Facts, figures, and analysis of the 4

engines driving the Union Budget 2025

Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman lists agriculture, MSMEs,
investments, and exports as four key engines of development in the Union
Budget for 2025-26.

Let's understand how the Union Budget addresses these four engines of
growth for Viksit Bharat.

Nirmala Sitharaman unveiled her 8th consecutive Union Budget as the Union Finance Minister.
WHAT IS THE ISSUE?

Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman presented the Union Budget 2025-26 on
Saturday (1st February). In her speech, she highlighted four engines of development for the
2025-26 fiscal year: agriculture, micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs),
investments, and exports. “The fuel for this journey is provided by reforms, the guiding
principle is inclusivity, and the destination is Viksit Bharat,” stated the Finance Minister. In
this context, understanding the highlighted engines of growth is crucial.

WHY IS THE UNION BUDGET RELEVANT?

The Union Budget is a crucial component of the UPSC syllabus. Understanding its facts,
figures, and analysis is significantly important for every stage of the UPSC Civil Services
Examination (CSE). Therefore, it is essential to understand the Union Budget from a broader
perspective.

UPSC Syllabus:
Preliminary Examination: Current events of national importance, economic development
Mains Examination: General Studies-II, III: Indian Economy and issues relating to
planning, mobilisation of resources, growth, development and employment, Government
budgeting; Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and
issues arising out of their design and implementation.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN FROM THIS ARTICLE?

1. What does the Union Budget say on agriculture and how do experts analyse it?
2. What are the major announcements for India’s MSME sector in the Union Budget,
and what do experts say about it?
3. How does the Union Budget address investment-related challenges to stimulate
economic growth?
4. How does the Union Budget align with India’s goal of becoming a global export hub?

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QUESTION 1: WHAT DOES THE UNION BUDGET SAY ON AGRICULTURE AND
HOW DO EXPERTS ANALYSE IT?

Agriculture, which supports more than 60 per cent of India’s population, is a major part of the
country’s rural economy. Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman Saturday said that agriculture
was one of the four engines driving India’s development journey and announced several new
initiatives for the sector. Some of the key initiatives are:

1. Prime Minister Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana (PMDDKY): PMDDKY will be

implemented in collaboration with states, across 100 districts in its first phase. The scheme
aims to increase agricultural productivity, adopt crop diversification and sustainable
agriculture practices, improve post-harvest storage after harvest at the panchayat and block
levels, improve irrigation facilities, and provide short-term and long-term credit.

2. National Mission on High Yielding Seeds: A National Mission on High Yielding Seeds
will be launched, aimed at (1) strengthening the research ecosystem, (2) targeted
development and propagation of seeds with high yield, pest resistance and climate resilience,
and (3) commercial availability of more than 100 seed varieties released since July 2024.

3. Pulse Mission: The government has announced an allocation of Rs 1,000 crore for a six-
year initiative called the “Pulse Mission,” aimed at boosting pulse production to achieve self-
sufficiency. This initiative will focus on three types of pulses: tur (arhar), urad (mash), and
masoor.

4. Makhana board for Bihar: A Makhana Board will be set up in Bihar to boost the
cultivation and marketing of fox nuts. The people engaged in Makhana cultivation will be
organised in FPOs. Bihar accounts for approximately 90% of India’s makhana production.

5. Rural Prosperity and Resilience’ program: A holistic, multi-sectoral ‘Rural Prosperity

and Resilience’ program will be launched in collaboration with states. This initiative aims to
tackle under-employment in agriculture by promoting skill development, investment,
technology adoption, and revitalization of the rural economy.

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 WHAT IS THE UNION BUDGET?

The Union Budget (called the Annual Financial Statement under Article 112 of the Constitution
of India) provides an account of the government’s financial health. It shows details about a
government’s finances by providing the estimated receipts and expenditures of the Government
of India for the current financial year, along with revised estimates for the last financial year and
actuals for the last to last financial year.

6. New urea plant to come up in Assam: Finance Minister on Saturday announced the
setting up of a new urea plant with an annual production capacity of 12.7 lakh tonnes (lt) at
Namrup in Assam.

7. Grameen Credit Score: Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman also announced Grameen
Credit Score, a framework to be developed by the public sector banks for the credit needs of
the members of Self Help Groups (SHGs) and people in rural areas.

8. Mission for Cotton Productivity: For the benefit of cotton growing farmers a 5-year
‘Mission for Cotton Productivity’ is announced.

9. Enhancing loan limits for farmers: The finance minister also announced increasing the
loan limit under the Modified Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS) from Rs 3 lakh to Rs 5
lakh.

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Analyzing the announced initiatives for the agriculture sector in Union
Budget 2025, Ashok Gulati and Raya Das write-

The big question from the agriculture segment of the Union Budget for
FY26 is whether it can bring in climate resilience, and augment the
productivity and incomes of farmers and farm labourers. There are several
initiatives announced for agriculture that are likely to help the farming
community.

The special focus on 100 districts to augment agri-productivity, promote sustainable farming
practices and crop diversification, extending credit access through Kisan Credit Cards from
Rs 3 lakh to Rs 5 lakh, starting a Pulses Mission to attain atma nirbharta in tur, moong and
urad, etc., are all steps in the right direction. So is the setting up of a Makhana Board in
Bihar. How far they will go in achieving their objectives remains to be seen.

While the Union Budget 2025-26 makes some progress in addressing agricultural challenges,
the overall approach remains incremental rather than transformational. A paradigm shift is
needed — one that moves away from subsidy-heavy interventions towards investment-driven
growth, greater private sector participation, and technology-led efficiency improvements. The
path to making Indian agriculture more resilient and globally competitive requires bold
reforms in subsidy rationalisation, infrastructure development, and market linkages. Only
then can India achieve the goal of Vikshit Bharat and position itself as an agricultural
powerhouse by 2047.”

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QUESTION 2: WHAT ARE THE MAJOR ANNOUNCEMENTS FOR INDIA’S
MSME SECTOR IN THE UNION BUDGET, AND WHAT DO EXPERTS SAY
ABOUT IT?

Giving new definitions for micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) and announcing a
slew of initiatives to help such businesses, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman in her
Budget speech termed them the second power engine for development. It encompasses
manufacturing and services with a focus on MSMEs numbering 5.7 crore. Several key
initiatives announced to address the challenges faced by the manufacturing sector,
particularly for MSMEs are:

1. Definition of MSMEs widened: In her Budget speech, Finance Minister said the
investment and turnover limits for classification of all MSMEs will be increased 2.5 and two
times respectively.

This means the investment limit to be classified as a micro enterprise goes up to Rs 2.5 crore.
For small enterprises, this limit goes up to Rs 25 crore, and for medium ones, it becomes Rs
125 crore. Similarly, the turnover limit for these classifications goes up to Rs 10 crore for
micro enterprises, Rs 100 crore for small ones, and Rs 500 crore for medium enterprises.

2. Credit Guarantee Limit Increased: The Union Finance Minister also announced the
enhancement of the credit guarantee cover from Rs 5 crore to Rs 10 crore for micro and small
enterprises, and from Rs 10 crore to Rs 20 crore for startups. As part of the initiatives for
MSMEs, she announced that a National Institute of Food Technology, Entrepreneurship and
Management will be established in Bihar.

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3. Customised credit cards: Customised credit cards with a limit of Rs 5 lakh were
announced in the Budget for micro enterprises registered on the Udyam portal. In the first
year, 10 lakh of these cards will be issued.

HIGH-LEVEL COMMITTEE FOR REGULATORY REFORMS

Union Finance Minister also emphasised the need for a light touch regulatory framework based
on principles and trust, which could unleash productivity and employment. The government
plans to set up a high-level committee for regulatory reforms, which will review all non-
financial sector regulations. Notably, the Economic Survey 2024-25 has said that deregulation is
more critical for MSME growth than large enterprises.

4. National Manufacturing Mission: The Union Finance Minister said in her Budget speech
that the Central government will set up a National Manufacturing Mission for small, medium
and large industries with a focus on clean tech manufacturing. The mission’s mandate will
include five focus areas – ease and cost of doing business, upskilling for in-demand jobs,
MSMEs, availability of technology, and quality products.

5. Scheme for First-time Entrepreneurs: A new scheme will be launched for 5 lakh
women, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes first-time entrepreneurs. This will provide
term loans up to Rs 2 crore during the next 5 years.

Union Finance Minister’s announcements for MSMEs has overall been welcomed by the
sector.

The Economic Survey has rightly pointed out the need to promote labour-intensive
sectors with skill upgradation so that their productivity, and thus, their incomes,
improve. The organised manufacturing sector so far has gone in for more capital-
intensive choices rather than labour-intensive ones. Deregulating MSMEs is one way to
move forward as they create a bulk of employment in the country, after agriculture.-
Ashok Gulati and Raya Das

The initiatives to address the funding and logistical challenges of the MSME sector aim to
provide good momentum to an important part of our economy; however, its execution is
something we need to wait and see.

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QUESTION 3: HOW DOES THE UNION BUDGET ADDRESS INVESTMENT-
RELATED CHALLENGES TO STIMULATE ECONOMIC GROWTH?

Union Budget 2025 identifies investment as the third engine of India’s growth. It focuses on
investing in people, the economy, and innovation. The following initiatives have been
announced in the budget:

1. Urban Challenge Fund: The Government will establish a ₹1 lakh crore Urban Challenge
Fund to support initiatives like ‘Cities as Growth Hubs,’ ‘Creative Redevelopment,’ and
‘Water & Sanitation’. The fund will cover up to 25% of viable project costs, requiring at least
50% funding from bonds, bank loans, or PPPs. ₹10,000 crore is allocated for 2025-26.

2. Public Private Partnership in Infrastructure: Each infrastructure-related ministry will

come up with a 3-year pipeline of projects that can be implemented in PPP mode. States will
also be encouraged to do so and can seek support from the IIPDF (India Infrastructure Project
Development Fund) scheme to prepare PPP proposals.

3. FDI in Insurance Hiked: Union Finance Minister announced a significant hike in foreign
direct investment (FDI) in the insurance sector — from 74% to 100% — paving the way for
the entry of global insurance giants, substantial foreign investments and tough competition in
the Indian market. Foreign investments will also provide much-needed capital to the Indian
insurance sector, enabling insurers to offer better products and services.

4. SWAMIH Fund 2: It will be established as a blended finance facility with contribution

from the Government, banks and private investors. The existing Special Window for
Affordable, Mid-Income Housing (SWAMIH) scheme aims to help middle-class families
who pay EMIs on loans taken for apartments, and rent on their current dwellings.

DO YOU KNOW?

Investment Friendliness Index of States will launched this year for competitive cooperative
federalism.

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5. Nuclear Energy Mission for Viksit Bharat: A Nuclear Energy Mission for research &
development of Small Modular Reactors (SMR) with an outlay of Rs. 20,000 crore will be set
up. At least 5 indigenously developed SMRs will be operationalized by 2033.

6. Deep Tech Fund of Funds: Investing in innovation the budget announced a ‘Deep Tech
Fund of Funds’ for next generation startups and ten thousand PM research fellowships for
technological research in IITs and IISc in next 5 years.

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7. Maritime Development Fund: This fund will be set up with a corpus of Rs 25,000 cr. It
will support the long-term financing of the maritime industry. Aims at distributing support
and promoting competition. Upto 49% GoI support, rest by ports, private sector.

8. Historic Tax Cut: The finance minister has raised the limit of income tax rebate from Rs 7
lakh to Rs 12 lakh, which essentially means that if an individual has an income of up to Rs 12
lakh, she will have zero tax liability.

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Udit Mishra writes- “Many observers have pointed out that companies were unwilling to
invest in fresh capacities until they could be sure there was enough demand in the economy
for their products.

Saturday’s Budget announcement of a massive income tax break is an acceptance by the

government that more than anything else, the private sector investments require robust
consumer demand. Almost everything else — corporate income tax and interest rates and the
condition of roads — is secondary.

The hope now is that consumers will spend the additional money in hand
— around Rs 1 lakh crore that the government is foregoing as revenues —
and that this will provide corporates with the essential reason to invest in
new capacities, create jobs, and further spur economic growth.

However, there is a crucial element still lacking in the Budget: a comprehensive strategy for
economic growth without which tax cuts will not be enough.”

Nilesh Shah writes– “The budget has invested in the future by allocating Rs 10,000 crore for
a start-up Fund of Fund scheme; Rs 25,000 crore for shipbuilding through a Maritime
Development Fund; and Rs 20,000 crore for small modular nuclear reactors. All these
investments are futuristic and could have a multiplier effect on the economy.

Markets are driven by flows, sentiments, and fundamentals. This budget will maintain
positive domestic investor sentiment, encourage domestic flows to the capital market, and
improve corporate profits over time.”

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QUESTION 4: HOW DOES THE UNION BUDGET ALIGN WITH INDIA’S GOAL
OF BECOMING A GLOBAL EXPORT HUB?

Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman identified exports as a key engine for development
over the coming year. To this end, she announced five initiatives:

1. Export Promotion Mission: This mission will be driven jointly by the Ministries of
Commerce, MSME, and Finance. It aims to facilitate easy access to export credit, cross-
border factoring support, and support to MSMEs to tackle non-tariff measures in overseas
markets.

2. BharatTradeNet: A digital public infrastructure, ‘BharatTradeNet’ (BTN) for

international trade will be set up as a unified platform for trade documentation and financing
solutions. The BTN will complement the existing Unified Logistics Interface Platform, which
allows industry players to access logistics-related datasets from various government systems.

3. Global Supply Chain Integration: Support domestic manufacturing to integrate India’s

economy into global supply chains, focusing on Industry 4.0 and youth talent.

4. National Framework for Global Capability Centres: As guidance to states for

promoting Global Capability Centres (GCCs) in emerging tier 2 cities. GCCs offer support to
MNCs. The proposed policy aims at enhancing availability of talent and infrastructure,
building-byelaw reforms, and mechanisms for industry collaboration.

5. Warehousing facility for air cargo: To facilitate the upgradation of infrastructure and
warehousing for air cargo including high-value perishable horticulture produce.
In the context of global uncertainty, the export-related initiatives of government hold great
importance, as they not only determine economic gains but also shape our international
relations.

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Rajat Kathuria and Neha Gupta wrote on January 30 in The Indian Express – “Although the
Union budget is not the best place to look for trade-related announcements, it has become one
of the several platforms that communicates India’s policy engagement with the global
economy.

Unquestionably, policy instability takes its toll on exports and FDI. India’s export growth
remains stagnant; its share in global exports lingers around two per cent… Trade policy
requires comprehensive reform, including the establishment of a dedicated committee to
ensure policy consistency and to formulate an action plan to achieve the objective of $2
trillion in exports by 2030.

In this regard, the recent declaration by the CEO of NITI Aayog that “India is one of the few
(big) economies which is not a part of large trade agreements” needs serious evaluation.
Mega trade blocs such as the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific
Partnership (CPTPP) and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) are
reshaping global trade, but India is ambivalent about their utility.

However, a word of caution. By itself, trade openness will not deliver unless accompanied by
domestic reform to remove structural deficiencies. All things considered, a re-evaluation of
the pessimism surrounding trade agreements is called for.”

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 POST READ QUESTIONS
PRELIMS
(1) Consider the following statements:
1. Revenue expenditure does not result in the creation of assets for the Government of India.
2. Capital expenditure reduces the government’s liability or increases the government’s
assets.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

(2) Along with the Budget, the Finance Minister also places other documents before the
Parliament which include ‘The Macro Economic Framework Statement’. The aforesaid
document is presented because this is mandated by (UPSC CSE 2020)
(a) Long-standing parliamentary convention
(b) Article 112 and Article 110(1) of the Constitution of India
(c) Article 113 of the Constitution of India
(d) Provisions of the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act, 2003

(3) With reference to the Union Government, consider the following statements: (UPSC
CSE 2015)
1. The Department of Revenue is responsible for the preparation of the Union Budget that is
presented to the Parliament.
2. No amount can be withdrawn from the Consolidated Fund of India without the
authorization from the Parliament of India.
3. All the disbursements made from Public Account also need the authorization from the
Parliament of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

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(4) There has been a persistent deficit budget year after year. Which action/actions of
the following can be taken by the Government to reduce the deficit? (UPSC CSE 2016)
1. Reducing revenue expenditure
2. Introducing new welfare schemes
3. Rationalizing subsidies
4. Reducing import duty
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

MAINS
(1) Distinguish between Capital Budget and Revenue Budget. Explain the components of
both these Budgets. (UPSC CSE 2021)

(2) What were the reasons for the introduction of Fiscal Responsibility and Budget
Management (FRBM) Act, 2003? Discuss critically its salient features and their
effectiveness. (UPSC CSE 2013)

PRELIMS ANSWER KEY

1. (c)
2. (d)
3. (c)
4. (c)

SOURCES: PM Dhan-Dhaanya, New urea plant to come up in Assam, Ashok Gulati, Raya
Das on Budget 2025, National Manufacturing Mission MSME soon, Definition of MSMEs
widened, credit guarantee limit increased, FDI in insurance hiked to 100%, paving way for
entry of foreign giants, Union Budget 2025 Explained Highlights, Union Budget 2025 : Key
highlighs, Critics don’t get it — free trade is good for India

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 Why rivers, the lifeline of the nation,
must flow
The rivers of India serve as lifelines for the country, providing numerous
benefits ranging from water supply for agriculture, domestic use, industry,
hydroelectricity, and transportation.
But how are rivers formed and what are the challenges they face today?

Rivers in India face several issues, like pollution, flooding, water scarcity, and interstate
disputes.
India is blessed with many rivers that provide its population with resources for irrigation,
industry, domestic purposes, hydroelectricity, transportation, fishing, fertile land for
agriculture, etc.

There are various ways of classifying Indian river systems, such as based on catchment size,
origin and orientation to the sea. Broadly, they are classified into Himalayan rivers, which
include the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra and their tributaries, and the Peninsular rivers
based on their origin.

There are differences between the two river systems based on their source of water, regime,
flow etc. Himalayan rivers are perennial, fed by glaciers and monsoon, and have two maxima
or peak flow periods – one during summer due to glacial melt and the second during
the southwest monsoon. They have relatively larger basins and meandering courses as they
pass through soft sedimentary rocks.

On the other hand, Peninsular rivers are mostly seasonal and have only one maxima or peak
flow during the monsoon, except for the Kaveri, which also receives water from the northeast
monsoon. These rivers have smaller basins and relatively straighter courses due to the
presence of hard peninsular rocks.

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 EVOLUTION OF THE HIMALAYAN RIVERS

The evolution of the Himalayan rivers is explained by theories like the Indo-Brahma/Siwalik
River theory of E.H. Pascoe and the Multiple River theory. The Indo-Brahma River theory
suggests that a large river once flowed from Assam to Punjab and possibly extended to Sind.
The theory also postulates that the present-day Indus and Brahmaputra rivers were part of
this ancient river system and were separated later. The separation happened due to geological
events like the Potwar Plateau upheaval in the western Himalayas during the Pleistocene age,
headward erosion by tributaries of the Indo-Brahma River, and the development of the Malda
trough.

Many geological events have also contributed to the current drainage pattern of Peninsular
India. The subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula during the late Tertiary period
and the tilting of the peninsular landmass towards the southeast resulted in the asymmetrical
drainage of the Peninsular rivers primarily towards the eastern flank.

WHAT THEORIES ON THE FORMATION OF RIVERS SAY

Theories related to the formation of rivers and the morphological features they create are part
of broader landscape development theories. One of the most influential theories is W.M.
Davis’s Cycle of Erosion (1889), which laid emphasis on the role of structure, process, and
stage (time) in landscape evolution. Davis proposed that after an initial rapid uplift, the
landscape goes through a complete cycle of development consisting of three stages: youth,
maturity, and old age.

However, Davis’s theory was contested by W. Penck, who rejected the role of time and stated
that geomorphic forms are shaped by the phase and rate of uplift in relation to the rate of
degradation. Other notable theories include G.K. Gilbert’s Equilibrium Concept, L.C. King’s
Uniform development of landforms in varying environmental conditions, J.T. Hack’s
Dynamic Equilibrium Theory, and Morisawa’s Tectono-geomorphic model.

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 STAGES OF RIVER LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT

True stability of geological conditions is rare due to factors like complications of geological
structure, diastrophic history, and climatic variations. However, in case of the ideal fluvial
(river) cycle, a general sequence of processes and landform development is followed. It is
important to note that the duration of different stages is not uniform.

YOUTH STAGE
In this stage, the formation of V-shaped valleys, where valley deepening is more dominant
than valley widening, occurs. Fluvial erosion primarily involves downcutting (valley
deepening) and lateral erosion (valley widening). Both of these occur through
solution/corrasion, abrasion, attrition, and hydraulic action.

Landforms like canyons (such as Grand Canyon in Colorado) and gorges are some of the
features of this stage. Lakes and swamps may form in areas near local base levels of erosion.
The presence of rapids and waterfalls is also typical of this stage due to the presence of
resistant rocks.

MATURITY STAGE
In this stage, the river attains a profile of equilibrium, with valley widening becoming more
dominant than valley deepening, giving it a U-shape. Interstream divide becomes ridge-
shaped. Depositional features like alluvial fans (for example Kosi River Fan) and cones can
be seen as the river enters the plains from the mountains. Meanders and oxbow lakes (such
as Kanwar Lake) become prominent in this stage.

OLD STAGE
Fewer tributaries are present in this stage. Very wide valleys with a gentle slope develop, and
interstream areas are reduced in height. The river carries a finer load, and deposition becomes
dominant. Lakes, swamps, and marshes are common in floodplain areas (such as Ganga-
Yamuna floodplains). Levee formation and braided river flow can also be observed.
Peneplanation and delta formation (for example Sundarbans Delta) are common features of
this stage.

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However, fluvial cycles are rarely uninterrupted, as various factors can cause interruptions,
including volcanic activity, climatic changes, and positive or negative shifts in the base level
of erosion. Rejuvenation of the fluvial cycle can also take place due to factors like subsidence
of the sea floor, glaciation, uplift of the landmass, or an increase in water volume of rivers.

Examples of rejuvenation include the development of nick points in the river profile due to
tectonic activity, valley-in-valley topography, paired terraces, incised meanders, and uplifted
peneplains. Such interruptions in the fluvial cycle lead to topographical discordance, where
older landforms persist before the development of younger forms.

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 CHALLENGES AND GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES

Rivers of India face several issues, like pollution, flooding, water scarcity, and interstate
disputes. Pollution is primarily caused by the dumping of sewage, plastic, and municipal and
industrial waste. Flooding results from both natural factors (such as increased rainfall due to
climate change) and human activities (such as deforestation, encroachment of floodplains,
poor drainage, sudden dam releases, and embankment failures).

Water scarcity primarily occurs due to vagaries of the monsoon, while interstate disputes
arise over water-sharing, such as in river basins like Cauvery, Krishna, Godavari, and
Narmada.

Various measures have been taken by the government to tackle these issues. To tackle
pollution and clean rivers, schemes like the National River Conservation Plan and Namami
Ganga were launched. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 was also
enacted to regulate pollution. Programmes like AMRUT and the Smart Cities Mission focus
on improving sewerage infrastructure.

The Flood Management Programme was launched during the 10th Plan to address the issues
of flood-affected states through measures like drainage works and the construction of
embankments. Government schemes like Jal Shakti Abhiyan and MGNREGS (which include
water conservation and rainwater harvesting structures) aim to tackle water scarcity. The
Inter-State River Water Disputes Act (1956) was enacted to resolve disputes over river water
sharing.

The National Waterways Act, 2016 was introduced to ease the burden on road and rail
transport by designating 111 waterways as National Waterways. A National Perspective Plan
for the interlinking of rivers was also prepared by the Ministry of Irrigation in 1980, though
its implementation depends on the consensus of the concerned states.

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POST READ QUESTIONS

How are Indian river systems classified? What are the major differences between Himalayan
and Peninsular rivers?

What are the main theories related to the formation of rivers and their morphological
features?

What are the key features of the youth, maturity and old stages in river development?

What measures have been taken by the government to address pollution in rivers?

What is the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, and how does it resolve water-sharing
conflicts?

How does the National Perspective Plan for the interlinking of rivers aim to address water
management issues in India?

By, Raj Shekhar, pursuing his Ph.D. in Geography from Jawaharlal Nehru
University.

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Indus River system and the debate on
Indus Water Treaty
The Indus Water Treaty was signed by India and Pakistan on September
19, 1960 to determine the distribution of the waters of the Indus and its
tributaries.

But what is a river system, and which rivers form the Indus River system?

The Indus River system comprises six rivers: Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.
The 64-year-old Indus Water Treaty is again in the news amid India’s push to renegotiate
it and Pakistan’s objections to the design features of two hydroelectric projects (HEP) under
construction in Jammu and Kashmir. The Kishanganga HEP on Kishenganga, a tributary of
the Jhelum, and the Ratle HEP on the Chenab.

To comprehend the Indus Water Treaty, it’s crucial to understand the Indus River System: its
origin, course, tributaries and so forth. Let’s first have a brief overview of the treaty.

INDUS WATER TREATY

India and Pakistan signed the Indus Water Treaty on September 19, 1960 to ensure the
distribution of waters of the Indus and its tributaries. It was signed in Karachi by then Prime
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and then Pakistan President Ayub Khan.

In the context of the treaty, Pakistan became the lower riparian state – a place where the river
ends – and India the upper riparian state – where the river originates. According to this treaty,
India got exclusive rights over the three eastern rivers – Ravi, Sutlej and Beas – amounting to
around 33 million acre-feet (MAF), or approximately 20% of the total water of the Indus
river system. Pakistan got control over the three western rivers – Indus, Jhelum and Chenab –
receiving around 135 MAF, or 80% of the total water.

However, India can use the water of western rivers for specified domestic, non-consumptive
and agricultural purposes. India has also the right to generate hydroelectricity through run-of-
the-river (RoR) projects, subject to specific criteria for design and operation.

Article IX of the treaty contains the dispute resolution mechanism. It is a three-tier process:
First, disputes are addressed through the Permanent Indus Commission (PIC), comprising
representatives from both countries; then through the World Bank-appointed Neutral Expert,
and as a last resort, through the Permanent Court of Arbitration.

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INDUS RIVER SYSTEM

A river, along with its tributaries, is called a river system. The Indus River system comprises
six rivers: Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. The Indus and Sutlej are antecedent
rivers, meaning they existed even before the formation of the Himalayas and cut deep gorges
after originating in the Tibet region. The other four rivers – Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Beas –
originate in India.

The Indus Basin extends across four countries, namely China, India, Pakistan and
Afghanistan. In India, the basin spans the Union Territories of Ladakh and Jammu and
Kashmir as well as Chandigarh and the states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan. The total drainage area of the basin is approximately 3,21,289 sq. km, accounting
for nearly 9.8% of India’s total geographical area.

WESTERN RIVERS

The Indus River originates from the trans-Himalayan range of Kailash (in Tibet) near
Mansarovar Lake, where it is known as ‘Singi Khamban’ or the Lion’s Mouth. Flowing
westward, it enters India at Demchok in Ladakh. In India, the length of the Indus River is
approximately 1,114 kilometres and it flows between Ladakh and Karakoram ranges in the
Union Territory of Ladakh.

The main right bank tributaries of the Indus River are the Shyok (originates from Rimo
Glacier), the Shigar, and the Gilgit, while Zaskar, and Hanle are its left bank tributaries. It
runs a total of 2,880 kilometres before falling into the Arabian Sea near Karachi, Pakistan.
‘The Indus River Dolphin’, an endangered species as per the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List, is found mainly in the Indus River.

The Jhelum River (252 km) originates from a spring at Verinag near the Pir Panjal and flows
through Wular Lake in Srinagar before entering Pakistan. It joins the Chenab near a place
called Jhang in Pakistan. The Chenab River, the largest tributary of the Indus, has a length of
1,180 km in India. It is formed by the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers at Tandi in
Keylong, Himachal Pradesh.

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EASTERN RIVERS

The Ravi River (95 km) originates from the Kullu Hills near Rohtang Pass in Himachal
Pradesh and merges with Chenab at Sarai Sidhu in Pakistan. The Beas River (354
km) rises from the Beas Kund (elevation: 4,000 meter above sea level) near Rohtang Pass in
Himachal Pradesh. It flows through the Kullu Valley and meets Sutlej near Harike in Punjab
in India. The Harike Barrage was built in 1952, which diverts water for the Indira Gandhi
Canal system.

The Sutlej River (676 km) is an antecedent river originating from Rakas Tal (elevation: 4,555
m above sea level) near Mansarovar in Tibet. It is known as Langchen Khambab in Tibet
before entering India near Ropar.

To utilise the waters of the eastern rivers, India has built the Ranjit Sagar Dam on Ravi, the
Bhakra Dam on Sutlej and the Pong and Pandoh Dam on Beas. Some other important projects
on these rivers include the Beas-Sutlej Link, the Madhopur-Beas Link and the Indira Gandhi
Canal Project. With the help of these projects, India utilises nearly 95% of the waters of the
eastern rivers.

However, it is some of India’s projects on the western rivers that Pakistan has raised
objections to over time. India’s important projects on the western rivers include the Salal
Dam Project, the Baglihar Hydropower Project, the Pakal Dul Project, and the Kiru Project,
all on the Chenab River, while the Tulbul Project is located on the Jhelum River in Jammu
and Kashmir.

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WHY INDIA SEEKS RENEGOTIATION OF INDUS WATER TREATY

In July 2022, the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Flood Management and International
Water Treaties presented its report, and observed that the Indus Water Treaty signed in 1960
was based on the available knowledge and circumstances of that time. It recommended that
the Indian government take necessary diplomatic measures to renegotiate the treaty in light of
present-day challenges such as global warming, climate change, water availability, and
environmental impact.

In August 2024, India formally notified Pakistan under Article XII (3) of the treaty, seeking
review and renegotiation on the basis of present challenges such as population growth,
climate change, and the alleged misuse of dispute mechanisms by the neighbouring country.

Unlike the Ganga and Brahmaputra River systems, the Indus River system has the largest
glaciated area and is mostly dependent on solid precipitation and glacier meltwater. However,
current climate change is presenting challenges related to water availability and distribution
in the basin. Given the risks of global warming, both India and Pakistan remain vulnerable to
these changes.

Therefore, while the Indus Water Treaty has been a diplomatic success and has withstood
periods of heightened tensions between the two countries, “fundamental and unforeseen
changes in circumstances”, reportedly highlighted by India in its September 2024
notification, necessitate a need to revisit the Treaty.

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POST READ QUESTIONS

Why is the Indus River system significant for India and its neighboring countries?

What are the major dams built by India on the eastern rivers of the Indus system?

What are the key water management projects linking the Beas and Sutlej rivers?

How much of the eastern rivers’ water does India utilize, and through which projects?

Why has Pakistan raised objections to some of India’s projects on the western rivers?

By, Abhinav Rai, a Doctoral candidate at the Department of

Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi.

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Conflicts in Africa - Rising tensions
in the Great Lakes Region
The ongoing insurgency in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo by
M23 rebels threatens to ignite renewed conflict in the Great Lakes Region.

How the complex interplay of historical, ecological, and socioeconomic

factors have made violent conflict endemic in the region.

Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC) hold position following
renewed fighting in Kilimanyoka, outside Goma in the North Kivu province of the
Democratic Republic of Congo June 9, 2022. Picture taken June 9, 2022.
Days after the capture of Goma, rebels of the March 23 Movement (M23) rebels and allied
Rwandan forces have launched a new offensive in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC). The ongoing insurgency in the DRC, which is the continuation of protracted turmoil
and insecurity that has plagued the region for generations, is intertwined with the region’s
geography and resources.

Let’s explore how natural resources enabled armed groups to fuel conflict in the Great Lakes
Region of Africa, and how colonial policies and military coups affect governance in Rwanda
and Burundi.

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 THE GREAT LAKES REGION OF AFRICA

The Great Lakes Region of Africa, located in East and Central Africa, is a series of lakes in
and around the East African Rift Valley. This vast network of large freshwater lakes in the
heart of Africa is endowed with various natural resources, which give the East African Rift
Valley a unique ecology and socioeconomic significance.

These lakes include Lake Victoria (59,947 km2), Lake Tanganyika (32,000 km2), Lake
Malawi (29,600 km2), Lake Albert (5,590 km2), Lake Kivu (2,700 km2) and Lake Edward
(2,325 km2). They are surrounded by ten riparian states that include Burundi, the DRC,
Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia. Most of
them have a traumatic past, while violent conflict is endemic in the region.

Lake Kivu, situated between Rwanda and the DRC, contains valuable natural resources. In
early January this year, Rwanda announced the discovery of oil in the lake, and soon after,
the insurgent activity in the area escalated. Historically, control over these resources has led
to protracted strife between state as well as non-state actors, with even external powers
intervening.

The control over natural resources has helped different armed groups to finance their
activities. In addition, refugees from different countries like Rwanda, Burundi and the DRC
have sought refuge in neighbouring countries. Their presence has further complicated an
already fragile situation and made a resolution even more difficult.

Furthermore, the colonial past, and the policies implemented by Germany and Belgium, have
left deep-rooted legacies of economic exploitation, ethnic antagonism and weak governance
structure in Rwanda and Burundi. Germany’s belief in the “Hamitic hypothesis” – which
claimed that the Tutsi were a superior race that migrated from Ethiopian highlands to the
region to settle and civilise the so-called “savages” and then issued identity cards based on
ethnic classification – solidified societal divisions. It led to the creation of two clearly defined
and rigid antagonistic groups – “Tutsi” and “Hutu”.

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 RWANDA

Rwanda is a small, densely populated, landlocked country. The post-colonial state was deeply
fragmented by the Hutu-Tutsi conflict, resulting in a genocide in 1994. The roots of this
conflict is traced to the colonial policies that institutionalised rigid tribal identities. At
independence in 1962, Hutus were able to gain power for the first time in the country’s
history.

The post-independence period witnessed frequent pogroms against the erstwhile ruling
Tutsis. A large number of Tustis, including the former king, spent many years in refugee
camps in neighbouring countries like Uganda and Tanzania. The Rwandan Patriotic Front
(RPF) was formed by these refugees, who began waging an insurgency to return home.

In response to this, a segment of the ruling Hutus formed a paramilitary organisation

called Interahamwe (“Those Who Attack Together”). The organisation played a central role
in the 1994 Rwandan genocide in which over 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutus were killed
in just 100 days. The genocide ended only after the RPF successfully captured power. Since
then, the RPF has been ruling Rwanda for three decades with tight control, reconciliation and
development.

Since 1994, Rwanda’s economy has undergone a significant transformation, largely attributed
to liberal economic policies, and has emerged as one of the fastest-growing economies in
Africa. However, the constitution has been amended many times to extend Paul Kagame’s
iron grip with a highly centralised government. This is a common trend in Africa where
charismatic presidents often remain in power until their death.

In 2009, Rwanda formally joined the Commonwealth, sealing the country’s shift from a
Francophone to an Anglophone country.

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 BURUNDI

Similarly, Burundi is a small, mountainous, landlocked country bordering Rwanda. After the
defeat of Germany in WWI in 1919, the League of Nations put Rwanda and Burundi under
Belgian mandate. The Belgian rule heightened the Hutu-Tutsi division by promoting the
Tutsi elite in administrative positions and marginalising the Hutus, thereby deepening social
inequities.

After gaining independence in 1962, Burundi remained a Tutsi monarchy until the 1966
coup. Since then, the country has encountered waves of ethnic cleansing and political
upheavals. The first Burundian Genocide took place in 1972, following the return from exile
and subsequent assassination of King Ntare V. The Tutsi-dominated government of Michel
Micombero responded by brutally quelling the Hutu rebels by targeting the broader Hutu
population.

This was followed by another round of ethnic cleansing in 1993 when even school children
were not spared. The current political instability in Burundi stems from a combination of
political, social and economic crises, which are largely traced to its colonial legacy and post-
independence history of violence.

The military coups in 1976 by Col. Jean-Baptiste Bagaza and in 1987 by Major Pierre
Buyoya further weakened governance structures. The civil war from 1993 to 2005 added to
deep scars that continue to hinder the process of reconciliation. Unsolved historical
grievances and weak institutions remain persistent challenges.

POST READ QUESTIONS

How does the presence of valuable natural resources impact governance and security in the
Great Lakes Region of Africa?

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What historical factors have contributed to making violent conflict endemic in this region?

How did German and Belgian colonial policies contribute to the ethnic divisions in Rwanda
and Burundi?

What was the “Hamitic hypothesis,” and how did it shape colonial and post-colonial
Rwandan society?

What were the causes and consequences of the 1972 and 1993 genocides in Burundi?

By, Jamal M. Moosa, the Chairperson of the Centre for African Studies, SIS,
JNU and Pratibha Poonia is a doctoral researcher at the same centre. In the
second part of the article, the authors will explore Africa’s Great War and
implications of the instability in the Great Lakes Region for India.

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 Conflicts in West Asia
Levant in turmoil
Donald Trump's proposal to "take over" Gaza and relocate its population
has raised concerns about potential regional instability.

But how are the conflicts in the Levant rooted in its history of external
manipulation and internal fragmentation?

Hezbollah supporters wave the group’s and Palestinian flags during in the southern Beirut
suburb of Dahiyeh, Lebanon, Oct. 7, 2023.

US President Donald Trump’s proposal to “take over” Gaza has raised serious concerns that
any forced relocation of its 1.8 million residents to Egypt or Jordan could exacerbate
instability not just in neighbouring countries such as Lebanon but also in the broader region.
But what historical events have shaped the current political and social landscape of the region
known as the Levant? In what ways have external powers historically influenced the Levant,
and how does this shape the ongoing conflicts in the region?
THE LEVANT

The term “Levant” has its roots in the French word “levant”, meaning “rising” or “to rise”,
which refers to the direction of the sunrise in the east. This etymology can be traced further
back to the Latin “levare”, which also means “to lift” or “to raise”. The word entered English
in 1497 to denote lands along the eastern Mediterranean.

The historically rich region of Levant — encompassing Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon,
and Syria, with parts of Iraq, Turkey, and Cyprus also often included — has long been a
crossroads of civilisations. More than just a geographical entity, the Levant embodies layers
of history, culture, and identity.

Bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west and the Arabian Desert to the east, with
the Taurus Mountains in the north and the Sinai Peninsula in the south, its strategic position
has made it a vital link between Africa and Eurasia. As a hub of trade, migration, and cultural
exchange, the Levant has continuously influenced and been influenced by the world beyond
its borders.

This land has witnessed some of humanity’s earliest settlements and innovations. Around
10,000 BCE, communities here pioneered agriculture, and cities like Jericho and Byblos —
among the oldest continuously inhabited places on Earth — were built. The Levant gave rise
to great civilisations, including the Canaanites, Phoenicians, and the ancient kingdoms of
Israel and Judah.

Today, while its historical legacy remains profound, the region grapples with modern
challenges rooted in colonial struggles, wars of independence, and ongoing conflicts,
particularly the Israel-Palestine dispute.

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The highlighted part in the map shows the Levant, which encompasses Israel, Palestine,
Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, with parts of Iraq, Turkey, and Cyprus also often included.

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COLLAPSE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE, A TURNING POINT

The collapse of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I was a turning point for the
Levant, fundamentally altering the region’s trajectory. What followed was not a path to self-
determination but a new era of colonial rule. Under the Mandate System created by the
League of Nations, Britain and France carved up the former Ottoman territories, shaping the
modern borders of West Asia in ways that often ignored the realities on the ground.

The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 divided the Levant between the two colonial powers.
Britain took control of modern-day Iraq, Jordan, and Palestine, driven by strategic interests
like securing access to the Mediterranean and maintaining its connection to British India.

France, on the other hand, took Syria and Lebanon, seeking influence along the Levantine
coast and its hinterlands. These borders, drawn by distant politicians with little regard for the
region’s intricate social fabric, lumped together communities with distinct identities, beliefs,
and aspirations. The consequences of these artificial divisions were profound. Iraq was
cobbled together with Sunni Arabs, Shia Arabs, and Kurds, leading to internal tensions that
continue to this day.

Lebanon’s political system, designed to allocate power among Christians, Sunni and Shia
Muslims, and Druze, institutionalised sectarian divisions rather than fostering unity. In
Palestine, Britain’s policies — especially the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which supported
the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people”— set the stage for a conflict
that remains unresolved more than a century later.

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COLONIAL LEGACIES

During the British mandate in Palestine (1920–1948), Jewish immigration and land
acquisition were encouraged, often at the expense of the Arab population. This created deep
resentment and violent clashes, planting the seeds of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
Meanwhile, in Jordan, Britain granted independence but ensured the Hashemite (descendants
of the Prophet) monarchy under King Abdullah I retained power, aligning the new state with
British interests.

Syria and Lebanon gained independence from France only after struggles that were both
political and armed. But freedom came with its own challenges. Syria experienced a series of
coups, reflecting the fragility of its political system, while Lebanon’s sectarian-based
governance structure led to cycles of instability, with its divisions repeatedly exploited by
internal and external forces.

The legacy of these colonial decisions still looms large over the Levant. Borders drawn in
European capitals and policies crafted with imperial priorities have left the region grappling
with conflict and fragmentation. For the people of the Levant, this history is not just a distant
past—it’s a lived reality, shaping their identities, their struggles, and their hopes for the
future.

CONFLICTS IN THE LEVANT

The legacy of the mandate system can be felt in the conflicts and authoritarian regimes that
dominate the Levant today. The modern borders of the Levant ignored centuries of cultural,
ethnic, and religious coexistence, and often sowed the seeds of division and conflict.

LEBANON

In Lebanon, the French introduced a confessional political system that divided power among
religious groups, entrenching sectarian divisions. Although Lebanon gained independence in
1946, these divisions created fault lines that eventually erupted into the Lebanese Civil War
from 1975 to 1990.

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SYRIA

Syria faced a different but equally disruptive colonial strategy. The French sought to divide
the country into smaller, semi-autonomous regions along religious and ethnic lines. They
empowered minorities — Alawites, Druze, and Christians — through disproportionate
recruitment into the military and administrative ranks at the expense of the Sunni Arab
nationalist majority. The military became an avenue for social mobility for the Alawites, who
eventually dominated its leadership.

After Syria’s independence in 1946, the military’s internal divisions fuelled repeated coups
until Hafez al-Assad, an Alawite officer, seized power in 1970, cementing minority rule over
the Sunni majority. What began as a colonial tactic of control evolved into a system of
authoritarianism that still haunts Syria today. Even after the collapse of the Assad regime on
December 8, the country continues to grapple with uncertainty and unrest.

JORDAN

Similarly, in Jordan, Britain preferred a monarchical system over democracy, prioritising a

centralised, predictable authority that could enforce order and align with British interests. By
placing the Hashemite monarchy in power, Britain secured a reliable ally to safeguard its
interests in the region, particularly the Suez Canal and routes to India. The choice sidelined
any possibility of democratic governance, which might have fostered nationalism and
challenged British authority.

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ISRAEL-PALESTINE CONFLICT

The Israel-Palestine conflict has also left a deep imprint on neighbouring countries in the
Levant. Jordan was directly involved in the Arab-Israeli wars of 1948 and 1967, losing the
West Bank and East Jerusalem in the 1967 Arab–Israeli War or the Six-Day War. After the
establishment of Israel and the occupation of the West Bank, Jordan became home to a
massive arrival of Palestinian refugees.

The activities of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) in Jordan, including cross-
border attacks on Israel, created tensions that escalated into open conflict between Jordan’s
government and the PLO. It finally ended up in King Hussein’s order for a military
crackdown on Palestinian militants, leading to a brutal conflict known as Black September, in
which thousands of Palestinians were killed, and the Jordanian army expelled the PLO from
Jordan. Despite a peace treaty with Israel in 1994, Jordan remains deeply connected to the
Israel-Palestine conflict, with the possibility of future Israeli annexation of the West Bank
threatening another wave of refugees.

Syria’s role in the conflict has been no less significant. It joined the wars of 1948, 1967, and
1973, losing the Golan Heights to Israel in the Six-Day War. Though direct military clashes
with Israel have been rare since 1973, Syria has remained a central player in the “Axis of
Resistance” against Israel, aligning with Iran and supporting groups opposed to Israeli
policies. During the Lebanese Civil War, Syria intervened to maintain its influence and
prevent Lebanon from becoming a pro-Israeli or anti-Syrian stronghold. The war deepened
the already complex web of tensions in the region, with Israeli and Syrian forces even
clashing during the conflict.

Thus, the struggles of the Levant are deeply rooted in a history of external manipulation and
internal fragmentation. From the mandate system to the ongoing impacts of the Israel-
Palestine conflict, the people of this region have borne the weight of decisions made far from
their homeland.

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POST READ QUESTIONS

Which countries are included in the Levant region? What is the historical significance of the
Levant?

In what ways has the Levant’s strategic position as a crossroads of civilizations impacted its
historical and cultural development?

What are the potential consequences of the Israel-Palestine conflict on neighboring countries
within the Levant, such as Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria?

How might the displacement of populations due to the Israel-Palestine conflict affect the
demographic and cultural composition of Levantine countries?

By, Dr. Shameer Modongal, a Fulbright Nehru Postdoctoral Research

Fellow and a Visiting Scholar in Residence at the School of International
Studies, American University, Washington DC.

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Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)

Over a year after a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) ravaged parts of
Sikkim and washed away the Teesta-III hydel project, a proposal to build a
new gravity dam in its place has been approved by the environment
ministry panel.
But what is GLOF? What do important reports tell us about the
vulnerabilities surrounding GLOF?

GLOFs can be triggered by various reasons, including glacial calving, where sizable ice
chunks detach from the glacier into the lake, inducing sudden water displacement.
 KNOWLEDGE NUGGET: GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD (GLOF)

SUBJECT: ENVIRONMENT

WHY IN THE NEWS?

The environment ministry’s expert appraisal committee (EAC) has cleared a proposal to
construct a 118-metre high dam in the same place where a devastating glacial lake outburst
flood (GLOF) ravaged parts of Sikkim and washed away a 60-metre-high rockfill concrete
dam of the 1200-MW Teesta-III hydel project. The panel’s decision raises questions because
the design of the new structure has not been cleared by the Central Water Commission, the
Geological Survey and Central Soil and Materials Research Station. A public hearing has not
been held to make sure the project addresses the concerns of local people.

KEY TAKEAWAYS:

1. GLOFs are disaster events caused by the abrupt discharge of water from glacial lakes —
large bodies of water that sit in front of, on top of, or beneath a melting glacier. As a glacier
withdraws, it leaves behind a depression that gets filled with meltwater, thereby forming a
lake.

2. The more the glacier recedes, the bigger and more dangerous the lake becomes. Such lakes
are mostly dammed by unstable ice or sediment composed of loose rock and debris. In case
the boundary around them breaks, huge amounts of water rush down the side of the
mountains, which could cause flooding in the downstream areas — this is referred to as a
GLOF event.

3. GLOFs can be triggered by various reasons, including glacial calving, where sizable ice
chunks detach from the glacier into the lake, inducing sudden water displacement. Incidents
such as avalanches or landslides can also impact the stability of the boundary around a glacial
lake, leading to its failure, and the rapid discharge of water.

4. GLOFs can unleash large volumes of water, sediment, and debris downstream with
formidable force and velocity. The floodwaters can submerge valleys, obliterate

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infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and buildings, and result in significant loss of life and
livelihoods.

International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation

The United Nations has declared 2025 as the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation to
raise awareness about the significance of preserving glacier health in a warming world.
Also, starting in 2025, March 21 will be marked annually as the World Day of Glaciers.

REPORTS HIGHLIGHTING THE VULNERABILITY AROUND GLOF

1. According to a report published by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) last
year, 676 of the 2,431 glacial lakes larger than 10 hectares in the Himalayas have notably
expanded since 1984. Of these, 130 lakes are in India, with seven (7), fifty-eight (58), and
sixty-five (65) in the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus river basins, respectively.

2. The report noted that 601 lakes have more than doubled in size, 10 have grown between
1.5 to 2 times, and 65 lakes have expanded by 1.5 times. An elevation-based analysis reveals
that 314 lakes are located between 4,000 and 5,000 metres, and 296 lakes are above 5,000
metres in elevation.

3. The Ghepang Ghat glacial lake in the Indus River Basin, situated at an elevation of 4,068
metres in Himachal Pradesh, has seen a 178 per cent increase in size from 36.49 to 101.30
hectares between 1989 and 2022.

4. According to a study, ‘Enhanced Glacial Lake Activity Threatens Numerous Communities

and Infrastructure in the Third Pole’, published in the journal Nature in 2023, since 1980,
in the Himalayan region, particularly in southeastern Tibet and the China-Nepal border area,
GLOFs have become more frequent.

5. “Approximately 6,353 sq km of land could be at risk from potential GLOFs, posing threats
to 55,808 buildings, 105 hydropower projects, 194 sq km of farmland, 5,005 km of roads, and
4,038 bridges in the region.”

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6. Another analysis, ‘Glacial Lake Outburst Floods Threaten Millions Globally’, published in
the journal Nature in February 2023, showed that about 3 million people in India and 2
million in Pakistan face the risk of GLOFs.

While the number and size of glacial lakes in these areas (India and
Pakistan) isn’t as large as in places like the Pacific Northwest or Tibet, it’s
that extremely large population and the fact that they are highly vulnerable
that mean Pakistan and India have some of the highest GLOF danger
globally.
Tom Robinson, co-author of the study

7. According to the State of the Cryosphere 2024 – Lost Ice, Global Damage, a report
released at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Baku, Azerbaijan (November
11-22, 2024), stated that due to rising temperatures, record glacier melting has occurred in
2023 globally, including in Asia and the Indian Himalayan Region is among the regions
directly affected by these changes.

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 BEYOND THE NUGGET: SITUATION IN UTTARAKHAND

1. Recently, the Uttarakhand government has constituted teams of experts to evaluate the
risk posed by five potentially hazardous glacial lakes in the region. These lakes are prone to
Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), the kind of events that have resulted in several
disasters in the Himalayan states in recent years.

2. Uttarakhand has witnessed two major GLOF events in the past few years. The first took
place in June 2013, which affected large parts of the state — Kedarnath valley was the worst
hit, where thousands of people died. The second occurred in February 2021, when Chamoli
district was hit by flash floods due to the bursting of a glacier lake.

3. These glacial lakes have been categorised into three risk levels: ‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’. Five
highly sensitive glacial lakes fall into the ‘A’ category. These include Vasudhara Tal in the
Dhauliganga basin in Chamoli district, and four lakes in Pithoragarh district — Maban Lake
in Lassar Yangti Valley, Pyungru Lake in the Darma basin, an unclassified lake in the Darma
basin, and another unclassified lake in Kuthi Yangti Valley.

4. The rising surface temperatures could worsen the situation in Uttarakhand. The state’s
annual average maximum temperature may increase by 1.6-1.9 degree Celsius between 2021-
2050, according to a 2021 study, ‘Locked Houses, Fallow Lands: Climate Change and
Migration in Uttarakhand, India’, carried out by the Germany-based Potsdam Institute for
Climate Research (PIK) and The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) in New Delhi. This
could exacerbate the risk of GLOFs in the state.

SOURCE: Govt to launch survey to assess vulnerability of glacial lakes after monsoon, Why
Uttarakhand govt wants to evaluate the risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods, 14 months after
glacial lake flood, Sikkim’s Teesta dam gets environment nod for rebuild without public
hearing, Hindu Kush Himalaya faces increased risks amid record glacier melting)

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 Pashmina, the Soft Gold
Pashmina, known as "soft gold," has represented luxury and prestige since
the Mughal era. In today's knowledge nugget, learn about its legacy.

Also, get to know about the geographical indication and the GI-tagged
products that made headlines in 2024.

Pashmina holds cultural importance in Kashmir, often used in ceremonial shawls and heirlooms.
 KNOWLEDGE NUGGET: PASHMINA

SUBJECT: ART AND CULTURE

WHY IN THE NEWS?

Pashmina, often referred to as “soft gold,” has been a symbol of luxury and prestige since the
Mughal era. This fabric holds significant cultural importance in Kashmir, where it is
commonly used in ceremonial shawls and treasured heirlooms. Pashmina is associated with
exceptional craftsmanship, representing the rich heritage of the region.

KEY TAKEAWAYS:

1. Pashmina, popularly known as cashmere wool, is well-known not just in India but also
globally for its exquisite softness, warmth, and long life. It derives its name from pashmn –
the under fleece of the mountain goat called Chyangra (Capra Hircus), which lives in the
high altitude of 12,000 feet in the Himalayan regions

2. It is the preferred choice for many during the winter season as the thermal conductivity of
this wool is very high, making it one of the best insulators.

3. The art of crafting pashmina has been part of Himalayan culture for centuries. Its hand-
spun and handwoven nature imbues it with a human and historical essence. Many Himalayan
families have been involved in this craft for generations, preserving not only a livelihood but
also a rich cultural identity.

4. Pashmina shawls undergo a lengthy process involving hand-combing, spinning, weaving,

and dyeing, which can take weeks or even months. The weaving is performed on traditional
handlooms and is a meticulous process that requires immense skill. The production of a
single Pashmina piece can take anywhere from months to years, depending on its complexity.

5. Kashmir’s Pashmina has received GI tag due to the unique traditional process employed by
local artisans in the Kashmir Valley.

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GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATION & INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHT IN
HANDICRAFTS (& HANDLOOMS) SECTOR

1. India, as a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), enacted the Geographical
Indications of Goods (Registration & Protection) Act, 1999, that came into force with effect
from 15th September 2003.

2. A Geographical Indication (GI) is a tag used on products that originate from a specific
geographical area and have qualities or a reputation that are characteristic of that region. This
tag signifies the product’s unique identity and authenticity. It helps to raise awareness and
build trust among consumers.

3. Once a product gets this tag, any person or company cannot sell a similar item under that
name. This tag is valid for a period of 10 years following which it can be renewed. The other
benefits of GI registration include legal protection to that item, prevention against
unauthorised use by others, and promoting exports.

4. In India, the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade, Ministry of
Commerce and Industry, awards GIs. Darjeeling Tea was the first Indian product to get the
GI tag.

5. A GI registration is given to an area, not a trader, but once a product gets the registration,
traders dealing in the product can apply to sell it with the GI logo. Authorised traders are
each assigned a unique GI number.

6. The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act of 1999 Act
provide for the registration of handicrafts and handlooms as Geographical Indications (GI).
Handicraft (& Handlooms) is covered under Section 2(f) of the Act which states that “goods”
means any agricultural, natural or manufactured goods or any goods of handicraft (&
Handlooms) or of industry and includes food stuff.

7. Handicraft artisans & weavers can be registered as Authorized Users for the registered
Geographical Indications as provided under Section 7(3) read with Section 17 of the Act.

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OTHER GI TAGGED PRODUCTS FROM JAMMU AND KASHMIR

Geographical Indication Type

Kashmir Paper Machie Handicraft

Khatamband Handicraft

Kani Shawl Handicraft

Kashmir Sozni Craft Handicraft

Kashmiri Hand-Knotted Carpet Handicraft

Kashmir Walnut Wood Carving Handicraft

Rajouri Chikri Woodcraft Handicraft

Basohli Painting Handicraft

Ramban Anardana Agricultural

Mushqbudji Rice Agricultural

Kashmir Saffron Agricultural

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BEYOND THE NUGGET: MAJOR GI TAGGED PRODUCTS THAT MADE
HEADLINES IN 2024

1. Tirupathi Laddu: There was alleged controversy over the adulteration of ghee used in the
preparation of laddoos at the Sri Venkateswara temple in Andhra Pradesh’s Tirupati. Notably,
Tirupathi Laddu received the GI tag in 2009 which was renewed in 2018 and is applicable till
2028.

[Link]: The Thanjavur Veena has become the first musical instrument in the country to get
the GI (Geographical Indication) tag.

3. Majuli masks: The traditional Majuli masks in Assam were given a GI tag by the Centre
on March 4, 2024. Majuli manuscript painting also got the GI label. Majuli, the largest river
island in the world and the seat of Assam’s neo-Vaishnavite tradition, has been home to the
art of mask-making since the 16th [Link] handmade masks are traditionally used to
depict characters in bhaonas, or theatrical performances with devotional messages under the
neo-Vaishnavite tradition, introduced by the 15th-16th century reformer saint Srimanta
Sankardeva.

4. Rupa Tarakasi (silver filigree): The famous Rupa Tarakasi, or silver filigree work of
Odisha’s Cuttack, received the GI tag last year. Odisha’s Cuttack is known for its silver
filigree work, of intricate design and fine craftsmanship. In Odia, “tara” means wire and
“kasi” means to design. Thus, as part of Rupa Tarakasi, silver bricks are transformed into thin
fine wires or foils and used to create jewellery or showpieces.

5. Similipal Kai chutney: The chutney made with red weaver ants is a traditional delicacy of
the tribals in Odisha’s Mayurbhanj district. The ants are found in the forests of Mayurbhanj,
including in the Similipal forests – Asia’s second-largest biosphere. The chutney is believed
to be a good source of nutrients like protein, calcium, zinc, vitamin B-12, iron, magnesium,
potassium, etc. It got GI tag in January, 2024.

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6. Koraput Kala Jeera Rice: The black-coloured rice variety, also known as the ‘Prince of
Rice’, is famous for its aroma, taste, texture and nutritional value. Tribal farmers of the
Koraput region have preserved the rice variety for around 1,000 years. As the rice grains
resemble cumin seeds, it is also called Kala Jeera. Consumption of the rice variety helps in
increasing haemoglobin levels and improves metabolism in the body. It got

7. Kapdaganda shawl: Woven and embroidered by the women of the Dongria Kondh tribe,
a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG) in the Niyamgiri hills in Odisha’s Rayagada
and Kalahandi districts, the shawl reflects the rich tribal heritage of the Dongria Kondhs. It
also got GI tag in 2024.

As per the Odisha State Tribal Museum, “Worn by both men and women this distinctive
shawl is embroidered with red, yellow and green thread and is often presented during
courtship as a sign of formal commitment.”

8. Odisha Khajuri Guda: Odisha’s “Khajuri Guda” or jaggery is a natural sweetener

extracted from date palm trees and has its origin in the Gajapati district. Traditionally, the
jaggery is prepared in a trapezoidal form called ‘Patali Gur’ and is organic by nature. It is
dark brown and has a unique taste. It also got GI tag last year.

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9. Dhenkanal Magji: It got GI tag last year. It is a type of sweet made from cheese from
buffalo milk, with distinct characteristics in terms of appearance, taste, flavour, shape, and
size. It also has unique nutritional values that distinguish it from other cheese-based sweets.

SOME OTHER IMPORTANT GI TAGGED PRODUCTS

GI Tag Products States

Kutch Ajrakh Gujarat

Chokuwa Rice Assam

Lanjia Saura Painting Odisha

Etikoppaka Toys Andhra Pradesh

Rogan Craft Gujarat

Nagaswaram Tamil Nadu

Kashidakari Rajasthan

Patan Patola Gujarat

Hmaram Mizoram

Matabari Pera Tripura

Pachra Tripura

Gamocha Assam

SOURCES: From ceremonial shawls to heritage handlooms: Tracing the legacy of

Kashmir’s ‘soft gold,’ Pashmina, Knowledge nugget of the day: Tirupati Laddu, Cuttack’s
famed silver filigree work, GI tag for Majuli masks of Assam, From red ant chutney to black
rice, the 7 Odisha products that have bagged GI tags)

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 Makhana, the ‘Black Diamond,’ and
its geographical aspects
While presenting the Union Budget 2025, the Union Finance Minister
announced that a 'Makhana Board' will be set up in Bihar.

Often called the ‘Black Diamond,’ what makes Makhana so special?

From its ideal climatic conditions for cultivation to the significance of the
Makhana Board, here’s what you need to know.

Makhanas are are low in fat, high in carbohydrates and a good source of protein.
 KNOWLEDGE NUGGET: MAKHANA

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMY

WHY IN THE NEWS?

Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman, while presenting the Union Budget on February
1, said that a “Makhana Board” will be set up in Bihar to boost the cultivation and marketing
of fox nuts. The people engaged in Makhana cultivation will be organised in FPOs.

“A Makhana Board will be established in [Bihar] to improve production, processing, value

addition, and marketing of makhana… The Board will provide hand holding and training
support to makhana farmers, and will also work to ensure they receive the benefits of all
relevant Government schemes,” the Finance Minister said.

KEY TAKEAWAYS :
1. Makhana, commonly known in English as fox nut, is the dried edible seed of the prickly
water lily or gorgon plant (Euryale ferox). This plant is found in freshwater ponds throughout
South and East Asia. It is recognized for its violet and white flowers, as well as its large,
round, and prickly leaves, which can often exceed a meter in diameter.

[Link] edible part of the Makhana plant consists of small, round seeds that have an outer layer
ranging from black to brown. This has led to it being referred to as the ‘Black Diamond.’

3. After processing, these seeds are often consumed as popped snacks known as ‘lava.’
Makhana is highly nutritious and provides an excellent source of carbohydrates, protein, and
minerals. Due to its versatile applications in medicine, healthcare, and nutrition, this plant can
be consumed in various forms.

4. GI Tag to Mithila Makhana: In 2022, ‘Mithila Makhana’ was conferred a Geographical

Indication tag. Notably, A Geographical Indication (GI) is a tag used on products that
originate from a specific geographical area and have qualities or a reputation that are

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characteristic of that region. GI tag is valid for a period of 10 years following which it can be
renewed.

A makhana farmer after harvesting a bucket full of raw makhana seeds from a pond. These
seeds take their unique white form after being ‘popped’.

5. Bihar accounts for approximately 90% of India’s makhana production. This production is
primarily concentrated in nine districts located in northern and eastern
Bihar: Darbhanga, Madhubani, Purnea, Katihar, Saharsa, Supaul, Araria, Kishanganj,
and Sitamarhi, which are part of the Mithilanchal region. Among these districts, the first four
contribute to 80% of Bihar’s total makhana output.

“Makhana crop is grown in almost 15,000 hectares in Bihar which

produces nearly 10,000 tonnes of popped makhana,” a 2020 paper by
Indian Council of Agricultural Research said.

6. In addition to Bihar, makhana is cultivated in smaller quantities in the states of Assam,

Manipur, West Bengal, Tripura, and Odisha, as well as in neighboring countries like Nepal,
Bangladesh, China, Japan, and Korea.

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CLIMATIC CONDITIONS FOR MAKHANA CULTIVATION

1. Makhana (Gorgon Nut or Foxnut) is an aquatic crop and is mainly grown in tropical and
subtropical regions. It is traditionally cultivated in stagnant water bodies such as ponds,
land depressions, lakes, ditches, or wetlands with shallow water depths of up to 4-6 feet.

2. For optimal growth and development, Makhana requires a temperature range of 20-35°C,
relative humidity of 50-90%, and annual rainfall between 100-250 cm.

SIGNIFICANCE OF CREATION OF ‘MAKHANA BOARD’

1. The recent budget announcement regarding the establishment of a “Makhana Board” in

Bihar is highly significant for those involved in Makhana cultivation. The Bihar government
has been demanding measures from the Central government to promote Makhana cultivation.
The state government had also demanded a declaration of the minimum support price of
Makhana.

2. Despite being the largest producer of Makhana, Bihar has had difficulty tapping into the
expanding market for this product. Although the state accounts for 90% of the country’s
makhana production, the largest exporters of makhana in India are actually Punjab and
Assam, with Punjab not even producing the crop itself.

3. This situation arises from Bihar’s lack of a developed food processing

industry and inadequate export infrastructure. Notably, none of Bihar’s airports have
cargo facilities, which further limits export capabilities. Additionally, low productivity in
makhana cultivation is a significant issue. Currently, the cultivation process is extremely
labor-intensive and challenging, driving up overall input costs.

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 DO YOU KNOW?

Makhana is a product approved under the Union government’s One District One Product
scheme, which provides subsidies to food processors for branding, marketing, and infrastructure
development.

4. Additionally, Farmers have been slow to adopt high-yield varieties of fox nut seeds
developed by agricultural institutes, such as Swarna Vaidehi and Sabour Makhana-1.

5. The Makahana Board, which has a budget of Rs 100 crore, is expected to provide training
to farmers, making them export-oriented, help create an ecosystem that brings investments in
the food processing sector, and help create required export infrastructure.

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 BEYOND THE NUGGET: ONE DISTRICT ONE PRODUCT SCHEME & ‘ONE
STATION ONE PRODUCT’ SCHEME

1. The One District One Product (ODOP) scheme aims to promote balanced regional
development across all districts in the country. This initiative seeks to identify, brand, and
promote at least one product from each district, fostering holistic socioeconomic growth
across all regions.

2. States and Union Territories (UTs) select the products based on the existing ecosystem in
their areas, as well as products identified under the Districts as Export Hubs (DEH) and
Geographical Indication (GI)-tagged products. The final list of products is communicated to
the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) by the relevant
departments of the states and UTs.

‘ONE STATION ONE PRODUCT’ SCHEME

1. The One Station One Product scheme aims at providing opportunities to local artisans,
potters, weavers/ handloom weavers, craftsmen, etc. to make a living through their skills and
provide them with sale outlets at railway stations across the country.

2. It also focuses on promote local handicrafts, handlooms, and processed food items which
are unique to the area around the railway stations.

SOURCES: Understanding Budget’s Makhananomics, One Station One Product

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Chagos Archipelago and Diego Garcia a
Geopolitical Hotspot
With British PM Keir Starmer seeking ‘strong protections’ for the US-
British base on Diego Garcia, the Chagos Archipelago is back in the
spotlight.
What is the history of these islands, and why are they a geopolitical
hotspot?
Also, go 'Beyond the nugget' to learn about other islands that have been in
the news.

An undated file photo shows Diego Garcia, the largest island in the Chagos archipelago and site of a
major United States military base in the middle of the Indian Ocean leased from Britain in 1966.
 KNOWLEDGE NUGGET: CHAGOS ARCHIPELAGO AND DIEGO GARCIA

SUBJECT: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND GEOGRAPHY

WHY IN THE NEWS?

On Friday, British Prime Minister Keir Starmer told his Mauritian counterpart, Navin
Ramgoolam, that he wants “strong protections”, including from “malign influence”, for a US-
British military base on Diego Garcia, according to a statement from Downing Street.

KEY TAKEAWAYS:

1. The Chagos Archipelago, comprising around 58 islands, is located approximately 500

kilometers south of the Maldives in the Indian Ocean. These islands remained uninhabited
until the late 18th century, when the French brought in enslaved laborers from Africa and
India to work on newly established coconut plantations. In 1814, under the Treaty of Paris,
France ceded Mauritius—including the Chagos Archipelago—to the British.

Map showing Chagos Islands.

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2. Britain detached the Chagos Islands in 1965 from Mauritius — a former colony that
became independent three years later — to create the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT).
The UK government gave the Mauritius a grant of 3 million pounds over the “detachment” of
the Chagos archipelago.

3. In October last year, Britain reached an agreement to transfer sovereignty of the Chagos
Islands to Mauritius while retaining control of the military base on Diego Garcia under a 99-
year lease.

DIEGO GARCIA
1. Diego Garcia is the largest island in the Chagos Archipelago, located in the Indian Ocean.
In 1966, Britain signed an agreement with the US which made the BIOT available for the two
countries’ defence needs. Land was acquired in 1967, and four years later, the plantation on
Diego Garcia was shut down.

2. Diego Garcia became a fully operational military base in 1986. An article in Foreign
Policy magazine states, “Thanks to its vital location, the island houses a military base that
served as a critical node for American air operations during the Gulf War and the wars in Iraq
and Afghanistan. Post-9/11, it has also been allegedly used as a detention centre by the [US
intelligence agency] CIA.”

“Diego Garcia is the site of a joint U.S.-UK military facility that plays a
vital role in national, regional, and global security. It enables the United
States to support operations that demonstrate our shared commitment to
regional stability, provide rapid response to crises, and counter some of the
most challenging security threats we face.” – Former U.S. President Joe
Biden said this in October 2024.

3. Notably, Diego Garcia is a coral atoll and southernmost member of the Chagos
Archipelago. It is located 7 degrees south of the equator.

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 BEYOND THE NUGGET: ISLANDS IN NEWS

1. Tuvalu: Tuvalu, whose mean elevation is just 2 m (6.56 ft), has experienced a sea-level
rise of 15 cm (5.91 inches) over the past three decades, one-and-a-half times the global
average. It is a tiny Pacific island nation located halfway between Hawaii and Australia.

PACIFIC ISLANDS FORUM (PIF)

PIF is an intergovernmental organisation which consists of 18 member states located in the

Pacific region. It was formed in 1971. The countries of this grouping are among the world’s
worst-affected countries due to rising sea [Link] PIF aims to push for economic growth,
enhance political governance and security for the region, and strengthen regional cooperation.
Pacific Island countries are Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French
Polynesia, Kiribati, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea,
Republic of Marshall Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.

2. St Martin’s Island: The ousting of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina brought St Martin’s
Island under the spotlight last year. The island is located in the northeastern region of the Bay
of Bengal, close to the border between Bangladesh and Myanmar. It is nine kilometres away
from the southern tip of Bangladesh’s Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf peninsula. The 7.3 km long island
is mostly flat and sits at an elevation of 3.6 metres above the mean sea level. It is
Bangladesh’s only coral island — there are reefs from 10-15 km to the west-northwest — and
is also a breeding ground for sea turtles. The island has a permanent population of about
10,000 people.

3. Rottnest Island: A seaplane crashed off an Australian tourist island into the Indian
Ocean with three people getting seriously injured and three others remain missing. Seven
people were aboard the Cessna 208 Caravan and only one of them was rescued unharmed
post the crash at Rottnest Island.

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4. Ramree Island: An airstrike by Myanmar’s army on a village under the control of an
armed ethnic minority group killed about 40 people and injured at least 20 others. The attack
occurred in Kyauk Ni Maw village on Ramree island, an area controlled by the ethnic Arakan
Army in western Rakhine state.

5. Kuril Island: Tokyo and Moscow have been locked in a dispute over the Kuril Islands for
decades. The Kuril Islands divide the Sea of Okhotsk from the North Pacific Ocean and span
northeast from Hokkaido in Japan to the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia.

6. Easter Island: Easter Island, the most remote inhabited island on the planet, is 3,700
kilometres from the coast of continental Chile in Pacific Ocean and has an area of 16,628
hectares.

7. Tristan da Cunha: One of the world’s most remote inhabited islands, Tristan da Cunha is
located in the centre of the Atlantic Ocean and has approximately 250 permanent residents,
all of whom are British Overseas Territories citizens.

SOURCES: UK cedes Chagos Islands’ sovereignty to Mauritius, UK-Mauritius treaty on

Chagos Archipelago, Diego Garcia, St Martin’s Island, Rottnest Island, Ramree Island)

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 Pineapple Express
Pineapple Express has drenched Northern California in the last few days,
but what exactly is it? How common is it?

Also, go 'Beyond the nugget' to learn about the polar vortex and the Santa
Ana winds.

Atmospheric rivers vary in size and intensity, but those with the highest water vapour content
and strongest winds can bring extreme rainfall and flooding, according to the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
 KNOWLEDGE NUGGET: PINEAPPLE EXPRESS

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY

WHY IN THE NEWS?

Following an unusually dry January, a powerful atmospheric river known as the ‘Pineapple
Express’ has been sweeping through northern and central California, bringing periods of
strong winds, heavy rain, and snowfall in the hills. It is expected that by Wednesday, the
storm will weaken, potentially bringing lighter rainfall to southern California, including Los
Angeles.

KEY TAKEAWAYS:

The Pineapple Express is a narrow region of atmospheric moisture that

builds up in the tropical Pacific.-National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA)

1. As per a report by BBC, the Pineapple Express is a type of atmospheric river— a narrow,
fast-moving “river in the sky” that transports significant moisture over long distances. The
warm air and high humidity it carries from the Pacific lead to heavy rainfall when the system
reaches land.

2. Pineapple Express gets its name from the warm, moist air drawn into the system,
originating near Hawaii, a region known for its pineapple production.

3. The NOAA explains that atmospheric rivers are long, narrow bands in the atmosphere that
transport vast amounts of water vapour from the tropics. Their size and strength can differ
significantly, but on average, they carry a volume comparable to the flow of the Mississippi
River at its mouth. Exceptionally strong atmospheric rivers can transport up to 15 times that
amount.

4. When atmospheric rivers make landfall, they typically release this moisture as rain or
snow, often covering a vast region as they move inland.

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5. According to NOAA, these rivers are part of the Earth’s ocean water cycle, and are tied
closely to both water supply and flood risks. While atmospheric rivers can bring heavy
rainfall that may lead to flooding, they also play a beneficial role in increasing snowpack.

IS THE “PINEAPPLE EXPRESS” A COMMON WEATHER PHENOMENON?

1. The atmospheric rivers in the sky occur often on the West Coast but can happen in other
locations, including the eastern United States, where they often channel moisture from the
Caribbean.

2. When this moisture begins to interact with land, it can fall as rain or snow. Although
atmospheric rivers come in different shapes and sizes, for one to be a “true Pineapple
Express,” location matters. The tail end, where the moisture is pulled into the atmosphere,
must start near Hawaii. Then the river must stretch continuously through the atmosphere to
the US West Coast.

3. Scientists warn that climate change may intensify these systems in the future, increasing
lower-elevation rainfall, flooding risks, and storm severity.

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 BEYOND THE NUGGET: POLAR VORTEX AND SANTA ANA WINDS

1. The polar vortex is a large area of low pressure and cold air that rotates around both of the
Earth’s polar regions. There are two types of polar vortex: the tropospheric polar
vortex and the stratospheric polar vortex.

A pedestrian crosses a street with the US Capitol building in distance, as a winter storm that
brought snow, ice and freezing temperatures to a broad swath of the US arrived in
Washington, US on January 6, 2025.

2. The tropospheric polar vortex occurs in the lowest layer of the atmosphere, extending from
the surface up to about 10 to 15 kilometers high. This is where most weather phenomena take
place.

3. The stratospheric polar vortex exists at altitudes of approximately 15 to 50 kilometers.

Unlike the tropospheric polar vortex, the stratospheric version disappears during the summer
and is strongest during the autumn.

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SANTA ANA WINDS

1. Santa Ana winds are a natural part of California’s climate pattern and normally blow from
October to January. These winds blow when high pressure builds over the Great Basin
(region located between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada) while a low-pressure
system develops over California’s coast.

2. The difference in pressure creates strong winds that blow from the inland deserts of the
Basin toward the east and north of Southern California, ultimately moving towards the
Pacific Ocean.

3. As the wind comes down the mountains, it compresses and heats up, and its humidity falls
— sometimes to less than 10%.

SOURCES: What is Pineapple Express, an atmospheric ‘river’ set to bring heavy rains to
California, Santa Ana Winds, [Link], Winter storm in the US: How is the
polar vortex responsible for it?)

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 Gaza Strip and Golan Heights
The recent statement by Donald Trump about taking over the Gaza Strip
has led to immediate reactions from other countries.

Where is the Gaza Strip located? What is the dispute surrounding the
Golan Heights?

Donald Trump said that he saw the United States taking "a long-term ownership position" in Gaza.
 KNOWLEDGE NUGGET: GAZA STRIP

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

WHY IN THE NEWS?

During a joint press briefing with Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, Donald
Trump said that the US will “take over the Gaza Strip” and turn it into “the Riviera of the
Middle East”, for “world people” to live in. He said that he saw the United States taking “a
long-term ownership position” in Gaza. Saudi Arabia and Turkey have rejected the idea of
the USA taking over Gaza and displacing Palestinians. Hamas, which controls Gaza, said
Trump’s proposal was a “recipe for creating chaos and tension in the region.” Netanyahu,
however, backed Trump, saying, “After the jaws drop, people scratch their heads and they
say, ‘You know, he’s right’.”

Trump’s latest comments are in line with his outlandish claims about buying Greenland,
making Canada the 51st state of the US, etc. However, for Palestinians, they revive painful
history — when another Western power wrote their destiny and they lost their homeland.

KEY TAKEAWAYS:

1. According to American media outlet CBS News, Trump said,

The US will take over the Gaza Strip, and we will do a job with it, too. We’ll own it and
be responsible for dismantling all of the dangerous unexploded bombs and other
weapons on the site, level the site and get rid of the destroyed buildings — level it out.
Create an economic development that will supply unlimited numbers of jobs and
housing for the people of the area. Do a real job. Do something different.

2. When asked who would live in the new Gaza, Trump said, “I envision world people living
there, the world’s people… representatives from all over the world, Palestinians also.” He
said Palestinians would not want to go back to Gaza, as they only “end up dying there”.

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3. Gaza is a strip of land, just 365 sq km in size, wedged between the Mediterranean Sea to
the west, Israel to the north and east, and Egypt to the south. It is 41 km long and 12 km
wide at its widest point.

4. It has been under military occupation since 1967, and even though Israel maintains that it
pulled out in 2005, the United Nations, the European Union and other international
organisations still consider Gaza as occupied territory. There are three functional border
crossings between Gaza and the outside world – Karem Abu Salem Crossing and Erez
Crossing controlled by Israel, and Rafah Crossing controlled by Egypt.

A map of the Gaza Strip.

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 THE BEGINNING OF THE GAZA BLOCKADE

1. Six-Year War (1967): In 1967, the Six-Day War was fought between a united Arab front
and Israel in which Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the Golan Heights from
Syria, and the Gaza Strip and the West Bank from Jordan. In this war, Arabs not only lost
their territories but also the feeling of a united front.

2. Oslo Agreement (1993): Under the agreement, the Palestinian Authority got
administrative control over Gaza after Israel pulled out, and an election was held in 2006.

3. Post-Oslo Agreement: In 2005, Israel withdrew its settlements from Gaza. Between then
and 2007, it imposed temporary blockades on the movement of people and goods into and out
of Gaza on multiple occasions. In 2007, after Hamas assumed power in Gaza, Israel made the
blockade permanent. Egypt, which also has a border crossing with Gaza, participated in the
blockade. This effectively meant that most people could not go into or out of Gaza and that
the movement of goods and aid was highly restricted.

4. Recent development: In January 2025, Israel and Hamas reached a ceasefire deal to halt
fighting in the Gaza Strip, after months of intermittent negotiatio ns mediated by Egypt and
Qatar, with support from the United States. The deal outlines the return of displaced
Palestinians to their homes in Gaza, the facilitation of medical travel for those injured or sick
due to the conflict, and the repositioning of Israeli forces along the Gaza border.

5. The deal says that the Israeli forces would withdraw from Gaza’s cities to a buffer zone at
the edge of the strip. The displaced Palestinians would be allowed to move freely between the
south and north of the territory, which Israel has divided with a military corridor. The third
phase of the deal would include a reconstruction plan for Gaza. However, plans for the future
governance of the strip remain unclear.

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 INDIA’S POSITION

India’s position in this conflict has remained consistent. It has supported a “negotiated two-
state solution, towards the establishment of a sovereign, independent and viable State of
Palestine within secure and recognised borders, living side by side in peace with Israel.” It
has been providing humanitarian aid to Palestine and has political, strategic and defence
relations with Israel.

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 BEYOND THE NUGGET: GOLAN HEIGHTS

1. In December last year, Turkey strongly criticised Israel’s plan to double the population in
the occupied Golan Heights, as per The Guardian, calling it a move to “expand its borders”
and a threat to regional stability.

2. The Golan Heights were part of Syria until 1967, when Israel captured most of the area in
the Six Day War (1967), occupying it and annexing it in 1981. That unilateral annexation
was not recognised internationally, and Syria demands the return of the territory.

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3. Syria tried to regain the Heights in the 1973 Middle East war but was thwarted. Israel and
Syria signed an armistice in 1974 and the Golan has been relatively quiet since.

4. In 2000, Israel and Syria held their highest- level talks over a possible return of the Golan
and a peace agreement. But the negotiations collapsed and subsequent talks also failed.

5. The Golan Heights is home to around 50,000 residents, divided between Jewish settlers
and the Druze, an Arabic-speaking ethno-religious minority. While the Trump administration
recognized Israel’s sovereignty over the Golan Heights in 2019, most countries still consider
it occupied Syrian territory.

READ MORE: A brief history of Israel-Palestine conflict, Why Trump said US should ‘take
over Gaza’, A to Z of the Israel-Palestine conflict, Middle East Geopolitics and Implications
for India, Explained: Golan Heights; Where are they, and why do they matter?)
a

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 International Big Cat Alliance
Recently, the IBCA, a treaty-based intergovernmental organization
launched by India to conserve the seven big cats, came into force.

In today's 'Knowledge Nugget,' get to know what IBCA is and the

conservation status of these seven cats.

Among the seven big cats, five — tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard and cheetah — are found
in India, excluding puma and jaguar.
 KNOWLEDGE NUGGET: INTERNATIONAL BIG CAT ALLIANCE (IBCA)

SUBJECT: ENVIRONMENT

WHY IN THE NEWS?

On January 23, the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA), launched by Prime
Minister Narendra Modi in 2023 for the global conservation of seven big cats, formally
became a full-fledged treaty-based intergovernmental organization. As per the framework
agreement, the Indian government serves as the depository for instruments of ratification,
approval, or accession from countries seeking to become parties to the agreement.

KEY TAKEAWAYS:

1. The framework agreement entering into force marks the official start of the IBCA’s
operations, activities, and programmes as mandated. It can now establish its governing
bodies, secretariat, and administrative structures. 27 countries including India have consented
to join IBCA.

2. Five signatory countries, including India, were required to ratify and formally deposit
their instrument of ratification for the IBCA framework agreement to come into
force. Liberia became a party to the framework agreement last month, the fifth to ratify the
agreement along with India, Nicaragua, Eswatini, and Somalia, the MEA stated.

3. The IBCA is an initiative launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in April 2023 in
Mysuru commemorating the 50th anniversary of Project Tiger. The objective of the
IBCA is to ensure cooperation for the conservation of seven big cats: lion, tiger, leopard,
cheetah, snow leopard, jaguar, and puma, and enhance knowledge exchange and threats
associated with them.

4. Besides range countries (which house one or more of these big cats), the alliance also
includes “non-range countries interested in big cat conservation, conservation partners, and
scientific organisations working in the field of big cat conservation.

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5. India formally joined the IBCA in September 2024. Prior to that, the Union Cabinet had
approved the establishment of IBCA’s headquarters in February 2024 and cleared a one-time
budgetary support of Rs 150 crore for it for the 2023-24 to 2027-28 period.

ABOUT THE BIG CATS

1. Lion (Panthera Leo): Native to Africa and Asia, the lion is the most social cat, and lives
in groups called prides. They prefer open forests such as scrubland, and adult males have a
prominent mane. Project Lion was announced in August 2020 to secure the future of Asiatic
lions through comprehensive, long-term conservation efforts. August 10 is observed as World
Lion Day annually to raise awareness of the rapidly diminishing lion population and the
critical need for their conservation. Gujarat is the only home of the Asiatic Lions.

2. Leopard (Panthera Pardus): There are nine species of leopards, which are found in both
Asia and Africa. The leopard, the smallest of the big cats, is well known for its ability to
adapt to a variety of settings. This species is a nocturnal mammal, they can hunt at night.
The “Status of Leopards in India, 2022” report states that there were 13784 leopards in India
in 2022 compared to 12,852 in 2018.

3. Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia): The mountainous regions of twelve Asian countries—
Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Mongolia, Nepal,
Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan—make up the habitat range of the snow leopard.
The Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India (SPAI), 2024 has estimated a
population of 718 in Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim
and Arunachal Pradesh.

4. Tiger (Panthera Tigris): According to the fifth cycle of the All India Tiger Estimation
2022 summary report, India is home to about 3,167 tigers, accounting for more than 70 per
cent of the world’s wild tigers. Project Tiger, a centrally sponsored scheme, was launched
in 1973 in nine reserves throughout the states of Assam, Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Odisha, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and West Bengal for the conservation of
Tiger.

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5. Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus): India was home to Asiatic cheetahs, and not the African
subspecies that were introduced in 2022. The Asiatic cheetah is classified as a “critically
endangered” species by the IUCN Red List and is believed to survive only in Iran. While
African Cheetah is listed as a vulnerable (VU) species on the IUCN Red List. The
intercontinental translocation of African cheetahs from Namibia and South Africa to the
Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh was launched under Project Cheetah (2022).

6. Jaguars (Panthera Onca): Jaguars are not native to India and are mainly found in South
America. Melanistic (black) Jaguars are common and are often called black panthers. Jaguar
was a powerful motif in the Mayan and Aztec civilisations.

7. Puma (Puma concolor): Closely related to the domestic cat, this genus has only one
extant species, the cougar. It is the biggest of the “small cats”. They are also called ‘mountain
lions’ and ‘panthers’ across their range from the Canadian Yukon to the Southern Andes.
They are not native to India.

Big Cats IUCN Status Schedule (WPA, 1972)

Tiger Endangered Schedule 1

Cheetah Asian – Critically endangered Schedule 1

African – Vulnerable Schedule 1

Leopard Vulnerable Schedule 1

Lion Vulnerable Schedule 1

Snow Leopard Vulnerable Schedule 1

Jaguar Near Threatened –

Puma Least Concern –

Source: IUCN, Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

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 BEYOND THE NUGGET: IMPORTANT NATIONAL PARKS/WILDLIFE
SANCTUARY

1. Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand: Located at the foothills of Himalayas, near
Nainital, the park in itself is legendary; it was the first national park in India and it is here that
Project Tiger was launched.

2. Sunderban National Park, West Bengal: Sunderban National Park is a biosphere

reserve, national park, and tiger reserve. It is also famed for the Sunderban Delta, which is the
largest mangrove ecosystem in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site as well. The
national park is famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger, and other wildlife which includes fishing
cats, macaques, leopard cats, Indian grey mongoose, wild boar, flying fox, pangolin, and
Indian grey mongoose.

3. Ratapani Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh: It has been notified as the 57th Tiger
Reserve of the country in December 2024. It has a core area of 763.8 sq km, buffer area of
507.6 sq km and total area of 1271.4 sq km. Now, there are Eight tiger reserves in Madhya
Pradesh.

TIGER RESERVE

A tiger reserve in India is a designated area established under the Project Tiger initiative of
1973 to ensure the conservation of tigers and their habitats. These reserves are part of the
government’s efforts to protect the tiger population, maintain biodiversity, and restore
ecological balance

4. Bandhavgarh National Park, Madhya Pradesh: Located in the heart of Madhya

Pradesh, Bandhavgarh National Park is one of the best places to spot tigers in their natural
habitat. It has the highest density of Bengal tigers in India.

SOURCE: Cabinet announces International ‘Big Cat’ Alliance, International Tiger Day:
Spot The Big Cat At These National Parks In India, Cheetahs and others: know the 7 big cats)

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 Dunki Routes
The recently deported illegal immigrants from the US have followed the
'dunki' route to reach the USA. But what is the 'dunki network'?
Also, in 'Beyond the Nugget', explore the broader issue of immigration—
the H-1B visa.

The US military is preparing to send roughly 1,500 additional active-duty troops to the border
with Mexico.
 KNOWLEDGE NUGGET: DUNKI ROUTE – ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS

SUBJECT: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND INDIAN SOCIETY

RELEVANCE: Migration is an important part of the UPSC syllabus. It is a broad issue

encompassing factors leading to internal and external migration, reasons for illegal migration,
and government policies. In 2015, a question was asked about the trends in labor migration in
India. In the present context, the issue of migration has broader implications for India-USA
relations, especially with the coming of Trump 2.0. Therefore, it is important to have a
holistic understanding of this topic.

WHY IN THE NEWS?

A US military aircraft carrying 104 deported Indian nationals landed at Amritsar airport on
5th February 2025. According to the deportees, they spent between Rs 30 lakh and Rs 1 crore
in expenses and agent fees in their efforts to reach the US, mostly through what is known as
the “dunki route”.

The Trump administration has identified about 20,000 Indian illegal immigrants as part of its
mass deportation plan. Indians comprise about 725,000 illegal migrants — the biggest group
outside of Central and Latin America.

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KEY TAKEAWAYS:

1. “Dunki” or “donkey journey” refers to the long-winding, often dangerous routes that
people across the world take to reach the places they want to immigrate to. These difficult
journeys are undertaken due to a lack of requisite legal permits or financial resources. The
American authorities have deported those who have taken this illegal route to reach America.

2. Deportation is the process of removing a non-citizen from the US for violating

immigration law. The US may detain and deport non-citizens who participate in criminal
acts, are a threat to public safety; or violate their visa. The foreign national may be held in a
detention centre before trial or deportation.

3. According to the US Immigration and Customs Enforcement’s Fiscal Year 2024 Annual
Report, Honduras, Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador remain top countries where citizens
are deported or repatriated from the US. However, India figures above China and almost
equals Brazil.

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For Daily Newspaper, Current Affairs Pointers, and more, Join the Official Telegram Channel
OPERATION OF THE NETWORK

1. According to an analysis by the Delhi Police’s IGI unit, passengers are sent to countries
with visa-on-arrival facilities before being shipped to their destination countries through
illegal border crossings.

2. Officers said passengers with fake Schengen visas are sent to relatively accessible
European countries like Azerbaijan or Kazakhstan. From there, they are routed through
Central American or Caribbean countries such as Guatemala and Costa Rica to US.

SCHENGEN VISA

Schengen visa allows the holder to travel freely in the Schengen Area comprising 29 European
countries, for short stays of a maximum of 90 days in any 180-day period. The visas are not
purpose-bound, but they do not grant the right to work. The Schengen Area comprises 29
European countries, 25 of which are EU member states.

3. Another common route includes going to Turkey on a tourist visa or Kazakhstan on a visa
on arrival and taking a “Dunki” route to Russia from there.

4. Heading to Malaysia from Bangkok barely takes a 15-minute bus drive or a 20-minute boat
ride. In some instances, a passenger obtains a fake Schengen visa before heading to Mexico
where they receive the visa on arrival. From here, they take the “Dunki” route, travelling
several kilometres through the border points to reach the US.

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INDIA’S ACTION AFTER THE DEPORTATION

1. After the deportation of the illegal migrants from the USA, the Indian government said that
it is “seriously considering” enacting a new law, tentatively titled ‘Overseas Mobility
(Facilitation and Welfare) Bill, 2024’, to establish an enabling framework which will
promote “safe, orderly and regular migration for overseas employment”.

2. Keeping in view the “contemporary global migration dynamics and the needs of Indian
citizens”, it says that the committee has over the years underscored the pressing need for a
comprehensive legislative overhaul to replace the outdated provisions of the Emigration Act
1983.

3. The ministry said that Indian missions/consulates spread awareness amongst emigrants and
issued advisories for prospective emigrants. These awareness activities such as advisories
equip emigrants with information on safe migration practices, registered recruiting agents,
valid foreign jobs, and ways to avoid fraudulent recruiting agencies.

WORLD MIGRATION REPORT 2024

The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) has released the biennial World Migration
Report 2024. According to the report, India received over USD 111 billion in remittances in
2022, the largest in the world, becoming the first country to reach and even surpass the USD 100
billion mark. India is also the origin of the largest number of international migrants in the world,
with large diasporas living in countries such as the United Arab Emirates, the United States and
Saudi Arabia.

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 BEYOND THE NUGGET: THE ISSUE OF H1-B VISA

1. One of the major concerns in the India-USA ties is the issue of H1-B visas. In the USA,
immigration is one of the most polarising political issues. According to a YouGov poll from
October, 14.6% of registered voters felt it was the most important issue in the (then)
upcoming election. This number was only 2.1% in 2012. Trump has successfully cashed in
on such sentiments, promising to make conditions better for the average working-class
American by curbing immigration.

2. The H-1B visa program allows American employers to hire immigrant workers in
occupations that require “a high level of skill” and “at least a bachelor’s degree”, according to
the US Department of Labour.

3. The program was started in 1990, with the intention of helping “employers who cannot
otherwise obtain needed business skills and abilities from the US workforce by authorising
the temporary employment of qualified individuals who are not otherwise authorised to work
in the United States”.

4. An H-1B visa can be issued for a maximum of six years at a stretch, after which the visa
holder has to either leave the US for a period of at least 12 months before returning, or apply
for and receive permanent residence (“Green Card”).

5. People born in India are the largest beneficiaries of the H-1B program. Data from the US
government show that Indians account for more than 70% of all H-1B petitions approved
each year since 2015. People born in China come a distant second, hovering at the 12-13%
mark since 2018.

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SOURCE: Many of those Indians deported by US were detained from America’s border in
last two months, Rubio-Jaishankar discuss ‘irregular immigration’, Jumping fences, crossing
jungles: How migrants use ‘dunki routes’ to reach US)

UPSC SPECIAL ON THE ISSUE OF MIGRATION

Internal migrants drive development but ‘better life’ remains elusive for them

How to facilitate safer and more productive migration patterns

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