3 The Mole — The Central Unit of

Chemistry
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Explain the significance and use of the mole
• Perform calculations involving the mole
• Determine relationships between molar quantities of gases at STP
• Perform calculations involving molecular and empirical formulas to identify a substance
• Describe concentration in terms of molarity
• Perform calculations involving molarity
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
By the end of this chapter you should know the meaning of these key terms:
• empirical formula
• molarity
• molar mass
• molar solution
• molar volume
• mole
• molecular formula
• molecular mass
• percentage composition
• relative atomic mass
• standard solution
• stoichiometry
• STP

The mole is at the centre of the chemical measurement.

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 107
3.1 Relative Atomic Mass

Warm Up
1. Complete the grocery list by filling in the missing units (Figure 3.1a).
One __________ eggs, Two __________milk, Three _________flour
2. From your answer to #1, what are the three ways that we We express amounts of materials in
typically express amounts of materials? different ways.

(a) number of items (b) ____________________ (c) __________________

Experimental chemistry is essentially figuring out things about matter that cannot be
Relative Mass observed directly. The joy of experimental chemistry lies in figuring out how to figure
it out. Consider the following ingenious method for determining the relative masses
of objects without needing to know their actual masses. Mass is the amount of matter.
When you say that one object has twice as much mass as another you are expressing the
object’s relative mass. You are comparing one object’s mass to the other’s.
Suppose you wanted to determine the relative mass of a staple and a grain of rice,
each of which is too small to register a mass on your balance (Figure 3.1.1). Why not
weigh 100 of each? If 100 identical staples weigh twice as much as 100 identical grains
of rice then one staple will weigh twice as much as one grain of rice. The nifty aspect of
this technique is that we don’t even need to know how many objects we are weighing:
we just need to know that we’re weighing the same number of each. If some number
of staples weighs twice as much as the same number of rice grains then any number of
staples will weigh twice as much as that number of rice grains.
This technique for determining relative mass still works even if the items being
weighed are not identical. If the items being weighed for comparison are not identical,
Figure 3.1.1 One hundred then the ratio provided is that of their average masses rather than the ratio of the masses
staples and one hundred
of the individual items since this would depend on which individual items. For example,
grains of rice have the same
mass ratio as one staple and if a variety of pens weighs 1.52 times as much as the same number of a variety of pencils
one grain of rice, 2:1. then the average mass of these pens is 1.52 times the average mass of these pencils.

The mass ratio of any equal number of items equals the average mass ratio of those
individual items.

While you should never confuse the terms “weight” and “mass,” the word “weigh”
serves double duty. To weigh is to find the weight or compare the weights of. Since scales
work by comparing weights, you are by definition “weighing” objects and materials with
a scale. In fact, a weighing scale is a measuring instrument for determining the mass or
weight of an object.

Quick Check
1. What does “relative mass” mean? ____________________________________________________________
2. You have two bags of candy from a bulk food store: a bag of gumdrops and a bag of jujubes. You intend
to determine the relative masses of a jujube and a gumdrop by weighing the contents of each bag. What
condition is necessary for this to work? ________________________________________________________

108 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 In this book, as in most chemistry textbooks, much of our current chemical knowledge
Law of Constant will be presented in historical context. Instead of just telling you what we know (or
Composition think we know), we’ll tell you how chemists came to this understanding. This is because
chemistry is more than just an accumulated list of facts about matter: it is also the
processes that lead us to such information. By learning and assessing these processes, as
well as the facts, some of you will decide to continue this quest. In addition, people often
acquire a better understanding of a concept by learning the concept in the same manner
that it was originally developed.
To use the technique just described to determine the relative masses of different
types of atoms, chemists needed to be able to weigh an equal number of different types
of atoms. In the early 1800s, chemists discovered that all samples of a given compound
have the same mass ratio of their constituent elements. For example, there are 8 g of
oxygen for every 1 g of hydrogen in every sample of water. This is called the law of
constant composition. In 1804, John Dalton, a scientist in England, argued that the law
of constant composition not only supported the concept of atoms but also provided their
relative masses. He reasoned that the mass ratios in which different elements combine
are the mass ratios of their individual atoms or a simple multiple thereof. If one atom
of magnesium weighs 1.5 times as much as one atom of oxygen then any number of
magnesium atoms would weigh 1.5 times as much as the same number of oxygen atoms.
Dalton argued that this was the reason all samples of a compound contained the same
mass ratio of its elements.

Sample Problem — Determining Relative Atomic Mass

A chemist carefully heats 0.350 g of magnesium powder in a crucible. The magnesium reacts with atmospheric
oxygen to produce 0.580 g of magnesium oxide (MgO). What is the mass of a magnesium atom relative to the mass
of an oxygen atom?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. 0.350 g Mg must have combined with 0.580 g MgO – 0.350 g Mg = 0.230 g O
0.230 g O to produce 0.580 g MgO.
2. Since magnesium oxide has the formula
MgO, 0.350 g of magnesium and 0.230
g of oxygen contain equal numbers of
mass of Mg atoms 0.350 g
atoms. = = 1.52
mass of O atoms 0.230 g
3. If some number of Mg atoms weighs
1.52 times as much as the same number
of O atoms then any number of Mg
atoms weighs 1.52 times as much as the A Mg atom weighs 1.52 times as much as an O atom.
same number of O atoms, even one of
each.

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 109
 Practice Problems — Determining Relative Atomic Mass
1. A dozen identical AA batteries have a mass of 276 g and a dozen identical watch batteries have a mass of
only 26.4 g. The mass of an AA battery is ______ times the mass of a watch battery.

2. A sample of strontium oxide (SrO) is found to contain 2.683 g Sr and 0.490 g O. What is the
mass of a strontium atom relative to that of an oxygen atom?

3. A 4.218 g sample of daltonium bromide (DBr) is decomposed and 0.337 g of D is recovered.

(a) What is the atomic mass of daltonium given that the atomic mass of bromine is 79.9 u?
_______________________________________________________________
(b) This question uses the fictitious element, daltonium, so you can’t just look up the element’s atomic mass.
What element does daltonium represent? ________________________________________

According to the sample problem, if all the atoms of an element are identical then the
Relative Masses of mass of a magnesium atom is 1.52 times the mass of an oxygen atom. If all the atoms of
Atoms an element do not have the same mass then the average mass of a magnesium atom is
1.52 times the average mass of an oxygen atom. The issue of whether all the atoms of an
element are identical wasn’t resolved for another century but, as described, we need only
insert the word, “average” if they are not.
The element hydrogen was discovered to have the least massive atoms so its atoms
were originally assigned an atomic mass of 1 u (atomic mass unit) and the mass of all the
other types of atoms were expressed relative to this. The discussion of atomic mass and
atomic mass units will continue in chapter 5. Oxygen’s atomic mass of 16 u means that
the mass of an oxygen atom is 16 times the mass of a hydrogen atom (or that the average
mass of an oxygen atom is 16 times the average mass of a hydrogen atom) (Figure 3.1.2).
If the mass of a magnesium atom is 1.52 times the mass of an oxygen atom then the
mass of a magnesium atom is 1.52 × 16.0 u = 24.3 u. The periodic table of the elements
confirms that magnesium has a relative atomic mass of 24.3 u.
Determining the relative masses of the basic
units of matter was a remarkable feat. Dalton
bridged the gap between the world we experience
and the invisible world of atoms by deriving
the relative masses of atoms from laboratory
observations. But how did Dalton know that the
formula of magnesium oxide was MgO? Recall
Dalton’s important qualification: “or a simple
multiple thereof.” If the formula of magnesium
oxide is MgO2 then the mass ratio of Mg to O in the
compound would need to be doubled to determine
their atomic mass ratio. This is necessary because
we are weighing half as many magnesium atoms.
Therefore, the same number of magnesium atoms
would weigh twice as much. Similar adaptations
Figure 3.1.2 The mass of an oxygen atom is equal to the mass of
would be required for other possible formulas.
16 hydrogen atoms.

110 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Sample Problem — Determining Relative Atomic Mass (Non 1:1 Formulas)
Barium chloride has a mass ratio of 1.934 g Ba:1.000 g C l. Chlorine has an atomic mass of 35.5 u.
What is the atomic mass of barium if the formula of barium chloride is BaC l2?

What to Think about How to Do It

If the formula is BaCl2 then we need to double the mass 2(1.934) × 35.5 u = 137.3 u
of barium so that we can compare the masses of equal
numbers of atoms.

Practice Problems — Determining Relative Atomic Mass (Non 1:1 Formulas)

Aluminum iodide has a mass ratio of 1.000 g Al: 14.100 g I. Given that the atomic mass of iodine is 126.9 u,
what is the atomic mass of aluminum if the formula of aluminum iodide is:
1. Al I3? _________________________________________ 2. Al2I3? _____________________________________

Dalton assumed that atoms combined in the simplest manner possible. He believed that
Cannizzaro’s Paper if a pair of elements (A + B) formed only one compound, the formula for the compound
would be AB. If they formed a second compound, its formula would be either A2B or AB2.
Dalton was well aware that he had no evidence for his “rules of simplicity.” He conceded
that some of his formulas and resulting atomic mass determinations might be incorrect. As
you may recall from Science 9 and Science 10, the formulas of ionic compounds are simple
ratios, but not quite as simple as Dalton supposed.
On September 3, 1860, many of Europe’s leading chemists met in Karlsruhe,
Germany. At this meeting, the Italian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro presented a
remarkable paper in which he put together the pieces of the puzzle about atomic masses.
For example, Dalton hadn’t understood how two particles of hydrogen gas could react
with one particle of oxygen gas to produce two particles of water vapour. He thought
that couldn’t happen because it would require splitting the oxygen particle, which he
thought was an atom. Cannizzaro showed that Dalton’s atomic model was still valid if the
hydrogen and oxygen gas particles were made up of pairs of molecules. These molecules
are called diatomic molecules because they are formed of two atoms of the same
element (“di” means 2).
2 hydrogen molecules + 1 oxygen molecule 2 water molecules

Figure 3.1.3 Diatomic molecules of hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water molecules.

Cannizzaro’s paper went on to describe and explain three other techniques for
determining atomic mass: one for metals, one for liquid or gaseous non-metals, and one
for solid non-metals.
Dalton is called the father of the atomic theory because he explained how the law
of constant composition provided support for the concept of atoms. However, additional
methods were required to determine the relative atomic masses. These atomic masses
were, in turn, used to determine the correct formulas of compounds. Dmitri Mendeleev,
who published his first periodic table of the elements in 1869, was at Karlsruhe. The
correct atomic masses were a prerequisite to Mendeleev’s famous table.

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 111
 3.1 Activity: The Relative Mass of Paper Clips
Question
What is the mass of a large paper clip relative to that of a small paper clip?
(We’ll answer this question without weighing only one paper clip of either type.)
Background
If some number of large paper clips weighs twice as much as the same number of small paper clips then any
number of large paper clips will weigh twice as much as the same number of small paper clips, including one of
each. Remember we don’t need to know how many paper clips we are weighing; we just need to know that we’re
weighing the same number of each. The mass ratio of any equal number of identical items equals the mass ratio of
the individual items.
Procedure
1. Weigh a pile of small paper clips. Record this mass in the table provided below.
2. Attach a large paper clip to each small paper clip and measure the total mass of these coupled clips.
Record this mass in the table provided below.
3. Calculate the total mass of the attached large paper clips and record this mass in the table below.
Results and Discussion

Objects Mass (g)

Small paper clips

Coupled paper clips

Large paper clips

mass of some number of large paper clips g

1. = = ____________
mass of the same number of small paper clips g

The mass of a large paper clip is _______ times the mass of a small paper clip.

2. If we assign a small paper clip a mass of 1.00 smu (stationary mass unit), what is the mass of a large paper clip?

3. Let’s check this result by weighing one small paper clip and one large paper clip.
mass of one large paper clip g
= = ____________
mass of one small paper clip g

4. Why might the ratios calculated in steps 1 and 3 be slightly different?

112 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
3.1 Review Questions
1. A certain number of identical glass marbles has a 4. Zinc sulphide has a mass ratio of 2.037 g Zn:
mass of 825 g. The same number of identical steel 1.000 g S. Given that the atomic mass of sulphur is
marbles has a mass of 2245 g. 32.1 u, what is the atomic mass of zinc if the formula
(a) Assigning a glass marble a mass of 1.00 mmu of zinc sulphide is:
(marble mass unit), calculate the mass of a steel (a) ZnS?
marble.
(b) ZnS2?

(c) Zn3S2?

5. A compound of copper and oxygen contains 13.073

(b) Why don’t you need to know the number of g Cu and 1.647 g O. Oxygen has an atomic mass of
marbles that were weighed? 16.0 u.
(a) What is the atomic mass of copper if the formula
of the above compound is CuO?

(b) What is the atomic mass of copper if the formula

2. 1.965 g of sodium is placed in a flask containing of the above compound is Cu2O?
chlorine gas. 5.000 g of NaCl is produced in the
resulting reaction.
(a) A sodium atom’s mass is ______ times a chlorine (c) What is the atomic mass of copper if the formula
atom’s mass. of the above compound is CuO2?

(b) Chlorine has an atomic mass of 35.5 u. What is

the atomic mass of sodium? 6. In 1819, Dulong and Petit noted a relationship
between the presumed atomic mass of most metals
and their specific heats. The specific heat of a metal
divided into 25.0 provides the approximate atomic
3. A 10.000 g sample of zubenium fluoride (ZuF) is mass of the metal. The specific heat of a substance
decomposed and 8.503 g of Zu is recovered. is the amount of heat required to raise 1 g of the
(a) What is the atomic mass of zubenium? substance by 1°C. The specific heat of copper is
0.3864 J/g°C.
(a) Calculate the approximate atomic mass of
copper using Dulong and Petit’s method.

(b) This question uses the fictitious element (b) Knowing the approximate atomic mass of the
zubenium so you can’t just look up the element’s metal allowed chemists to determine which of
atomic mass. What element does zubenium the more accurate atomic masses derived by
represent? composition analysis was correct. Which of the
atomic masses and corresponding formulas
calculated in question 5 is correct for the
compound that was analyzed?

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 113
7. Determine the percent error of Dulong and Petit’s 11. Eight identical forks have a mass of 213.1 g.
method of approximating a metal’s atomic mass for Eight identical knives have a mass of 628.2 g.
aluminum (0.903 J/g°C), magnesium (1.05 J/g°C) and (a) What is the mass of a knife relative to that of a
silver (0.23772 J/g°C). fork?

(b) Why did you not need to divide the supplied

masses by 8 to answer 10(a)?
8. In 1811 Amedeo Avogadro proposed that equal
volumes of any gas at the same temperature and
pressure contain the same number of particles.
Cannizzaro realized this allows scientists to weigh
equal numbers of atoms of different gaseous
elements and determine their relative atomic (c) What could you conclude from this data if the
masses. Complete the following data table showing utensils of each type were not identical?
the mass of equal volumes of two different gases at
the same temperature and pressure.

Element Mass of Gas (g) Relative Atomic

Mass (u)
H 0.210 1.0 12. A mint is advertising a special set of silver coins
7.455 containing a 10 g coin, a 20 g coin and a 30 g coin.
One of these coins is accidentally being made 1 g
lighter than its advertised mass. You have two sets
of these coins and have been challenged to identify
the undersized coin by weighing only one pile of
coins. The single pile may include any combination
9. Potassium has an atomic mass of 39.1 u. of the coins that you wish. What combination of the
What does this mean? coins would you weigh? How can you use that mass
to identify the undersized coin?

10. Look up the following elements in the periodic table

and report each element’s atomic mass.

(a) P ______________

(b) Ca _____________

(c) U ______________

114 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
3.2 Introducing the Mole — The Central Unit of Chemistry

Warm Up
1. It takes 15 gulps to drink a bottle of water. What information would allow you to
calculate how many slurps it would take to drink an identical bottle of water?
_________________________
2. If 4 slurps = 1 gulp, how many slurps would it take to consume a 15-gulp drink?
_____________________________________________________________________
3. If 5 slurps equal 1 gulp, how many gulps would it take to consume a 20-slurp drink? _____________

What mass of oxygen has the same number of atoms as 1 g of hydrogen? An oxygen
The Mole Concept atom (16 u) weighs 16 times as much as a hydrogen atom (1 u). Therefore, it would
require 16 g of oxygen to have the same number of atoms as 1 g of hydrogen. Chemists
extended this reasoning to all the elements. For example, 55.8 g Fe, 35.5 g Cl, 23.0 g Na,
and 12.0 g C all contain the same number of atoms since these masses are in the same
ratios as their individual atomic masses. How many atoms are there in the atomic mass
of any element expressed in grams? Originally chemists didn’t know and even now they
only have a very rough estimate but they nevertheless gave a name to that number. They
called this number a “mole.”

A mole is a quantity equal to the number of atoms in the atomic mass of any element
expressed in grams (e.g., the number of atoms in 1.0 g H, 16.0 g O, 63.5 g Cu).

The definition of the mole is under continuous review. It is “fine-tuned” periodically

in response to new information about atomic structure and to changes in the definition
of the atomic mass unit on which the definition of the mole is based.
The number of things in a mole is also referred to as Avogadro’s number in honour
of the Italian scientist whose insight regarding gases led to a technique for determining
the relative atomic masses of non-metals. Just as the word “dozen” refers to a number of
something, so does the word “mole.” The chief difference is that we know that a dozen is
12 of something but we only have a rough estimate of how many things are in a mole of
something. There have been many independent derivations of the number of items in
a mole. Chemists currently estimate that a mole is 6.02214179 × 1023 give or take a few
Figure 3.2.1 6.02214179 ×
million billion (Figure 3.2.1). The actual number isn’t important unless you’re working at
1023 carbon atoms
the atomic level because whatever the number is, it’s the same for a mole of anything.
Just as a dozen is 12 of anything, a mole is approximately 6.02 × 1023 of anything.
While a dozen is a fairly small number, a mole is an absurdly large number. A mole of peas
would cover the entire Earth’s surface with a layer over 200 m deep. Atoms are so small
however that you can hold a mole of atoms in the palm of your hand. Just as a dozen
is a convenient unit of quantity for a baker to group buns and doughnuts, a mole is a
convenient unit of quantity for a chemist to group atoms and molecules. The number of
items is one way to express the amount of a material so chemists often refer to a mole of
a substance rather than a mole of the substance’s particles (e.g., a mole of copper instead
of a mole of copper atoms).

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 115
 The mole was introduced in the early 1900s by Wilhelm Ostwald. Ironically, Ostwald
developed the mole concept as an alternative to the atomic theory, which he did not
accept. Today, the mole is used throughout modern chemistry as the central unit through
which all other quantities of materials are related, but it was not common before the mid-
1950s, just two generations of chemists ago. Before that, chemists related quantities of
chemicals through their atomic masses without reference to the mole.

Quick Check
1. (a) How is a mole like a dozen?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
(b) How is a mole different than a dozen?
________________________________________________________________________
2. What does a mole of chlorine atoms weigh? ______________________
3. What mass of sulphur has the same number of atoms that are in 1.0 g H? ______________________

Many chemistry problems can be solved by examining the units of the values provided
Conversions Using and considering the units that the answer must have. This technique of manipulating
Avogadro’s Number units is called “dimensional analysis.” While it’s important to understand the mathematical
operation you’re performing, it’s reassuring to see that the units work out (i.e., that the
answer has the appropriate units).
Most chemical conversions involve the mole. The key to conversion is the
conversion factor. Chemists know or know where to find the conversion factors they
need. At this point in the course, we’ll use only two conversion factors: Avogadro’s
number (the number of items per mole) and molar mass (the number of grams per mole).
The items that a chemist would normally be concerned about are chemical species such
as atoms, molecules, ions, and formula units. The abbreviation for the unit mole is mol
(Figure 3.2.2).

Name Equivalence Statement Conversion Factors

6.02 x 1023 items 1 mol

Avogadro’s number 1 mol = 6.02 × 1023 items 1 mol 6.02 x 1023 items

Figure 3.2.2 Converting the moles and the number of items of a substance

116 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Sample Problem—Converting Moles to Number of Items
How many oxygen atoms are in 3.2 mol of oxygen?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: mol O → atoms O
2. Setup:
? atoms O
3.2 mol O ×
1 mol O
3.2 mol O × 6.02 × 10 atoms O = 1.9 × 1024 atoms O
23
3. Conversion factor: 1 mol O
6.02 × 1023 atoms O per 1 mol O

4. Count the number of

significant figures of each
value in the operation and Note: There is no uncertainty in the 1 mol O. The uncertainty of the
then round the answer to the conversion factor is expressed in the 6.02 × 1023 atoms O.
least of these.

Practice Problems—Converting Moles to Number of Items

1. Chromium ions are responsible for the beautiful colours of rubies and emeralds.
How many chromium ions (Cr3+) are in 3.5 mol of chromium ions?

2. 30.0 mol H2O = ___________ molecules H2O

3. How many atoms of sodium are in 0.023 mol Na?

Sample Problem—Converting Number of Items to Moles

7.3 × 1024 carbon monoxide molecules (CO) represent how many moles of carbon monoxide?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert:
molecules CO → mol CO
2. Setup: 1 mol CO
(7.3 × 1024 molecules CO) ×
1 mol CO (7.3 × 1024 molecules CO) ×
? molecules CO 6.02 × 1023 molecules CO
3. Conversion factor: = 12 mol CO
1 mol CO per 6.02 × 1023 molecules CO

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 117
 Practice Problems — Converting Number of Items to Moles

1. Incandescent lights are filled with argon to prevent the glowing filament from burning up.
How many moles of argon do 1.81 × 1022 atoms of argon represent?

2. 2.25 × 1024 molecules CO2 = ___________ mol CO2?

3. A 1-L intravenous bag of saline solution contains 9.27 × 1022 formula units of NaCl.
How many moles of NaCl is this?

The mass of one mole of an element’s atoms is called that element’s molar mass (Figure
Molar Mass 3.2.3). It follows from simply restating the definition of a mole that the molar mass of an
element is its atomic mass expressed in grams. For example, “one mole is the number
of atoms in 16 g of oxygen” can be restated as “one mole of oxygen atoms weighs 16 g.”
The atomic masses of the elements can be found in the periodic table. The atomic mass
of oxygen is 16 u and thus the molar mass of oxygen is 16 g. This is better expressed as a
conversion factor for calculation purposes: 16 g per mole of oxygen or 16 g/mol O.
The molecular mass or formula mass of a
compound is the sum of its constituent atomic masses
(e.g., H2O: 2(1 u) + 16 u = 18 u). One mole of water
molecules consists of 1 mol of oxygen atoms (16 g) and 2
mol of hydrogen atoms (2 g) and therefore weighs 18 g.
Similarly, 1 mol of NaCl formula units consists of 1 mol of
sodium atoms (23 g) and 1 mol of chlorine atoms (35.5 g)
Figure 3.2.3 The mass of 1 mol of a chemical depends on the atoms for a total mass of 58.5 g (Figure 3.2.4).
that make it up.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.2.4 (a) The molecular mass of water is the sum of the masses of the oxygen and hydrogen
atoms. (b) The formula mass of NaCl is the sum of the masses of sodium and chlorine atoms.

Just as the molar mass of an element is simply its atomic mass expressed in grams,
the molar mass of a compound is simply its molecular or formula mass expressed in
grams.

118 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 The molar mass of a substance is its atomic, molecular, or formula mass
expressed in grams.

Sample Problem — Determining a Compound’s Formula Mass and/or Molar Mass

What are the formula mass and molar mass of Al2(SO4)3?

What to Think About How to Do It

Formula Mass = 2(27.0 u) + 3(32.1 u) + 12(16.0 u) = 342.3 u
1. 1 Al2(SO4)3 consists of
2 Al’s, 3 S’s, and 12 O’s.
Molar Mass = 2(27.0 g) + 3(32.1 g) + 12(16.0 g) = 342.3 g
2. 1 mol Al2(SO4)3 consists of
2 mol Al, 3 mol S and 12 mol O. Expressed as a conversion factor, it is 342.3 g/mol.

Practice Problems — Determining a Compound’s Formula Mass and/or Molar Mass

1. What is the molecular mass of nitrogen dioxide?

2. What is the molar mass of Na2Cr2O7?

3. What is the molar mass of iron(III) sulphide?

Name Equivalence Statement Conversion Factors

Conversions Using
Molar Mass ?g 1 mol
Molar mass 1 mol = ? g 1 mol ?g
18.0 g 1 mol
Example: H2O 1 mol = 18.0 g 1 mol 18.0 g

Sample Problem — Converting Moles to Mass

What is the mass of 3.2 mol of oxygen atoms?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: mol O → g O
2. Setup:
?gO 16.0 g O
3.2 mol O ×
1 mol O 3.2 mol O × = 51 g O
1 mol O
3. Conversion factor:
16.0 g O per 1 mol O

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 119
 Practice Problems — Converting Moles to Mass

1. What does 2.65 mol of table salt (NaCl) weigh?

2. 0.87 mol NH3 = ________ g NH3?

3. Very large quantities of chemicals are produced in the chemical industry. Worldwide production of sulphuric
acid (H2SO4) is estimated at two trillion (2.0 × 1012) moles annually. How many tonnes of H2SO4 is this?
(1 tonne = 1000 kg)

Sample Problem — Converting Mass to Moles

How many moles of water are in 1.8 g of water?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: g H2O → mol H2O
2. Setup:
1 mol H2O 1 mol H2O
1.8 g H2O × 1.8 g H2O x = 0.10 mol H2O
? g H2O 18.0 g H2O
3. Conversion factor.
1 mol H2O per 18 g H2O

Practice Problems — Converting Mass to Moles

1. Gold is the most malleable metal. It can be hammered into sheets that are only several hundred atoms thick.
In 2010, Vancouver’s Science World covered an entire billboard with just two troy ounces (62.2 g) of gold to
dramatize this fact. How many moles of gold is this?

2. 3.88 g CO2 = _________ mol CO2

3. Smelling salts are used to revive an unconscious athlete. A capsule of smelling salts contains 500.0 mg
(NH4)2CO3. How many moles of (NH4)2CO3 is this?

120 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 3.2 Activity: A Mole of Pennies
Question
How long and massive would a stack of 1 mol of pennies be?
Background
The mole is a convenient and useful term for counting very large quantities of things. You know that 1 mol of
pennies is approximately 6.02 × 1023 pennies but can you picture just how many that really is? Suppose you
stacked 1 mol of pennies. How tall do you think that stack would be? How much would it weigh? Just for fun, try
guessing by completing the tables below in pencil before you do the necessary calculations.
Procedure
1. Make a stack of 10 pennies.
2. Measure and record the stack’s height in centimetres. ______________
3. Measure and record the stack’s mass in grams. _________________
Results and Discussion
1. Calculate the height in kilometres of a stack of 1 mol of pennies.

2. Would the stack reach… Distance (km) ✔or ✗

our Moon? 3.9 × 105
Pluto? 5.9 × 109
Proxima Centauri (the nearest star)? 4.1 × 1013
Andromeda (the nearest galaxy)? 1.9 × 1019

3. Calculate the mass in kilograms of 1 mol of pennies.

4. Would the stack weigh as much as… Mass (kg) ✔or ✗

the U.S.S. Ronald Reagan (the world’s
2.1 × 107
heaviest aircraft carrier)?
the total of all living things on Earth? 2 × 1015
our Moon? 7.4 × 1022
Earth? 6.0 × 1024

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 121
3.2 Review Questions

1. (a) What is the definition of a mole? 5. 3.2 mol C = ___________________ atoms C

(b) What is our best estimate of the number of 6. How many molecules are in 0.0085 mol of C2H6?
things in a mole?

(c) What do chemists call this number?

7. 1.4 × 1018 Ag atoms represent how many moles of
atoms?

2. (a) What mass of carbon would have the same

number of atoms as 1.0 g H?

8. 2.99 g Na = ___________ mol Na

(b) What mass of carbon would have the same
number of atoms as 3.0 g H?

9. What is the mass of 5.2 mol of fluorine?

(c) What mass of sulphur would have the same
number of atoms as 32.0 g O?

10. Airline regulations prohibit lithium metal batteries

3. (a) What does a mole of iron weigh? that contain over 2.0 g of lithium on passenger
aircraft. How many moles of lithium are in 2.0 g Li?

(b) Chemists call this value the

_______________________ of iron.

4. (a) What is the molecular mass of propane, C3H8? 11. What is the mass of 0.32 mol of sodium nitrite?

(b) What is the formula mass of calcium hydroxide,

Ca(OH)2?
12. A can of cola contains 58 mg of caffeine, C8H10N4O2.
How many moles of caffeine are in a can of cola?

(c) What is the molar mass of carbon tetrachloride,

CC l4?

122 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
13. Carbon dioxide, produced by respiration in plants 17. An environmental assessment predicts that a coal
and animals, causes the slightly acidic nature of plant would emit 8.18 × 106 mol of ammonia into
normal rain. How many molecules of CO2 are in the atmosphere annually. How many tonnes of
0.725 mol CO2? ammonia is this?

14. The male luna moth can detect specialized 18. Ammonium phosphate is a fertilizer containing
chemicals known as pheromones in order to locate a nitrogen and phosphorus for healthy plant growth.
mate. A moth can detect 1.70 × 109 molecules of the How many moles of ammonium phosphate are in a
pheromone. How many moles of the pheromone is bag containing 2.640 kg of it?
this?

15. Cycling enthusiasts often prefer bicycles made with 19. The movie Erin Brockovich dramatizes the efforts of
titanium frames. Titanium is resistant to corrosion the title character (played by Julia Roberts) to prove
and fatigue, has a significantly lower density than that the Pacific Gas and Electric Co. contaminated
steel, and seems to have a natural shock absorbing the water supply of Hinkley, California, with
ability. Suppose a high-quality titanium frame hexavalent chromium. Tin(II) dichromate is a
contains 1300 g of titanium. How many moles of hexavalent chromium compound. What is the mass
titanium does this frame contain? of 5.925 mol of tin(II) dichromate?

16. Bluestone is an attractive mineral with the chemical

name copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate. What is the
mass of a 1.75-mol sample of bluestone?

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 123
3.3 The Wheel Model of Mole Conversions

Warm Up
1. Which contains more atoms, 30 g Cl or 15 g C? __________________
2. Which weighs more, 1 mol Zn or 3 mol N? __________________
3. Which contains more molecules, 34 g CH4 or 58 g O2? __________________

The mole serves as a link between the invisible world of atoms and observable quantities
Two-Step Mole of chemicals. The mole is to a chemist what the dollar is to an accountant. Just as the
Conversions dollar is the central unit of commerce and allows us to keep track of money, the mole is
the central unit of chemistry and allows us to keep track of atoms and molecules.

A quantity of a substance can only be related to another quantity of the same

substance through the mole.

How would you solve the following problem?

How many atoms are in 5.0 g of copper?

You might split the problem into two parts, each of which you learned how to solve
in section 3.2:
1. How many moles of copper are in 5.0 g Cu?
2. How many copper atoms is this?

This is how chemists solve this type of problem. Think of the mole as the hub of a
wheel with the spokes leading out to all the other units. In our wheel model, the spokes
represent the conversion factors (Figure 3.3.1).
For now, our conversions are limited to those
between moles and items and between moles and grams.
Mass and the number of items must be related to each
other through the mole: grams to moles to items or items
to moles to grams. The beauty of the wheel model is that
as you learn more chemical quantities they can simply
be added to the rim of the wheel. In order to relate or
“connect” a new chemical quantity to all of the others
you only need to connect it to the mole. In other words, if
you wanted to convert grams into sneebugs, you would
convert grams into moles and then moles into sneebugs.

Figure 3.3.1 The wheel is a useful model for representing

conversion factors.

124 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Sample Problem — Two-Step Conversion: Mass to Number of Items (Atoms)
Chemists count by weighing. How many atoms are in 5.0 g of copper?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Plan your route.
Convert: g Cu → mol Cu → atoms Cu
Chemists usually perform these two
calculations in one continuous sequence.
1 mol Cu ? atoms Cu
2. Setup: 5.0 g Cu × ×
? g Cu 1 mol Cu
The numerators show the route; in this case,
grams to moles to atoms.
Each numerator’s unit is cancelled by the next
denominator’s unit until you arrive at your
answer.
3. Conversion factors: 1 mol Cu 6.02 × 1023atoms Cu
5.0 g Cu × ×
1 mol Cu per 63.5 g Cu 63.5 g CU 1 mol Cu
6.02 × 1023 atoms Cu per 1 mol Cu = 4.7 × 1022atoms Cu

As Avogadro’s number is an estimate, so is the above answer. Nevertheless, being

able to estimate the number of atoms in any sample of a substance is remarkable. This is
perhaps even more evident for the reverse conversion, which allows us to estimate the
mass of a single atom in grams.

Sample Problem — Two-Step Conversion: Number of Items (Atoms) to Mass

What is the mass of an oxygen atom in grams?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: atom O → mol O → g O
1 mol O ?gO
2. Setup: 1 atom O × × 1 mol O 16.0 g O
? atoms O 1 mol O 1 atom O × ×
3. Conversion factors: 6.02 × 10 atoms O 1 mol O
23

1 mol O per 6.02 × 1023 atoms O = 2.66 × 1023 g O

16.0 g per 1 mol O
4. All that we’ve done here is divide the mass of a
mole of oxygen atoms by the number of atoms in
a mole to determine the mass of each atom.
Always check to make sure that your answer is
reasonable. 2.66 × 10−23 g is a reasonable answer
because an atom would have a very small mass.

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 125
 Practice Problems — Two-Step Conversions

1. Fill in the missing entries to determine the mass in grams of a billion billion (1 × 1018) sulphur dioxide molecules.
1 mol SO2 _______ g SO2
(1 × 1018 molecules SO2) × × = ___________ g SO2
___________ molecules SO2 1 mol SO2

2. How many atoms are in 2.1 g Br?

3. What is the mass in grams of one atom of Ag?

Chemists often relate a quantity of one chemical substance to a quantity of another.

Two Wheel Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the quantitative relationships
Conversions between elements in a compound (composition stoichiometry) and between the
(Composition reactants and products in a chemical reaction (reaction stoichiometry). (“Stoichiometry”
Stoichiometry) is from the Greek words stoicheion meaning “element” and metron meaning “measure.”)
Our presentation here is limited to composition stoichiometry. To accommodate such
conversions, we simply add another wheel to our model. Each wheel in our model
represents a different substance or species and, of course, the only functional way to
connect two wheels is with an axle. An axle runs between the hubs of wheels and in our
model, connects moles of one substance or species to moles of
another (Figure 3.3.2).

A quantity of a substance or species can only be related to a

quantity of another substance or species through the mole.

We already know how to move about (convert units) using

single wheels. The only new step added here is represented by
the axle, which helps you to convert moles of one substance
into moles of another. The conversion factor is found in the
compound’s formula. There are two oxygen atoms in a CO2
Figure 3.3.2 The two-wheel-and-axle model for converting molecule, so there are two dozen oxygen atoms in a dozen CO2
between species
molecules and there are… wait for it… 2 mol of oxygen atoms in
1 mol of CO2 molecules.

Name Equivalence Statement Conversion Factors

1 molecule A = ? atoms B 1 mol A ? mol B

Chemical Formula ? mol B 1 mol A
∴1 mol A = ? mol B

1 molecule CO2 = 2 atoms O 1 mol CO2 2 mol O

Example: CO2 1 mol CO2
∴1 mol CO2 = 2 mol O 2 mol O

126 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Sample Problem — One-Step Conversion: Moles of A to Moles of B
How many moles of hydrogen are in 6.0 mol of water?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: mol H2O → mol H

? mol H
2. Setup: 6.0 mol H2O ×
1 mol H2O

3. Conversion factor:
There are 2 H’s in an H2O;
therefore there are
2mol H
2 mol of H in 1 mol of H2O. 6.0 mol H2O × = 12 mol H
1 mol H2O
4. The values in the conversion factor
(2 mol H per 1 mol H2O) do not limit
the significant figures in the answer
as these values have no uncertainty.
There are exactly 2 H’s in an H2O.

Sample Problem — Two-Step Conversion: Mass of A to Moles of B

Hydrogen fuel cells are batteries that are continually supplied or “fuelled” with reactants. Their hydrogen
sometimes comes from a process that “scrubs” it off methane molecules. How many moles of methane (CH4)
are required to get 0.860 g of hydrogen?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: g H → mol H → mol CH4

1 mol H 1 mol CH4

2. Setup: 0.860 g H × ×
?gH ? mol H

3. Insert the conversion factors:

1 mol H per 1.0 g H
1 mol CH4 per 4 mol H (given by the
formula, CH4) 1 mol H 1 mol CH4
0.860 g H × 1.0 g H × 4 mol H = 0.22 mol CH4

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 127
 Sample Problem — Three-Step Conversion: Mass of A to Mass of B
How many grams of oxygen are in 14.6 g CO2?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: g CO2 → mol CO2 → mol O → g O

2. Setup:
1 mol CO ? mol O ?gO
14.6 g CO2 × ? g CO 2 × 1 mol CO × 1 mol O
2 2

3. Insert the conversion factors:

1 mol CO2 per 44.0 g CO2
1 mol CO2 2 mol O 16.0 g O
2 mol O per 1 mol CO2 14.6 g CO2 × × ×
16.0 g O per 1 mol O 44.0 g CO2 1 mol CO2 1 mol O
= 10.6 g O

Practice Problems — One-, Two-, and Three-Step Conversions

1. Fill in the missing entries in these “axle” conversion factors.

______ mol O _____ mol C2H4
(a) (b)
_____ mol SO2 _____ mol H

2. How many moles of KNO3 contain 14 g of oxygen? ____________________

3. Fill in the missing entry in each conversion factor to determine how many oxygen atoms are in 2.5 g K2Cr2O7.
1 mol K2Cr2O7 _____ mol O __________________ atoms O
2.5 g K2Cr2O7 × × × =
_____ g K2Cr2O7 1 mol K2Cr2O7 1 mol O

4. What mass of sodium ions is contained in 1.23 × 1024 formula units of sodium sulphide?

128 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 3.3 Activity: The Evaporation Rate of Water
Question
What is the evaporation rate of water in molecules per second?
Background
Evaporation occurs when a molecule on the surface of a liquid is struck with enough force
by neighbouring molecules to break away from its attractions to those around it and enter
the gas phase. Evaporation is often depicted like popcorn being popped. Pop…pop, pop,
pop…pop, pop, etc. Let’s use the mole concept to calculate the actual rate at which water
molecules evaporate.
Procedure
1. Half-fill a small beaker with water and weigh it. Record its mass and the time of day.
2. Put the beaker in a place where it won’t be disturbed.
3. In about 30 min, weigh the beaker and its contents again, once more recording its mass
and the time of day.
Results and Discussion

Mass of Beaker and H2O (g) Time of Day

Initial

Final

Change min

1. Calculate the number of water molecules evaporated during the trial.

2. Calculate the duration of the trial in seconds.

3. Calculate the water’s average evaporation rate during the trial in molecules per second.

4. Be suitably amazed. Oh come on, more amazed than that!

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 129
3.3 Review Questions
1. Acticoat dressings, developed in 1995 by Robert 5. On a particular day, 31.1 g (1 troy ounce) of gold
Burrell of the University of Alberta, are impregnated cost $1300.
with crystals of silver that are only 15 nm (nano- (a) 31 g Au = ______________atoms of Au
metres) in size. These nanocrystals are remarkably
more effective at healing burns and other severe (b) How many atoms of gold could you buy for 1
wounds than any treatment previously available. cent on that day?
Acticoat bandages are credited with saving the lives
and limbs of dozens of victims of the World Trade
Center attack in New York City in 2001. What is the
mass of a crystal containing 1.0 × 103 silver atoms? 6. Complete the following “axle” conversion factors by
filling in the appropriate numbers:
_____ mol O
(a)
_____ mol N2O4

_____ mol NO2

(b)
_____ mol N

2. Diamond is one way of arranging carbon atoms. The 7. 2.3 mol CO2 = ____________ mol O
“Star of Africa” diamond, displayed with the crown
jewels in the Tower of London, weighs 106.0 g and 8. Calcium oxalate is a poisonous compound found in
has an estimated value of over $400 million. How rhubarb leaves. How many moles of carbon are in
many carbon atoms compose the “Star of Africa” 52.4 mg of calcium oxalate?
diamond?

9. Sodium phosphate is sold as a cleaner at most

3. What is the mass in grams of a chlorine atom? hardware stores. How many moles of sodium ions
are there in 6.80 × 1024 formula units of Na3PO4?

4. How many propane molecules are in 72.6 g 10. Sulphuric acid is used to produce a tremendous
propane, C3H8? number and variety of materials including fertilizers,
pigments, textiles, plastics, and explosives. What
mass of sulphuric acid, H2SO4, contains 1.4 mol O?

130 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
11. How many carbon atoms are in 0.85 mol of the “pain-killer” acetaminophen, C8H9NO2?

12. How many mercury(II) ions are in 100.0 g HgCl2?

13. How many grams of chloride ions are in 8.3 g of copper(II) chloride?

14. What mass of carbon is present in 4.8 × 1026 molecules of ethanol, C2H5OH?

15. Hydrogen fluoride, HF, can be used to etch glass. The white lines on the glassware in your lab may have been made
by this acidic gas. Determine the mass in kilograms of 3.9 × 1027 molecules of HF.

16. Up to 1.44 × 105 kg of various oxides of nitrogen are emitted by a gas-burning electrical plant in one year.
Assuming this entire mass to be nitrogen dioxide, how many oxygen atoms would be present in this gas sample?

17. How many molecules are in 1.000 mg of the organic solvent, carbon tetrachloride?

18. Glycerol, C3H5(OH)3, is a viscous, colourless liquid found in cough syrup, toothpaste, soaps, and many other
household products. Calculate the number of hydrogen atoms in 4.5 mol of glycerol.

19. How many atoms are in 14.56 g of sodium hydrogen sulphate, the active ingredient in some toilet cleaners?

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 131
3.4 Molar Volume

Warm Up
Recall from section 1.4 that the prefix “milli” means one-thousandth or 1 × 10−3.
1. A milligram (mg) is one-_________________ of a gram.
2. A __________________ ( _______ ) is 1 × 10−3 moles.
3. A millilitre (mL) is one-thousandth of a ______________.
4. 0.032 L = ___________ mL 5. 11.2 mg = ______________ g

Just as the mass of a mole of a substance is called its molar mass, the volume of a mole
Molar Volume of a substance is called its molar volume. The molar volume of a substance is the space
occupied by a mole of its particles. A solid’s or a liquid’s molar volume is determined by
the size and spacing of its particles. The size of the particles has little effect on a gas’s
molar volume because the average distance between the particles is so much greater
than their size.
Solids, liquids, and gases under constant pressure all expand when heated. Kinetic
molecular theory explains that matter is composed of moving particles. At a higher
temperature, a substance’s particles are moving faster and are thereby hitting each
other harder and bouncing farther apart. Since its particles have spread farther apart, a
substance’s molar volume is greater at higher temperatures.
Liquids and gases are more frequently measured by volume than by mass. A
Figure 3.4.1 Gay-Lussac was
an avid hot-air balloonist substance’s molar volume allows you to convert the volume of the substance into its
and conducted some of his number of moles.
experiments aloft.

Quick Check
1. What does the term “molar volume” mean? _______________________________________
2. A solid’s or a liquid’s molar volume is determined by the ___________ and _____________ of its particles.
3. A gas’s molar volume is determined mainly by the ____________ of its particles.
4. What generally happens to the molar volume of a material as it is heated? _______________

All of Dalton’s evidence for the atomic theory came from combining mass ratios. During
The Molar Volume of the same time period when Dalton lived, other scientists were following a separate line of
Gases research gathering data on combining volume ratios called volumetric data. In 1809, the
French chemist, Joseph Gay-Lussac found that gases measured at the same temperature
and pressure always reacted in whole-number volume ratios (Figure 3.4.1). For example,
two volumes of hydrogen gas and one volume of oxygen gas react to produce two
volumes of gaseous water.

132 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Using Gay Lussac’s findings, the Italian chemist Amedeo Avogadro hypothesized
that equal volumes of different gases, measured at the same temperature and pressure,
have equal numbers of particles. Modern chemists still refer to this as Avogadro’s
hypothesis.
At low pressures, the different sizes and attractive forces of different particles have
little effect on the gas’s volume because the particles are so far apart on average. As an
example, 1 mol of any gas at 0°C and 101.3 kPa occupies approximately 22.4 L. Chemists
refer to 0°C and 101.3 kPa as standard temperature and pressure or STP for short. The
standard pressure 101.3 kPa is normal atmospheric pressure at sea level.

The molar volume of any gas at STP is approximately 22.4 L.

Name Equivalence Statement Conversion Factors

22.4 L 1 mol
Molar gas volume 1 mol = 22.4 L @ STP 1 mol @ STP 22.4 L @ STP

While all gases at the same temperature and pressure have approximately the same
molar volume, each solid and liquid has its own characteristic molar volume. In questions
requiring volumetric conversions of liquids or gases, you will be given either the molar
volume of any solid, liquid, or gas not at STP or a means to calculate it.

Sample Problem — Converting Moles to Volume

Atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen react during lightning storms to produce nitrogen monoxide that is quickly
converted to nitrogen dioxide. What is the volume of 1.3 mol of NO2 at STP?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: mol NO2 → L NO2
22.4 L NO
1.3 mol NO2 × 1 mol NO 2 = 29 L NO2
2. Setup: ? L NO2
2
1.3 mol NO2 ×
1 mol NO2

3. Conversion factor:
22.4 L NO2 per 1 mol NO2

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 133
 Sample Problem — Converting Volume to Moles
600.0 L of air at STP is compressed into a scuba tank. How many moles of air are in the tank?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: L air → mol air

1 mol air 600.0 L air × 1 mol air = 26.8 mol air

2. Setup: 600.0 L air × 22.4 L air
? L air

3. Conversion factor:
1 mol air per 22.4 L air

Practice Problems — Converting Moles to Volume and Volume to Moles

1. What volume of oxygen gas at STP contains 1.33 mol of O2?

2. In British Columbia, the burnt-match odor of sulphur dioxide is often associated with pulp and paper mills.
How many moles of SO2 are in 9.5 L of SO2 at STP?

3. Silicon dioxide, better known as quartz, has a molar volume of 22.8 cm3/mol. What is the volume of 0.39 mol
of SiO2?

Recall from section 3.3 that as you learn more chemical quantities we’ll add them to
Multi-Step the rim of the wheel. You’ll relate or connect the volume of a substance to the other
Conversions quantities through the mole. For example, if you wanted to convert the volume of a
Involving the substance into its mass, you would convert litres into moles and then moles into grams.
Volume of a
Substance

Figure 3.4.2 Use the wheel model to help you do conversions

involving the volume of a substance.

134 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Sample Problem — Two Step Conversion: Volume to Number of Items (Atoms)
The gas in neon signs is at extremely low pressure. How many neon atoms are present in a sign containing 75 mL of
neon gas at a molar volume that is 100 times greater than the molar volume at STP?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: mL → L 1.0 L = 0.075 L
75 ml ×
1000 mL
2. Convert: L Ne → mol Ne → atoms Ne
6.02 × 1023 atoms Ne
0.075 L Ne × 1 mol Ne ×
2240 L Ne 1 mol Ne
3. Setup: = 2.0 × 1019 atoms Ne
1 mol Ne ? atoms Ne
0.075 L Ne × × 1 mol Ne
? L Ne

4. Conversion factors:
2240 L Ne per 1 mol Ne
6.02 × 1023 atoms Ne per 1 mol Ne

Sample Problem — Two Step Conversion: Volume to Mass

Natural gas is used to heat many homes and may fuel the Bunsen burners in your laboratory. Natural gas consists
primarily of methane, CH4. What is the mass of 8.0 L of CH4 at STP?

What to Think about How to Do It

1 mol CH
8.0 L CH4 × 22.4 L CH4 × 16.0 g CH4 = 5.7 g CH4
1. Convert: L CH4 → mol CH4 → g CH4
4 1 mol CH4

2. Setup:
1 mol CH4 ? g CH4
8.0 L CH4 × ×
? L CH4 1 mol CH4

3. Conversion factors:
22.4 L CH4 per 1 mol CH4
16.0 g CH4 per 1 mol CH4

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 135
 Sample Problem — Three Step Conversion: Mass of A to Volume of B
People often refer to the amount of CO2 produced as the carbon “footprint” of a process. What volume of CO2 at
STP contains 0.20 g of carbon?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: 1 mol CO2 22.4 L CO2
g C → mol C → mol CO2 → L CO2
0.20 g C × 1 mol C × ×
12.0 g C 1 mol C 1 mol CO2
= 0.37 L CO2
2. Setup:
1 mol C 1 mol CO2 ? L CO2
0.20 g C × × ×
?gC ? mol C 1 mol CO2

3. Conversion factors:
1 mol C per 12.0 g C
1 mol CO2 per 1 mol C
22.4 L CO2 per 1 mol CO2

Converting mass of one substance to volume of another

Practice Problems — Conversions: Volume to Number of Items or Mass; Mass to Volume

1. H2S gas is released from rotten eggs. What volume of H2S gas at STP contains 17 g H2S?

2. Fill in the missing entry in each conversion factor below to determine the mass of carbon in 1.0 L of propane,
C3H8 , at STP.
1 mol C3H8 _____ mol C _____ g C
1.0 L C3H8 × × ×
_____ L C3H8 1 mol C3H8 1 mol C

3. Ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is widely used as an automotive antifreeze. The molar volume of C2H6O2 is 0.0559
L/mol. How many hydrogen atoms are in 200.0 mL of C2H6O2?

136 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Density is the amount of matter in a given volume of an object or material. In other
Molar Volume and words, it is the mass per unit volume. Density is a conversion factor that relates a
Density substance’s mass directly to its volume without any reference to the mole. In terms of our
wheel model, density is the section of the rim between grams and litres.

Figure 3.4.3 Converting the mass and the volume of a substance

Sample Problem — Converting Volume Directly to Mass

The density of methanol, CH3OH, at 20°C is 0.813 g/mL. What is the mass of 0.500 L of the alcohol at 20°C?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: L CH3OH → g CH3OH
813 g CH3OH
0.500 L CH3OH × = 407 g CH3OH
? g CH3OH 1 L CH3OH
2. Setup: 0.500 L CH3OH × 1 L CH OH
3

3. Conversion factor: 813 g/L

It is the densities of substances, rather than their molar volumes, that are usually
published in reference texts and tables. Molar volume and density are related through
molar mass. An examination of their units (dimensional analysis) reveals that:
g L L
× =
mol g mol

molar mass
molar volume =
density

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 137
 Sample Problem — Calculating Molar Volume from Density
In an episode of the television show “MythBusters,” the team floated an aluminum foil boat on the invisible gas,
sulphur hexafluoride, SF6. SF6 has a density of 6.00 g/L at room temperature and pressure, about six times that of
air.
What is the molar volume of SF6 under these conditions?

What to Think about How to Do It

molar mass
1. molar volume =
density
? g SF6 1 L SF6 146.1 g SF6 1 L SF6 L SF6
2. Setup: × × = 24.3
1 mol SF6 6.00 g SF6 1 mol SF6 6.00 g SF6 mol SF6
3. Conversion factors:
146.1 g SF6 per 1 mol SF6

Practice Problems — Calculating Molar Volume and Density

1. Gold has a density of 19.42 g/cm3. The standard gold bar held as gold reserves by central banks weighs 12.4 kg.
What is the volume of the standard gold bar?

2. Mercury has a density of 13.534 g/mL at room temperature. What is the mass of 12.7 mL of mercury?

3. Although ethanol (C2H5OH) is best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, its largest use
is as a fuel or fuel additive. The density of ethanol is 0.789 g/mL. What is the molar volume of ethanol?

138 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 3.4 Activity: The Atomic Radius of Aluminum
Question
What is the radius of an aluminum atom?
Background
We can’t even see an individual atom with the naked eye but we can still derive an atom’s
radius from the molar volume and packing arrangement of a substance’s atoms. Molar volume
is the actual amount of space required to “house” 1 mol of the atoms and includes the space
between them. In a technique called X-ray diffraction, chemists reflect X-rays off the substance. The scattering
(diffraction) pattern allows chemists to determine how the atoms are arranged. Aluminum atoms are packed in such
a way that 74% of the metal’s volume is the volume of the atoms themselves and the rest is space.
Procedure
1. Weigh and measure the dimensions of a small aluminum block and fill in the table below.

Mass Length Width Height Volume Density

(g) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (g/cm3)

Results and Discussion

1. Calculate the molar volume of aluminum in cm3/mol.

2. Calculate the volume of 1 mol of Al atoms (excluding the space between them).

Volume = 0.74 × _____________ cm3/mol = _______________ cm3/mol

3. Calculate the volume of one Al atom.

______ cm3 Al 1 mol Al

Atomic volume = × = ______________________cm3/mol
1 mol Al _______________atoms Al

4. Calculate the radius of a spherical aluminum atom. Given V = 4/3 π r3 solve for r.

5. Convert the radius of the atoms into nanometres.

6. The accepted value for the radius of an aluminum atom is 0.143 nm. What is your percent error?

You just figured out the radius of an atom. How amazing is that! Cu (8.96 g/cm3) atoms are packed the same way as
Al atoms if you’d like to repeat this activity for copper.

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 139
3.4 Review Questions
1. Liquid octane, C8H18, has a molar volume of Identify the gas from its molar mass.
82.4 mL/mol. What is the volume of 250 millimoles 7. Acetylene gas, C2H2, is used as a fuel in welding
of C8H18? torches. How many acetylene molecules are in a
cylinder that delivers 1400 L of acetylene at STP?

2. How many moles of air are there in a human lung

with a volume of 2.4 L at STP? 8. 5 × 1019 molecules PH3 = __________ mL PH3 at STP

3. 2.75 L N2 at STP = _____________ mol N2 9. Propane gas, C3H8(g), is easily compressible to a

storable liquid. A standard barbecue tank holds
9.1 kg of propane. How many litres of gas will the
tank release at STP?

4. Air is approximately 21% oxygen. How many moles

of oxygen are in 5.0 L of air at STP?

10. Soft drinks are bottled under pressure forcing CO2

into solution. The industry expresses the amount of
carbonation in volumes of CO2 at STP per volume of
solution. The carbonation of a typical soft drink is
5. Diphosphorus pentoxide is a gas produced each 3.7 v/v meaning that a 355 mL can contains
time you strike a match. What is the mass of 2.57 L of 3.7 × 355 mL CO2 at STP. What is the mass of CO2 in
this gas at STP? a 355 mL can?

6. A 525 mL flask contains 0.935 g of a noble gas at STP.

11. How many moles of hydrogen are in 83.9 L of
ammonia gas, NH3, at STP?

140 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
12. Nitrous oxide, N2O, is commonly called “laughing 15. Mercury is a liquid metal with a density of
gas.” It is sometimes used by dentists as a partial 13.546 g/mL at 20°C. What is the molar volume
anaesthetic. How many grams of nitrogen are in of mercury at 20°C?
3.84 L of N2O at STP?

13. Dinitrogen tetroxide is one of the most important 16. Gold has a density of 19.42 g/cm3. How many moles
rocket propellants ever developed. How many of gold are there in a 5.0 cm3 strip?
oxygen atoms are in 27.2 L of the gas at STP?

17. Liquid bromine, Br2, has a density of 3.53 g/mL.

14. Disposable lighters often contain butane, C4H10
How many bromine molecules are in 15.0 mL of
(density = 0.601 g/mL). How many grams of butane bromine?
are there in a lighter containing 15 mL of the fuel?

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 141
3.5 Composition Analysis — Determining Formulas

Warm Up
Forensic investigators collect samples from crime scenes. How do technicians identify the unknown samples?
An instrument called a mass spectrometer can identify the vast majority of compounds. Each compound has
a unique mass spectrum; much like each person has a unique fingerprint. A mass spectrometer breaks most of
the molecules into fragments. In so doing, it creates a variety of particles from individual atoms to the intact
molecule itself, and then marks the mass of each of these particles along a graph’s horizontal axis. The height of
the line in the spectrum indicates the relative abundance of that particle. Below is a simplified mass spectrum of
a compound called pentane (C5H12).

Mass spectrum analysis of pentane

1. The last spectral line represents the intact molecule. What is its molecular mass? _________
2. Draw an arrow to point to the spectral line that represents the mass of the outlined fragment.
3. Why do you think there are more of some fragments than others?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
The important point here is that one of the most sophisticated tools in a chemist’s arsenal identifies compounds
solely from their “mass profile”. In this section, you’ll learn to determine a compound’s formula from its
composition by mass.

Percentage Percentage composition is the percent of a compound’s mass contributed by

Composition each type of atom in the compound.

A compound’s percentage composition can be determined theoretically from its

formula.

142 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Sample Problem — Determining Percentage Composition
What is the percentage composition of a sugar with the formula C12H22O11?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Calculate the sugar’s molar mass.
12 C = (12 × 12.0 g)/mol = 144.0 g/mol
2. Thus one mole of this sugar contains 22 H = (22 × 1.0 g)/mol = 22.0 g/mol
144 g C, 22 g H, and 176 g O. 11 O = (11 × 16.0 g)/mol = 176.0 g/mol
Total 342.0 g/mol
3. Express each element’s percentage of the molar
mass.
144.0 g/mol
%C= × 100 = 42.1 %
342.0 g/mol
22.0 g/mol
%H= × 100 = 6.4 %
342.0 g/mol
176.0 g/mol
%O= × 100 = 51.5 %
342.0 g/mol

A sugar molecule with 12 carbon atoms,

22 hydrogen atoms, and 11 oxygen atoms.

Practice Problems — Determining Percentage Composition

1. Ibuprofen is a common pain reliever and anti-inflammatory. Its formula is C13H18O2.

What is its percentage composition?

2. Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4, is a common fertilizer used to lower the pH of soil.

Calculate its percentage composition.

3. Many salts are hydrated, which means they have water molecules incorporated into their ionic crystal lattice
in a fixed ratio. Magnesium sulphate heptahydrate, MgSO4 · 7 H2O, has seven water molecules incorporated
into the crystal lattice for each magnesium ion and sulphate ion. Calculate the percentage of water by mass
in MgSO4 · 7 H2O.

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 143
 Every molecular compound has three formulas; an empirical formula, a molecular
Empirical, Molecular, formula, and a structural formula. They become more specific in that order.
and Structural
Formulas • The empirical formula is the simplest integral ratio of the different types of atoms in
the compound.
• The molecular formula is the actual number of each type of atom in each molecule of
the compound.
• The structural formula shows how the atoms in a molecule are arranged. It is a
diagram that shows the pattern of the atoms’ connections.
Organic chemistry is the study of compounds and reactions involving carbon. There
are millions of organic compounds. Glucose is an organic compound with a molecular
formula of C6H12O6. The subscripts 6, 12, 6 can be reduced or simplified to 1, 2, 1. We don’t
show the number 1 as a subscript in a formula so the empirical formula of glucose is CH2O.
Many compounds have the same empirical formula but different molecular
formulas. Their molecular formulas all reduce to the same ratio. For example, all alkenes
such as ethene (C2H4), propene (C3H6), and butene (C4H8), have an empirical formula of
CH2 because each of their molecular formulas can be reduced to a 1 to 2 ratio.
Compounds with the same molecular formula but with different structural formulas,
i.e. the same atoms are put together differently, are called structural isomers. For example,
C4H10 has two structural isomers. You will learn more about structural isomers in chapter 8.

Quick Check
1. Complete the following table.

Structural Formula Molecular Formula Empirical Formula

In section 3.1 you learned how to determine an element’s relative atomic mass from a
Determining an compound’s percent composition and formula. Earlier in this section (3.5), you learned
Empirical Formula how to determine the percent composition of a compound from its formula and the
from Percent atomic masses of its component elements. There’s only one more arrangement of these
Composition variables to learn. That’s how to determine the formula of a compound from its percent
composition and the atomic masses of its component elements.
The word “empirical” is an adjective meaning that something is based on
observation or experiment. Empirical formulas are determined from the mass ratios of a
compound’s component elements; in other words, from its percent composition. The most
direct, but not always easiest, way to experimentally determine a compound’s percent
composition is to decompose a sample of the compound into its component elements.

144 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Sample Problem — Determining an Empirical Formula
Determine the empirical formula of a compound that is 48.65% carbon, 8.11% hydrogen, and 43.24% oxygen.

What to Think about How to Do It

1. In 100.0 g of the substance, there would be 48.65 g C, 1 mol C = 4.0542 mol C
8.11 g H, and 43.24 g O. Convert these amounts into 48.65 g C × 12.0 gC
moles.
2. Divide each molar quantity by the smallest one and 8.11 g H × 11.0
mol H = 8.1100 mol H
gH
then multiply by whatever factor is necessary to
find their integral ratio (as shown in a conventional 1 mol O = 2.7025 mol O
formula). 43.24 g O × 16.0 gO
The mole ratio and the individual atom ratio
are of course the same. This means the subscripts
in a formula can be read either as mole ratios or as
C4.0542H8.1100O2.7025 = C1.5H3O
individual atom ratios. If this compound has 3 mol of 2.7025
carbon atoms for every 2 mol of oxygen atoms then it
has 3 dozen carbon atoms for every 2 dozen oxygen 2 (C1.5H3O) = C3H6O2
atoms, and 3 carbon atoms for every 2 oxygen atoms.

Practice Problems — Determining an Empirical Formula

1. A compound is 18.7% Li, 16.3% C, and 65.5% O. Determine its empirical formula.

2. A compound is 9.93% C, 58.6% Cl, and 31.4% F. Determine its empirical formula.

3. A sample of a compound contains 5.723 g Ag, 0.852 g S, and 1.695 g O. Determine its empirical formula.

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 145
 Recall the difference between the empirical formula and the molecular formula of a
Determining the compound. The empirical formula is the simplest integral ratio of the different types of
Molecular Formula atoms in the compound. The molecular formula is the actual number of each type of
of a Compound atom in each molecule. A compound’s molecular formula is an integral multiple of its
empirical formula. Its molecular formula’s molar mass is that same integral multiple of its
empirical formula’s molar mass. For example, butane has an empirical formula of C2H5
(29 g/mol) and a molecular formula of C4H10 (58 g/mol). The “molecular formula’s molar
mass” is just another way of saying “the compound’s molar mass.” Therefore, we can
determine the compound’s molecular formula from its empirical formula and its molar
mass.

compound’s molar mass

molecular formula = empirical formula ×
molar mass of empirical formula

There are many ways to experimentally derive a compound’s molar mass. If the
compound is volatile, meaning it is easily evaporated, then you know from section 3.4
that 1 mol of any gas occupies 22.4 L at STP. The mass of 22.4 L at STP thus provides the
compound’s molar mass.

Sample Problem — Determining a Molecular Formula

A compound has an empirical formula of CH2 and a molar mass of 42.0 g/mol. Determine its molecular formula.

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Calculate the molar mass
1 C = (1 × 12.0 g)/mol = 12.0 g/mol
of the empirical formula.
2 H = (2 × 1.0 g)/mol = 2.0 g/mol
2. Divide the molar mass Total 14.0 g/mol
of the molecular formula
by the molar mass of the 42.0 g/mol
empirical formula. 14.0 g/mol = 3.00
3. Multiply the empirical 3 CH2 = C3H6
formula itself by this factor.

146 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Practice Problems — Determining a Molecular Formula

1. Vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid. The molar mass of acetic acid is 60.0 g/mol and it has an empirical
formula of CH2O. What is the molecular formula of acetic acid?

2. A compound has an empirical formula of C3H4. Which of the following are possible molar masses of the
compound: 20 g/mol, 55 g/mol, 80 g/mol, 120 g/mol?

3. A small sample of antifreeze was analyzed. It contained 4.51 g C, 1.13 g H, and 6.01 g O. From the elevation of
water’s boiling point, it was determined that the antifreeze’s molar mass is 62.0 g/mol. What is the molecular
formula of antifreeze?

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 147
 3.5 Activity: Determining the Empirical Formula
of Butane from the Percentage Composition
of Its Model
Question
What is the empirical formula of butane?
Background
Recall that “empirical” is an adjective meaning “based on observation or
experiment.” Empirical formulas are determined from the mass ratios of a compound’s component elements
(i.e., from its percent composition as determined by analysis). The empirical formula is the simplest integral
ratio of the different types of atoms in the compound.
Procedure
1. Use #1 (regular sized) paper clips to represent hydrogen atoms. Jumbo paper clips represent carbon atoms.
As a prelude to this exercise, someone must weigh 48 of each type of paperclip and divide by 4 to obtain the
mass per dozen. Provide these values to the students to enter in column 3.
2. Form a group of two to five students.
3. Each student links 4 jumbo paper clips together with 10 regular paper clips.
4. Unlink all the clips and weigh all your group’s jumbo clips together. Record the mass of your group’s jumbo
clips as the mass of carbon in the table below.
5. Weigh all your group’s regular sized clips together. Record the mass of your group’s regular clips as the mass
of hydrogen in the table below.
Results and Discussion

Mass Mass per Dozen Number Empirical

Element Dozen Ratio
(g) (g/doz) (doz) Formula

carbon 1.0

hydrogen

1. Calculate how many dozens of each type of paper clip are in your group’s sample.

2. Calculate the dozen ratio to find out how many dozens of hydrogen atoms there are for each dozen carbon
atoms.

3. By what integer do you need to multiply this ratio in order to obtain an integral dozen ratio? _____________

4. What is the empirical formula of butane? ________________________________________________

5. Given the molecular models you made, what is the molecular formula of butane?

148 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
3.5 Review Questions
1. Menthol is a strong-smelling compound that is 5. (a) Explain why the empirical formula alone is not
used in cough drops. It has a formula of C10H20O. enough to identify a compound.
Calculate its percentage composition.

(b) What other piece of information will allow you

to determine its molecular formula?

2. Sodium acetate trihydrate (NaCH3COO · 3H2O) is a

salt commonly used in pickling foods. Calculate the
percentage of water by mass in this compound.
6. A pigment on a suspected forgery is analyzed using
X-ray fluorescence and found to contain 0.5068 mol
Ba, 0.5075 mol C, and 1.520 mol O. Determine its
empirical formula.

3. Trinitrotoluene (C7H5O6N3) is an explosive

commonly referred to as TNT. Calculate the 7. A sample of caffeine is analyzed and found to
percentage of nitrogen by mass in this compound. contain 1.4844 g C, 0.1545 g H, 0.4947 g O and
0.8661 g N. Determine the empirical formula of
caffeine.

4. Complete the following table.

Structural Formula Molecular Formula Empirical Formula

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 149
8. (a) In a TV series, a forensic anthropologist uses 11. A hydrocarbon is a compound containing only
X-ray fluorescence to analyze a dental filling carbon and hydrogen. One particular hydrocarbon
found in skeletal remains. The results of the is 92.29% carbon by mass. If the compound’s
analysis are provided as atomic percentages: molar mass is 78.0 g/mol then what is its molecular
2.85% Al, 87.4% Si, and 9.75% Yb. Convert these formula?
results into mass percentages.

(b) These results identified the filling as a

commercial restorative material called 12. Cannizzaro determined that a certain compound
Heliomolar. How might identifying the material of carbon and oxygen had a molecular mass of
be useful in helping to identify the remains? 44.0 u. This meant that a certain volume of this
gaseous compound weighed 44.0 times as much
as the same volume of hydrogen gas at the same
temperature and pressure. This compound was
analyzed and found to be 27.3% carbon by mass.
(a) What is the total mass of carbon in a molecule
of this compound?

9. A compound has an empirical formula of NH2 and a

molar mass of 32.1 g/mol. What is the compound’s
molecular formula?

(b) Cannizzaro repeated this experiment on many

carbon compounds. Because he never found
a molecule with less carbon than this one,
10. A sample of ascorbic acid, also known as vitamin C, Cannizzaro assumed that this molecule had
was analyzed and found to contain 1.080 g C, only one carbon atom. Was this assumption
0.121 g H, and 1.439 g O. Ascorbic acid has a molar correct?
mass of 176.1 g/mol. Determine the molecular
formula of ascorbic acid.

150 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
3.6 Molar Concentration

Warm Up
1. List three products in your refrigerator that are solutions.
______________________________________________________________________
2. Name some substances that are dissolved in these solutions. Examples of common
______________________________________________________________________ household solutions

3. Where else in your home are solutions kept?

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Many chemicals are dispensed in solution and most chemical reactions occur in solution.
Molarity — A Recall from chapter 2 that a solution is a type of mixture in which the chemical species
Useful Unit of are completely mixed. A solute is a minor component of the mixture, generally what has
Concentration been dissolved. The solvent is the major component of the mixture, generally what the
solute was dissolved in.
Concentration is any expression of the proportion of a chemical in a solution.
Chemists need to know the amount of solute present in any volume of solution they
might dispense. Therefore, concentration is most usefully expressed as an amount of
solute per volume of solution rather than per volume of solvent. There are many units of
concentration. Common units of concentration express the amount of solute in grams.
These include grams per litre of solution, percent m/v, which is the number of grams
(mass) per 100 mL (volume) of solution, and parts per million (ppm), when expressed
as the number of grams per million grams of solution. A useful unit of concentration for
chemists expresses the quantity of solute in moles.

Molarity (M) is the number of moles of the chemical per litre of solution.

For example, 1.8 M HCl means 1.8 mol HCl per litre of solution. Molar concentrations
allow chemists to directly compare the number of particles in the same volume of
different solutions. For example, 10 mL of 2 M Li+ contains twice as many ions as 10 mL of
1 M Na+.

Name Equivalence Statement Conversion Factors

? mol solute 1 L solution
Molar concentration 1 L solution = ? mol solute 1 L solution ? mol solute

3 mol HCN 1 L solution

Example: 3 M HCN 1 L solution = 3 mol HCN 1 L solution 3 mol HCN

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 151
 Quick Check
1. Give one reason why solutions are important in chemistry.
_________________________________________________________

2. What does 2 M NaOH mean?

_________________________________________________________

3. Why is molarity a useful unit of concentration?

_________________________________________________________

Sample Problem — Converting Volume of Solution into Moles of Solute

The average salinity (total salt concentration) of seawater is 0.60 M. How many moles of salt are in a toy bucket
containing 435 mL of seawater?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: mL→ L
435 mL × 1.0 L = 0.435 L
1000 mL
2. Convert: L soln → mol salt

0.435 L soln × 0.60 mol salt = 0.26 mol salt

? mol salt
3. Setup: 0.435 L soln ×
1 L soln 1 L soln
4. Conversion factor:
0.60 mol salt per 1 L soln Note: There is no conventional abbreviation for ”solution” but we will
use “soln” in our calculations.

Sample Problem — Converting Moles of Solute into Volume of Solution

What volume of 3.0 M HCl should a chemist dispense to obtain 0.25 mol HCl?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: mol HCl → L soln
1 L soln 0.25 mol HCl × 1 L soln
2. Setup: 0.25 mol HCl ×
? mol HCl 3.0 mol HCl = 0.083 L soln
3. Conversion factor:
1 L soln per 3.0 mol HCl

152 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Practice Problems — Converting Moles of Solute to/from Volume of Solution

1. 0.72 L of 2.5 M NaOH = _________ mol NaOH

2. An intravenous bag of saline solution contains 0.154 M NaCl. How many moles of NaCl does a 500.0 mL bag
contain?

3. 3.0 mol HCl = _________L of 0.60 M HCl

4. A person’s urine may have a distinct odor as soon as 15 min after eating asparagus. Methanethiol, one of the
metabolic products responsible for this odor, can be detected by some people in concentrations as low as
4.0 × 10−8 M. At this concentration, what volume of urine contains 1.0 mmol of methanethiol?

A solution of known concentration is called a standard solution. To prepare a 1 M

Preparing a NaCl(aq) solution, you could measure out 1 mol (58.5 g) of NaCl and then add water up
Standard Solution to 1 L of solution so that the 1 mol NaCl is dissolved in the resulting 1 L solution. Note
from a Solid that you “add water up to 1 L” not “add up to 1 L of water,” which means something
entirely different. Adding water up to 1 L of solution won’t quite require 1 L of water
because the solute will displace a small amount of water. You won’t always want 1 L of
solution, however. To prepare a particular volume and concentration of solution requires
calculating the mass of solute to weigh out. Chemists generally memorize the formula for
this calculation through countless repetitions in the lab.

Sample Problem — Converting Volume of Solution into Mass of Solute

Describe how to prepare 0.055 L of 0.20 M KCl from the solid.

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: L soln → mol KCl → g KCl

2. Setup:
? mol KCl ? g KCl
0.055 L soln × × 1 mol KCl
1 L soln 0.20 mol KCl 74.6 g KCl
0.055 L soln × 1 L soln × 1 mol KCl
3. Conversion factors: = 0.82 g KCl
0.20 mol KCl per 1 L soln
74.6 g KCl per 1 mol KCl Measure out 0.82 g KCl and add water up to 55 mL
(0.055 L) of solution.

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 153
 Sample Problem — Determining Molar Concentration
What molar concentration of KCl is produced by measuring out 1.0 g KCl and adding water up to 0.350 L of
solution?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: g KCl → mol KCl
1 mol KCl 1.0 g KCl × 1 mol KCl = 0.013 mol KCl
2. Setup: 1.0 g KCl ×
? g KCl 74.6 g KCl

3. Conversion factor:
1 mol KCl per 74.6 g KCl
Molar Concentration

KCl = 0.013 mol KCl = 0.038M KCl

4. Molarity is moles per litre meaning the
number of moles divided by the number 0.350 L soln
of litres.

Practice Problems — Converting Volume of Solution into Mass of Solute and Determining
Molar Concentration

1. Describe how to prepare 500.0 mL of 1.5 M CaCl2 from CaCl2(s).

2. What mass of KCl would be recovered if 55 mL of 0.20 M KCl were “evaporated to dryness”?
[Hint: this is the same as asking how many grams of KCl are in 55 mL of 0.20 M KCl.]

3. What molar concentration of silver nitrate is produced by measuring out 1.8 g and then adding water to
make 75 mL of solution?

154 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Recall from chapter 2 that ionic compounds have no net charge. The ions associate
Ions in Solution together in the ratio that results in their charges cancelling. For example:
2Al3+(aq) + 3SO42−(aq) → Al2(SO4)3 (s)
The ionic compound is neutral because the ions have a net charge of zero:
2(3+) + 3(2–) = 0. The ions, however, remain unchanged in the crystal. By convention,
chemists don’t show the charges of the ions in the formulas of ionic compounds. The
charges are implicit (implied) rather than explicit (shown). When an ionic compound
dissolves, the same ions that associated together to form the compound now dissociate
(dis-associate) and travel independently through the solution. For example,
Al2(SO4)3 (s) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3SO42−(aq)

Sample Problem — Two-Step Conversion: Volume of Solution to Number of Ions

Some communities fluoridate their water to reduce tooth decay. HealthLinkBC reports that the most effective F−
concentration for water supplies in B.C. is between 0.042 M and 0.053 M. How many fluoride ions would a person
ingest by drinking 2.0 L of 0.047 M F−?

What to Think about How to Do It

1. Convert: L soln → mol F− → ions F−

2. Setup: 23
2.0 L soln × 0.047 mol F × 6.02 × 10 ions F−
−
− ? ions F−
2.0 L soln × ? mol F × 1 L soln 1 mol F−
1 L soln 1 mol F−
3. Conversion factors:
= 5.7 × 1022 ions F−
0.047 mol F− per 1 L soln
6.02 × 1023 ions F− per 1 mol F−

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 155
 Being able to relate the concentration of dissolved ions to the concentration of their
parent compound is extremely important in chemistry. Although it may be misleading,
a label is not necessarily intended to indicate what is actually present in the solution.
Some knowledge of chemistry is required to realize how a solute behaves in solution. 1 M
Al2(SO4)3 means that 1 mol of Al2(SO4)3 was dissolved per litre of solution. There is no such
thing as an Al2(SO4)3 particle. The dissociation equation provides the ratio of the released
ions to each other and to their parent compound; thus 1 M Al2(SO4)3 actually contains 2 M
Al3+ and 3 M SO42−.

Sample Problem — Relating the Concentration of Dissolved Ions to the Concentration of

Their Parent Compound
What concentrations of ions are present in 3.0 M CaCl2(aq)?

What to Think about How to Do It

The ratios in the dissociation equation
show that 1 mol Ca2+ and 2 mol Cl− are
formed for each mole of CaCl2 dissolved.
CaCl2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq)

3.0 mol/L dissolves to form ? ?

3.0 mol/L dissolves to form 3.0 M 6.0 M

This table is shown for teaching purposes only — you don’t need to
show it in your work.

The molar concentration of a chemical is indicated by putting square brackets [ ]

around the chemical’s formula.

For example, [Na+] means the molar concentration of Na+. A couple of precautions:

• “M” already means “mol per L” therefore don’t write “M per L” because that would mean
“moles per litre per litre,” which doesn’t make sense.
• You can write “2 M Na+” or “[Na+] = 2 M” but don’t write “2 M [Na+]” because that would
mean “two molar the molar concentration of Na+,” which doesn’t make sense.

The dissociation equation provides the conversion factor represented by the axle in
our wheel model.

156 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
 Sample Problem — Three-Step Conversion: Volume of Solution to Number of Ions
Aluminum chloride can be used to produce aluminum chlorohydrate, an active ingredient in antiperspirants. How
many chloride ions are in 0.025 L of 0.30 M AlCl3?

What to Think about

1. Convert:
L soln → mol AlCl3 → mol Cl− → ions Cl−
? mol AlCl ? mol Cl− ? ions Cl−
2. Setup: 0.025 L soln × 1 L soln 3 × 1 mol AlCl ×
3 1 mol Cl−

3. Conversion factors:
0.30 mol AlCl3 per 1 L soln
3 mol Cl− per 1 mol AlCl3
6.02 × 1023 Cl− ions per 1 mol Cl−

How to Do It
0.30 mol AlCl3 3 mol Cl- 6.02 × 1023 ions Cl-
0.025 L soln × × × = 1.4×1022 ions Cl-
1 L soln 1 mol AlCl3 1 mol Cl-

Practice Problems — Three-Step Conversion: Volume of Solution to Number of Ions

1. What concentrations of ions are present in 1.5 M CaCl2(aq)?

2. What concentration of sodium phosphate contains 0.60 M Na+?

3. Write the relationship between the concentrations of the ions present in a solution of lithium phosphate.
(Careful; this is tricky. In a CaCl2 solution, [Cl−] = 2 [Ca2+] ).

4. What mass of potassium ions is in 0.75 L of 2.8 M K+?

5. Iron(III) nitrate solutions are used by jewellers to etch silver. How many NO3− ions are dissolved in a 525 mL bath
of 3.0 M iron(III) nitrate?

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 157
 3.6 Activity: Building a Scale Model of a Solution
Question
What is the ratio of solute ions to water molecules in a solution of 1 M NaCl(aq)?
Background
Models are very important in science. A model, scientific or otherwise, is anything that represents something else.
Chemists can use models to explain and predict the behaviour of matter. The American chemist, Linus Pauling,
figured out the spiral structure of proteins using paper cut-outs as models. He was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize in
chemistry partly for this accomplishment. In this activity, you will construct a scale model of a solution.
Procedure
1. Calculate how many moles of H2O molecules occupy one L. (Density of H2O = 1000 g/L)
_____ g H2O 1 mol H2O
× = _____________ mol H2O/l H2O
1 L H2O g H2O

Although its units are moles per litre this value is not a concentration; it is not molarity. It does not describe the
proportion of a chemical in a mixture. It describes the number of moles of water in 1 L of the substance and is
simply the inverse of water’s molar volume.

2. Determine the ion concentrations in 1.0 M NaCl(aq).

NaCl → Na+ + Cl−

1.0 M dissolves to form

3. For simplicity, let’s assume that each mole of ions displaces a mole of water molecules. State the ratio of water
molecules: sodium ions: chloride ions in 1 M NaCl (aq).

_______ H2O: _______ Na+: _______Cl−

4. As a class, decide which kind or colour of bead will represent each chemical species.

H2O molecules ___________________ Na+ ions ______________________

Cl− ions _____________________

5. Count out the beads in the ratio shown in step 3 and pour them into the 500-mL graduated cylinder provided
by your teacher for the class.
Results and Discussion
6. State three ways your model differs from an actual 1 M NaCl solution.

158 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9
3.6 Review Questions
1. What does 1.5 M HCl mean? 6. Humans have an average blood volume of 5.0 L with
an average blood sugar (C6H12O6) concentration
of 4.0 mM. What is the average mass of glucose
coursing through the human bloodstream?

2. A cough syrup contains 0.011 M dextromethorphan.

How many moles of the cough suppressant are in
one teaspoon (5.0 mL) of the cough syrup?

7. Describe how to prepare 250 mL of 0.50 M sodium

nitrate. Be sure to answer in a complete sentence.
3. 75.0 mmol Ca2+ = _______ L of 0.20 M Ca2+

4. The fluid inside living cells is called cytosol. A human 8. As a glass of cold tap water warms up, small air
hepatocyte (a type of liver cell) with a volume of bubbles will come out of solution on the inner wall
500 fL (1 fL (femtolitre) = 10−15 L) contains 12 mM of the glass. A glass of cold water contains 0.45 mM
O2. How many millilitres of oxygen gas at STP are
Na+. How many sodium ions are in the cytosol of
dissolved in 300.0 mL of this water?
this cell?

5. Consumer products express concentrations in 9. What concentrations of ions are present in:
mg/volume or g/volume because the general public (a) 0.35 M Fe2(Cr2O7)3?
isn’t familiar with molarity.
(a) A medium-sized (296 mL) cup of Tim Horton’s
coffee contains 0.10 g caffeine, C8H10N4O2. Express
this concentration in molarity.

(b) 1.6 mol/L strontium cyanide?

(b) A 355 mL can of pop contains 42.6 g sugar,

C6H12O6. What is the sugar’s molar concentration?

© Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry 159
10. In reflected light, iron(III) chloride crystals appear 14. How many Na+ ions are dissolved in 1.5 L of 3.0 M
dark green but in transmitted light they appear Na2CO3?
maroon. What concentration of iron(III) chloride
contains 0.038 M Cl−?

15. It takes 145 drops from a pipette to reach the 5.0 mL

mark on a graduated cylinder. How many grams of
bromide ions are in one such drop of 0.10 M iron(III)
bromide?
11. In a solution of Fe2(SO4)3:
(a) if the [Fe3+] = 1.5 M then what is the [SO42−]?

16. Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, is added to soft drinks to

increase their tartness and to act as a preservative.
(b) if the [SO42−] = 3.0 M then what is the [Fe3+]? The concentration of H3PO4 in Pepsi is proprietary
(a company secret) but can be determined from its
phosphorus content since H3PO4 is the only source
of phosphorus in the beverage. There are 49 mg of
phosphorus in a 355 mL can of Pepsi. What is the
[H3PO4] in Pepsi?
12. Write the relationship between the concentrations
of the ions in a solution of:
(a) zinc chromate

17. Draw the plot representing a 1.5 M NaCl solution on

(b) strontium hydroxide the graph provided.

13. Milk has a [Ca2+] of about 31.4 mM. What mass of

Ca2+ ions are in a 250 mL serving of milk?

160 Chapter 3 The Mole – The Central Unit of Chemistry © Edvantage Interactive 2011 ISBN 978-0-9864778-2-9