Diode: The basic form of PN junction finds many uses in electronics circuits.

The standard PN junction diodes are available in a variety of forms. They are
mainly manufactured from silicon, although germanium diodes are also available.

PN junction diodes can also be manufactured from other semiconductor

materials, but these are generally specialised diodes used for particular
applications.

As the name indicates a diode has two terminals. These are referred to as the
anode and cathode. When in circuit, the current flow (conventional current flow)
is across the PN junction diode from the anode to the cathode. As the diode is a
one way device, current is inhibited from flowing in the other direction.

Silicon diode
 A silicon diode dosimeter is a positive – negative junction diode.
 The diodes are produced by taking n-type or p-type silicon and counter-doping the
surface to produce the opposite type material
 The depletion layer is typically several um thick.
 When the dosimeter is irradiated, charged particles are set free which allows a signal
current to flow.
 Diodes can be operated with and without bias.
 In the photovoltaic mode(without bias), the generated voltage is proportional to the
dose rate.

MOSFET
 A MOSFET dosimeter is a Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.
 Ionizing radiation generates charge carriers in the Si oxide.
 The charge carries moves towards the silicon substrate where they are trapped.
 This leads to charge build up causing a change in threshold voltage between the gate
and the silicon substrate.
Semiconductor
 A semiconductor is a material that has a resistivity value in between that
of a conductor and an insulator. The conductivity of a semiconductor
material can be varied under an external electric field.
 Devices made from semiconductor materials are the foundation of modern
electronics, including ratio, computers , telephones, and may other
devices. Semiconductor devices include the transistor, many kinds of
diodes including the light emitting diode, the silicon controlled rectifier, and
digital and analog integrIn a metallic conductor, current is carried by the
flow of electrons.

In semiconductors, current can be carried either by the flow of electrons or by the flow of
positively charged holes in the electron structure of the material. Silicon is used to create most
semiconductors commercially. So many other materials are used, including germanium, gallium
[Link] circuits.

Conduction band:

The conduction band in the range of electron energy, higher than that of the
valence band, sufficient to make the electrons free to accelerate under the
influence of an applied electric field and thus constitutes an electric current.
Semiconductors may cross this conduction band when they are excited .

Valence band:
The valence band is the highest range of electron energies where electrons are
normally present absolute zero. In semiconductors and insulators, there is a
band gap above the valence band, followed by conduction band above that. In
metals, the conduction band has no energy gap separating it from the valence
band .

Intrinsic semiconductors:

Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which impurities are not present and
therefore called pure semiconductors. In these semiconductors few crystal
defects may be present. Fermi level exists exactly at mid way of the energy gap.
When a semiconductor is taken at ) K then it behaves as an insulator and
conduction occurs at higher temperature due to thermal excitation f electrons
from the valence band to the conduction band. Examples: Germanium and
Silicon. Figure 1 shows the intrinsic semiconductors at T = 0K and T >0 K

Extrinsic semiconductors:
In intrinsic or pure semiconductors, the carrier concentration of both electrons
and holes at normal temperatures very low, hence to get appreciable current
density through the semiconductor, a large electric field should be applied.
This problem can overcome by adding suitable impurities into the
intrinsicsemiconductors.

The extrinsic semiconductors are those in which impurities of large quantity are
present. In general, the impurities can be either III group elements or V group
elements. Based on the impurities present in the
extrinsic semiconductors, they are classifies into two categories.
1. n-type semiconductors and
2. p-type semiconductors
p-type semiconductor:

a semiconductor in which electrical conduction is due chiefly to the movement of

positive holes
n a pure (intrinsic) Si or Ge semiconductor, each nucleus uses its four
valence electrons to form four covalent bonds with its neighbors (see figure
below). Each ionic core, consisting of the nucleus and non-valent electrons, has
a net charge of +4, and is surrounded by 4 valence electrons. Since there are no
excess electrons or holes In this case, the number of electrons and holes present
at any given time will always be equal.

Now, if one of the atoms in the semiconductor lattice is replaced by an element

with three valence electrons, such as a Group 3 element like Boron (B) or
Gallium (Ga), the electron-hole balance will be changed. This impurity will only
be able to contribute three valence electrons to the lattice, therefore leaving one
excess hole (see figure below). Since holes will "accept" free electrons, a Group
3 impurity is also called an acceptor.
n-type

In addition to replacing one of the lattice atoms with a Group 3 atom, we can also
replace it by an atom with five valence electrons, such as the Group 5 atoms
arsenic (As) or phosphorus (P). In this case, the impurity adds five valence
electrons to the lattice where it can only hold four. This means that there is now
one excess electron in the lattice (see figure below). Because it donates an
electron, a Group 5 impurity is called a donor. Note that the material remains
electrically neutral.

n-type
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
LEDs are p-n junction devices constructed of gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAsP), or gallium phosphide (GaP). Silicon and germanium are not suitable
because those junctions produce heat and no appreciable IR (IR: Infra Red light) or visible
[Link] junction in an LED is forward biased and when electrons cross the junction from
the n- to the p-type material, the electron-hole recombination process produces some photons
in the IR or visible light in a process called electroluminescence. An exposed semiconductor
surface can then