with the appropriate consecutive number,
(figures are generally labelled at the bottom, and tables at the top)
All figures and tables must be referred to in the text (e.g. ‘see Figure 14’); avoid using
words such as ‘Figure above’ or ‘Table below’
Figures and tables can be separated from the text with extra line spacing.
Example:
The single-diode model, shown in Fig. 1, has become the most widely used model as it
offers a good compromise between simplicity and accuracy [1,2].

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Fig. 1. Single-diode equivalent circuit for PV module

Two examples of such module are BP SX-150 and MSX-60 modules whose basic information are
presented in Table 1. More details about these two PV modules are provided by manufacturer websites.
Table 1: Electrical characteristics of BP SX-150 and MSX-60 PV modules at STC

Datasheet Value
Parameters
BP SX-150 MSX-60
Maximum Power (Pmax) 150 W 60 W
Voltage at MPP (Vmp) 34.5 V 16.8 V
Current at MPP (Imp) 4.35 A 3.56 A
Short-circuit current (Isc) 4.75 A 3.87 A
Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 43.5 V 21.0 V
Temperature coefficient of Isc (0.065±0.015) %/°C (0.065±0.015) %/°C
Temperature coefficient of Voc – (160±20) mV/°C – (80±10) mV/°C
Series-connected cells (Ns) 72 36

Equations:
All equations must be centered and numbered,
All equations must be referred to in the text (e.g. ‘as explained by eqn. (1)’); avoid using
words such as ‘equation above’.
Example:
The current (I) and voltage (V) in the single-diode model are related as defined by eqn. (1).

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ − 𝐼𝑜 𝑉+ 𝑉+
[𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( 𝐼𝑅𝑠 ) − 1] 𝐼𝑅𝑠
−
(1)
𝑉𝑇 𝑅𝑠ℎ

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Active or passive voice

Example 1: “We therefore decided that...”.

This sentence is written in the active voice. It has a subject who performed the verb:
“We decided…”.

Example 2: “The pipe was cut…”

This is written in the passive voice. It does not specify who performed the verb: we don’t
know who cut the pipe.

The convention of using the passive voice when writing about method is to avoid:

a. beginning every sentence with “I” or “We”, which would sound repetitive
b. focusing on who did the work rather than what they did, which is more important.

Therefore, it is recommended to use of the passive voice in academic writing.

Nevertheless, it is still best to avoid overuse of “I” or “we” when describing what you did,
for the reasons given above.
Uses of ‘we’

You may have been told not to use “I” or “we” in your reports; however. there are two
cases in academic writing when ‘we’ is quite acceptable.

Consider the examples below:

The number of animal extinctions is rapidly increasing worldwide. In Australia, we have

now lost 54 species, with another 457 classified endangered or vulnerable
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2018).

In this case, “we” means ‘we Australians’ and refers to our society. It could also refer to
human beings in general.

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Lecture # 8 and #9
Graphical Representation of Data

Data are individual facts, statistics, or items of information, often numeric. In a more
technical sense, data are a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables about one or
more persons or objects, while a datum (singular of data) is a single value of a single
variable.

1. Meaning of data
If you recorded the minimum and maximum temperature of a city, rainfall, time of sunrise
and sunset of certain location, attendance of students in certain course, all these are
considered as data.

As an example of data, the number of students registered in GEN201 course is recorded in

Table 1.

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Table 1: Number of students registered in GEN201 course

Program Students
CCE 125
EEC 11
CSM 40
ESE 27
IND 55

The complete set of information given in Table 1 is called a population. Each of the
elements is called a piece of data.

2. Presentation of Data in Sequence

The simplest way to organize a set of data is to present the data in a sequence. This makes
it easy to comprehend and interpret. For example, let us consider the height (cm) of 15
children as shown below:

Height: 142,156,139,148,150,149,148,144,150,152,148,149,147,141 and 145.

Little can be said about the height of the children from these numbers. Even if you try,
you will find yourself re-arranging them in some way. For example, you may be looking
for the minimum and the maximum figures or the number that is most frequent. If you
arrange these heights in a sequence from lowest to highest.

Height: 139,141,142,144,145,147,148,148,148,149,149,150,150,152 and 156.

Now, one can say that the height of the children varies from 139 cm to 156 cm; there are 3
children having the same height of 148 cm and the number of children having height
below 148 cm and having height above 148 cm is the same.

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Data can be arranged in two ways. One, from lowest to highest referred to as the
ascending order, and the other, from highest to lowest referred to as the descending order
of presentation.

Check your progress

Problem #1
Arrange the marks of 20 students in GEN201 course and answer the following questions:
65, 48, 39, 57, 70, 49, 33, 72, 61, 42, 38, 66, 75, 57, 45, 59, 60, 47, 55, 68
How many students have scored 60 and above?
How many students have scored below 50?
What are the minimum and maximum scores?

3. Presentation of Data in Classes

To interpret large data, even if it is arranged in sequence, the data are organized into
groups called classes and presented in a table which gives the frequency in each group.
Such a frequency table gives a better overall view of the distribution of data and enables a
person to rapidly comprehend important characteristics of the data.

For example, a test - out of 50 marks - is recorded for a course of 40 students and the
marks are as listed below.

We notice that the marks ranged from 16 to 48.

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Considering the class length is 5, therefore we need 48−16 = 6.4 = 7 groups

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The seven groups are given in Table 2.

Table 2: The seven groups representing data

From Table 2, we can easily comprehend the distribution of marks e.g. 10 students have
scores from 25 to 29, while only 7 students have a score lower than 50% etc.

4. Graphical Representation of Data

We use graphics to understand the problem under investigation. Pictures can convey an
overall message much better than a list of numbers. In this section we describe some
graphical presentations of data.

4.1 Dot Plot

Dot plot is a graphical representation of numerical data. A dot plot is a number line with
x’s placed above specific numbers to show their frequency. By the frequency of a number,
we mean the number of occurrence of that number.

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Example:
Suppose thirty people live in an apartment building with the following ages:
58 30 37 36 34 49 35 40 47 47
39 54 47 48 54 50 35 40 38 47
48 34 40 46 49 47 35 48 47 46
Make a dot plot of the ages.

This graph shows all the ages of the people who live in the apartment building. It shows
the youngest person is 30, and the oldest is 58. Most people in the building are over 46
years of age. The most common age is 47. Line plots allow several features of the data to
become more obvious. For example, outliers, clusters, and gaps are realized.
• Outliers are data points whose values are significantly larger or smaller than other
values, such as the ages of 30, and 58.
• Clusters are isolated groups of points, such as the ages of 46 through 50.
• Gaps are large spaces between points, such as 41 and 45.

Check your progress

Problem #2
Following are the ages of the 30 students at a High School who participated in activity.
Draw a dot plot to represent these data.
10 10 11 10 13 8 10 13 14 9
14 13 10 14 11 9 13 10 11 12
11 12 14 13 12 8 13 14 9 14

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Problem #3
The heights (in inches) of the players on a professional basketball team are
70, 72, 75, 77, 78, 78, 80, 81,81,82, and 83.
Make a dot plot of the heights.
Problem #4
Draw a Dot Plot for the following data set.
50 35 70 55 50 30 40
65 50 75 60 45 35 75
60 55 55 50 40 55 50
4.2 Stem and Leaf Plot
Another type of graph is the stem-and-leaf plot. It is closely related to the dot plot except
that the number line is usually vertical, and digits are used instead of x’s. To illustrate the
method, consider the following scores which twenty students got in a GEN201 course:
69 84 52 93 61 74 79 65 88 63
57 64 67 72 74 55 82 61 68 77
We divide each data value into two parts. The left group is called a stem and the
remaining group of digits on the right is called a leaf. We display horizontal rows of
leaves attached to a vertical column of stems. we can construct the following table

where the stems are the ten digits of the scores and the leaves are the one digits.
If you are comparing two sets of data, you can use a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot
where the leaves of sets are listed on either side of the stem as shown in the table below.

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where the stems represent the tens digits of both scores and the leaves represent the ones
digits.

Check your progress

Problem #5
Given below the scores of a class of 26 fourth graders.
64 82 85 99 96 81 97 80 81 80 84 87 98
75 86 88 82 78 81 86 80 50 84 88 83 82
Make a stem-and-leaf plot of the scores.
Problem #6
Make a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot for the following test scores:
Class 1:
100 96 93 92 92 92 90 90 89 89 85 82 79 75 74 73
73 73 70 69 68 68 65 61
Class 2:
79 85 56 79 84 64 44 57 69 85 65 81 73 51 61 67
71 89 69 77 82 75 89 92 74 70 75 88 46
1.3 Histogram
When we deal with large sets of data, a good overall picture and sufficient information can
be often conveyed by distributing the data into several classes and to determine the
number of elements belonging to each class, called class frequency. For instance, the
following table shows some test scores of a course.

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65 91 85 76 85 87 79 93 82 75 100 70 88 78 83 59
87 69 89 54 74 89 83 80 94 67 77 92 82 70 94 84
96 98 46 70 90 96 88 72
It’s hard to get a feel for this data in this format because it is unorganized. To construct a
frequency distribution,

Round CW to the next highest whole number so that the classes cover the whole data.
Thus, if we want to have 6 class intervals, then CW = (100−46)/6 = 9. The low number in
each class is called the lower-class limit, and the high number is called the upper-class
limit. With the above information we can construct the following table called
frequency distribution.

Once frequency distributions are constructed, it is usually advisable to present them

graphically. The most common form of graphical representation is the histogram.

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Check your progress

Problem #7
Suppose a sample of 38 female university students was asked their weights in pounds, and
the following results are recorded:
130 108 135 120 97 110 130 112 123 117 170 124
120 133 87 130 160 128 110 135 115 127 102 130
89 135 87 135 115 110 105 130 115 100 125 120 120 120
(a) Suppose we want 9 classes intervals. Find CW.
(b) Construct a frequency distribution.
(c) Construct the corresponding histogram.

1.4 Bar Graph

Bar Graph is similar to histogram. It is often useful in conveying information about
categorical data where the horizontal scale represents some nonnumerical attribute. The
bars can be vertical or horizontal. The length of a bar represents the quantity we wish to
compare.

Example:
The areas of the various continents of the world (in millions of square miles) are:
11.7 for Africa; 10.4 for Asia; 1.9 for Europe; 9.4 for North America; 3.3 Oceania; 6.9
South America; 7.9 Soviet Union. Draw a bar chart representing the above data and where
the bars are horizontal.

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A double bar graph is similar to a regular bar graph, but gives 2 pieces of information for
each item on the vertical axis, rather than just 1. The bar chart given below, shows the
weight in kilograms of some fruit sold on two different days by a local market. This lets us
compare the sales of each fruit over a 2-day period, not just the sales of one fruit
compared to another. We can see that the sales of star fruit and apples stayed most nearly
the same.
The sales of oranges increased from day 1 to day 2 by 10 kilograms. The same amount of
apples and oranges was sold on the second day.

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Check your progress

Problem #8
Given are several gasoline vehicles and their fuel consumption averages.
Buick 27 mpg; BMW 28 mpg; Honda Civic 35 mpg; Geo 46 mpg
Neon 38 mpg; Land Rover 16 mpg
Draw a vertical bar graph to represent these data.
Problem #9
The figures for total population at decade intervals since 1959 are given below:
Year Total UK Resident Population
1959 51, 956, 000
1969 55, 461, 000
1979 56, 240, 000
1989 57, 365, 000
1999 59, 501, 000
Construct a horizontal bar chart for this data.

1.5 Line Graph

A Line graph is particularly appropriate for representing data that vary continuously. A
line graph typically shows the trend of a variable over time. To construct a line plot, we
put time on the horizontal scale and the variable being measured on the vertical scale and
then we connect the points using line segments.
Example:
The population (in millions) of the US for the years 1860-1950 is as follows:
31.4 in 1860; 39.8 in 1870; 50.2 in 1880; 62.9 in 1890; 76.0 in 1900; 92.0 in 1910; 105.7 in
1920; 122.8 in 1930; 131.7 in 1940; and 151.1 in 1950. Make a line plot showing this
information.

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1.6 Pie Chart

A circle graph or pie chart, consists of a circular region partitioned into disjoint sections,
with each section representing a part or percentage of a whole. To construct a pie chart we
first convert the distribution into a percentage distribution. Then, since a complete circle
corresponds to 360 degrees, we obtain the central angles of the various sectors by
multiplying the percentages by 3.6. We illustrate this method in the next example.
Example:
A survey of 1000 adults uncovered some interesting housekeeping secrets. When
unexpected company comes, where do we hide the mess? The survey showed that 68% of
the respondents toss their mess in the closet, 23% shove things under the bed, 6% put
things in the bathtub, and 3% put the mess in the freezer. Make a circle graph to display
this information.
We first find the central angle corresponding to each
case: in closet 68 × 3.6 = 244.8
under bed 23 × 3.6 = 82.8

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in bathtub 6 × 3.6 = 21.6

in freezer 3 × 3.6 = 10.8
Note that
244.8 + 82.8 + 21.6 + 10.8 = 360.

Check your progress

Problem #10

The following data represents a survey of people’s favorite ice cream flavor
Flavor Number of people
Vanilla 21.0%
Chocolate 33.0%
Strawberry 12.0%
Raspberry 4.0%
Peach 7.0%
Neapolitan 17.0%
Other 6.0%
Plot a pie chart to representing the data.

5. Data Analysis and Graphing in Excel

5.1 How to Enter Data in Excel

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1. Open an excel worksheet

2. In the first row, label column A, column B, and column C
3. Enter raw data into the columns A and B
4. In the column C, enter a function (equation or formula starts with “ = ” symbol) to tell
Excel to subtract the values in columns A and B, as shown in figure below.

5.2 How to Calculate Summary Statistics in Excel

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Excel will now show you the summary statistics. we have added highlights to show the
mean, standard deviation, standard error, and sample size which are the summary statistics
that you will most commonly use for your reports.

5.3 How to Graph Data in Excel

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To create a chart:

 Select the data to appear to appear in the chart (with labels if relevant)
 Use the Insert tab and Charts Group and click on the relevant chart in this group.

The main types of charts used in analysis of data are:

 Column chart: for comparing data across categories

 Pie Chart: for showing the relative shares of categories in a total
 Line Chart: for showing trends in a series over time

Excel defaults usually lead to a chart that is reasonable but still needs customizing. The
general approach is to note that the chart has several areas:

 Chart Title
 Plot Area
 The x-axis (for charts other than pie chart) and Labels
 The y-axis (for charts other than pie chart) and Labels
 Legend Entry (explains the symbols used in the chart)

To edit an existing chart, select the chart (click inside the chart and the border becomes
highlighted). Then select within the chart that part of the chart you wish to change and
right click to obtain the menu for reformatting the chart.

5.3.1 Bar (Column) Graph

As an example, consider categorical data on Health Care Expenditures in billion US dollars.

To create a Bar chart from these data

 Highlight the data and headings (here columns A1:B13)

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 Select the Insert Tab and Charts group and click on Column Chart
 Select the first of the 2-D Column Charts (a clustered column chart).

This yields:

5.3.2 Pie Chart

To create a pie chart from the above

 Highlight the data and headings (here columns A1:B13)

 Select the Insert Tab and Charts group and click on Pie Chart
 Select the second of the 2-D Pie Charts (an exploded pie chart).

This yields:

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6 Statistical Analysis of Data (Manual Calculation)

6.1 Mean and Median Values

The average value of a set of measurements of a constant quantity can be expressed as

either the mean value or the median value. As the number of measurements increases, the
mean and median values become so close to each other.

For any set of n measurements x1, x2 … xn of a constant quantity, the most likely true value
is the mean which is given by:

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥̅ = 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯
1 2 3
+ 𝑥𝑛
𝑛

The median is the middle value when measurements in the data set are written down in
ascending order of magnitude. If the total number of readings is odd, such as for a set of
nine measurements x1, x2 … x9 arranged in order of magnitude, the median value is x5. For
an even number of measurements, the median value is midway between the

two center values, that is, for 10 measurements x1, x2 … x10, the median value is given by
(x5+x6)/2.

Example:

Suppose that the length of a steel bar is measured by several different observers and the
following set of 11 measurements are recorded (in mm), this measurement set is
considered set A.

(Measurement set A)

398 420 394 416 404 408 400 420 396 413 430

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The mean value is calculated as:

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𝑥̅ = 398 + 420 + 394 + 416 + 404 + 408 + 400 + 420 + 396 +

413 + 430 = 409
11

To calculate the median, the 11 readings are arranged in ascending order

394 396 398 400 404 408 413 416 420 420 430

Median = 408 (the 6th reading)

Note: the difference between the min reading (394) and the max reading (430) is 36

Suppose now the measurements are taken again using a better measuring rule and with the
observers taking more care to produce the following measurement set B:

(Measurement set B)

409 406 402 407 405 404 407 404 407 407 408

The mean value is calculated as:

𝑥̅ = 409 + 406 + 402 + 407 + 405 + 404 + 407 + 404 + 407 +

407 + 408 = 406
11

To calculate the median, the 11 readings are arranged in ascending order

402 404 404 405 406 407 407 407 407 408 409

Median = 407 (the 6th reading)

Note: the difference between the min reading (402) and the max reading (409) is 7

Now the question is, which of the two measurement sets, A and B, and the corresponding
mean and median values should we have the most confidence in? The answer is, we can
regard measurement set B as being more reliable because the measurements are much
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closer together (the spread is only 6). In set A, the spread is 36. Thus, the smaller the
spread of the measurements, the more confidence we have in the mean or median value
calculated.

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From another point of view, if the number of readings is increased, the mean and median
values become very close to each other.

Let us now see what happens if we increase the number of measurements by extending

measurement set B to 23 measurements. We will call this measurement set C.

409 406 402 407 405 404 407 404 407 407 408 406 410 406 405 408 406 409 406 405
409 406 407

The mean value is calculated as:

𝑥̅ = 409 + 406 + 402 + 407 + 405 + 404 + 407 + 404 + 407 + ⋯ + 407
= 406.5
23
To calculate the median, the 23 readings are arranged in ascending order

402 404 404 405 405 405 406 406 406 406 406 406 407 407
407 407 407 408 408 409 409 409 410

Median = 406 (the 12th reading)

Note: the difference between the min reading (402) and the max reading (410) is 8

This confirms that the median value tends toward the mean value as the number of
measurements increases.

6.2 Standard Deviation and Variance

Expressing the spread of measurements simply as a range between the largest and the
smallest value is not the suitable way of examining how measurement values are
distributed about the mean value. A much better way of expressing the distribution is to
calculate the variance or standard deviation of the measurements. The data set with the
smallest variance and standard deviation the most precise data set.

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First, calculate the deviation (dn) of each measurement xn from the mean value 𝑥̅ in a set
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of measurements x1, x2, … xn:

𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑𝑛) = 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥̅

Variance (v) The degree to which the value varies about the mean value

(𝑑1)2 + (𝑑2)2 + (𝑑3)2 + ⋯ + (𝑑𝑛)2

𝑣=
𝑛

Standard deviation
()

(𝑑1)2 + (𝑑2)2 + (𝑑3)2 + ⋯ + (𝑑𝑛)2

= √ 𝑛
√𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =

High values of 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑  means low precision (spreading of

data) Low values of 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑  means High precision (spreading

of data)

Unfortunately, these formal definitions for the variance and standard deviation of data are
made with respect to an infinite population of data values whereas, in all practical
situations, we can only have a finite set of measurements. A better adjustment of the
variance of the infinite population can be obtained by multiplying the above formula with
Bessel correction factor (n/n1):

(𝑑1)2 + (𝑑2)2 + (𝑑3)2 + ⋯ +

𝑣=
(𝑑𝑛)2
𝑛−1

(𝑑1)2 + (𝑑2)2 + (𝑑3)2 + ⋯ + (𝑑𝑛)2



= √ √𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
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𝑛−1
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If n < 30, we will use the above 2 equations

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Example:

Calculate 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 for measurement sets A, and B given in the previous example.

Set A Set B
𝑥̅ 𝑣 𝑥̅ 𝑣
n
xn dn dn2  xn dn dn2 
1 398 11 121 409 3 9
2 420 11 121 406 0 0
3 394 15 225 402 4 16
4 416 7 49 407 1 1
5 404 5 25 405 1 1
6 408 1 1 137 11.7 404 2 4
409 406 4.2 2.05
7 400 9 81 407 1 1
8 420 11 121 404 3 9
9 396 13 169 407 1 1
10 413 4 16 407 1 1
11 430 21 441 408 2 4

Thus, as the variance and the standard deviation decrease for a measurement set, we are
able to express greater confidence that the calculated mean or median value is close to the
true value, that is, that the averaging process has reduced the random error value close to
zero. Based on the values of variance and the standard deviation, the data set (B) is more
confident (precise) than data set (A).
Check your progress
Problem #11
A circuit was tuned for resonance by nine different students, and the following values for
the resonant frequency of the circuit where recorded. Compute:

 The arithmetic mean,

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 The mode,
 The median,
 The variance,
 The standard deviation,
 Check your answer using MS Excel (Give a screen shot of your Excel results)

Reading # Frequency (Hz)

1 532
2 548
3 543
4 535
5 546
6 531
7 543
8 532
9 540

Problem #12
Six determinations of a quantity, as given in table below:
Reading# 1 2 3 4 5 6
Value 12.35 12.71 12.48 12.24 12.63 12.58

(a) The arithmetic mean.

(b) The standard deviation.
(c) Check your answer using MS Excel (Give a screen shot of your Excel results)

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Lecture # 10
Crafting an Effective Cover Letter and Resume
1. Cover Letter

Cover letters serve two purposes:

 Express your interest in the organization and position to which you are applying
 Highlight your skills and experiences given in your resume

The goal of this chapter is to break down the structure of a cover letter, and show some
examples of how to incorporate different experiences into your letters for various
Engineering fields.

Paragraph 1: Introduce Yourself

• Identify the position you are applying for, and how you learned of it.
• Explain why you are interested in applying for this role.

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• You may want to include your year (e.g. junior/senior), college, and major.
• Be sure to include something specific about the company

Paragraphs 2 & 3: Sell Yourself

• Indicate that you understand the position requirements and illustrate that you possess the
skills required to add value in the role.
• Highlight character traits and/or specific experiences that prove you are a good fit for the
organization and the role.
• Do elaborate on skills and stories – be specific!!
• Look at the required skills section of the job posting for ideas of what to highlight.
• Answer the question: Why am I right for this position?

Paragraph 4: Closing
• Keep this paragraph short and sweet.
• Summarize your qualifications for the position and reiterate why you are a good fit.
• Provide contact information (cell phone and email).
• Say thank you!

A Few Tips & Tricks

• If you don’t have the name of a contact, address the letter to “Dear Hiring
Manager,” or “Dear Human Resources Director.” Don’t address the letter to “To whom it
may concern,” or “Dear Sir/Madam”
• Limit the letter to 3-4 paragraphs, and 1 page.
• Expand on your resume; do not repeat it verbatim.
• Do not copy exact words/phrases from sample cover letters.
• Confirm that you’ve included the correct company name and contact information.

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• Be enthusiastic. Show off your personality!

Example:
APPLYING FOR A POSITION IN CONSULTING HIGHLIGHTING ACADEMICS &
INDUSTRY EXPERIENCE
I am writing to express my interest in the Summer 2022 Intern Program at ABB company. I
am currently a junior at Benha University, faculty of Engineering, Electrical Engineering
and Control Program (EECP), with a major in control. I have a strong desire to use my
technical background and problem-solving skills to tackle relevant control problems. I am
very interested in ABB’s commitment to developing solutions that have lasting impacts on
global clients, as well as its investment in employees’ professional development through
personal career advisors.
The main reason I chose EECP was the opportunity to understand different control courses to
solve global issues with innovative ideas. I am a unique thinker, and I love tackling
challenging problems. I want to apply my engineering background to address higher-level
control problems and innovate creative solutions. I am drawn to intelligent control
consulting for the opportunity to use my analytical skills and creativity to help designers
how to identify and resolve key points. I enjoy close interaction with clients and creating
dynamic solutions tailored towards their specific needs.
As part of graduation team member on campus, I worked on a project last semester for an
equipment controlling and monitoring a water pumping system. The aim of this project is
to show how technology became smart and how they could enhance the human life. After
designing the suitable layout and after many site visits, our final system is obtained using
technology solutions to make the client’s leasing process more convenient, efficient, and
engaging. Through technologically optimized services, we can solve any problems.
I am very interested in ABB for their emphasis on data-driven insight, due diligence, and the
delivery of impactful and sustainable solutions. The company’s values match my

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original intentions of using my technical knowledge to generate solutions, and with my

background, I am confident I can bring diversity and value to your team. I would welcome
the opportunity to speak with you and can be reached at (xxx) xxx-xxxx and
[email protected]. Thank you for your time and consideration.

Assignment
Write a cover letter applying for position in a company highlighting your academic and
industry experiences.

2. Resume
A resume is a marketing brochure about you. It describes your skills, experience and your
education. The purpose of an effective resume is to get you an interview. Here is the
checklist of all information that should be included in the resume.
Resume Checklist

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Assignment
Write your resume that gives prospective employers an important message about
academic qualifications, soft skills, and talents in order to achieve a position in a high-
ranked company.

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