CBSE Class 10 Science Practical Syllabus

Unit I

1. A. Finding the pH of the following samples by using pH paper/universal indicator

(i) Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
(ii) Dilute NaOH solution
(iii) Dilute Ethanoic Acid solution
(iv) Lemon juice
(v) Water
(vi) Dilute Hydrogen Carbonate solution

B. Studying the properties of acids and bases (HCl & NaOH) on the basis of their reaction with:

 Litmus solution (Blue/Red)

 Zinc metal
 Solid sodium carbonate
2. Performing and observing the following reactions and classifying them into:

A. Combination reaction
B. Decomposition reaction
C. Displacement reaction
D. Double displacement reaction

i) Action of water on quicklime

ii) Action of heat on ferrous sulphate crystals
iii) Iron nails kept in copper sulphate solution
iv) Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solutions

3. A. Observing the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the following salt solutions:

 ZnSO4(aq)
 FeSO4(aq)
 CuSO4(aq)
 Al2(SO4)3(aq)
B. Arranging Zn, Fe, Cu and Al (metals) in the decreasing order of reactivity based on the above result.

4. Study of the following properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid)

i) Odour
ii) solubility in water
iii) effect on litmus
iv) reaction with Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate

5. Study of the comparative cleaning capacity of a sample of soap in soft and hard water.
Unit II

1. Preparing a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.

2. Experimentally show that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.

3. Studying (a) binary fission in Amoeba and (b) budding in yeast and Hydra with the help of prepared slides.

4. Identification of the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (Peas, gram or red kidney bean).

Unit III

1. Determination of the focal length of:

i) Concave mirror
ii) Convex lens
by obtaining the image of a distant object.

2. Tracing the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of incidence.
Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, and angle of emergence and interpret the result.

3. Tracing the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Unit IV

1. Studying the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing through it and
determining its resistance. Also, plotting a graph between V and I.

2. Determination of the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series and parallel.
Unit I
1. A. FIND THE PH OF THE FOLLOWING SAMPLES BY USING PH PAPER/UNIVERSAL
INDICATOR

 Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)

 Dilute sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution ?
 Dilute ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) solution
 Lemon juice
 Water (H2O)
 Dilute sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) solution

AIM
To find the pH of the following samples by using pH paper/universal indicator

 Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)

 Dilute sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution ?
 Dilute ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) solution
 Lemon juice
 Water (H2O)
 Dilute sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) solution

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Six test tubes, test tube stand, glass rod, pH paper, dropper, standard pH colour chart, universal indicator,
sample of solution—dilute HCl, dilute NaOH, dilute CH3COOH, dilute NaHCO3, water, lemon juice.

PROCEDURE

1. Take each sample solution in a separate test tube and label them as A, B, C, D, E and F. Put all the test
tubes one by one in a test tube stand (as shown in Fig. 3).

2. Take a strip of pH paper and place it on cleaned and dry white surface.
3. Dip glass rod into the sample solution of test tube A (dilute HCl).
 4. Put one or two drops of hydrochloric acid on the pH paper using clean glass rod as shown in the Fig. 4
given below.

5. Observe the colour produced on pH paper and compare it with the different colour shades given in the
standard pH colour chart.
6. Note down the colour produced on pH paper and pH value in the observation table.
7. Clean the glass rod properly, before taking another sample solution.
8. Repeat the procedure from step (2) to (6) with acetic acid solution, lemon juice, water and dil.
NaHCO3 separately.
9. Observe the colour change in each sample and record pH in observation table.
10. Decide nature of solutions of each sampie, i.e. acidic, basic or neutral with the help of respective pH
value.

OBSERVATION AND INFERENCE

Observation Inference
S.No. Sample solution
(Colour produced on pH paper) (Approximate pH)

1. Dilute HCI
2. Dilute NaOH
3. Dilute CH3COOH
4. Lemon juice
5. Water
6. Dilute NaHC03

RESULT/CONCLUSION
The pH of the given samples by using pH paper are as follows:

1. pH of dilute HCl is ……………. and nature of solution is …………

2. pH of dilute NaOH is ………….. and nature of solution is ………….
3. pH of dilute CH3COOH is …………….. and nature of solution is …………..
4. pH of lemon juice is ………………. and nature of lemon juice is ……………
5. pH of water is …………….. and it is ……………..
6. pH of NaHCO3 is …………….. and nature of its solution is ………………..
B. STUDY THE PROPERTIES OF ACIDS (DIL. HCL) AND BASES (DIL. NAOH) BY THEIR
REACTION WITH

 LITMUS SOLUTION (BLUE/RED)

 ZINC METAL
 SOLID SODIUM CARBONATE

Aim
To study the properties of acids (dil. HCl) and bases (dil. NaOH) by their reaction with

 Litmus solution (blue/red)

 Zinc metal
 Solid sodium carbonate

Materials Required
Test tubes, test tube stand, test tube holder, cork, droppers, boiling tube, match-box, burner, flat bottom flask,
thistle funnel, beaker, litmus solution/paper (red and blue), glass rod, zinc granules, freshly prepared lime water,
solid sodium carbonate and dil. HCl.

Procedure

1. Litmus Test
 Take two test tubes and mark them A and B and put them in a test tube stand. In test tube A take 5
ml of blue litmus solution and in B, take 5mL of red litmus solution (as shown in Fig.1).

Using a dropper, add few drops of HCl in each test tube. Stir each tube with separate glass rods B.
Note, if there is any colour change occurs in the solutions.
Observation In test tube A, blue litmus turns red and nothing happens to red litmus. Hence, it can
be concluded that acids (like HCl) turns blue litmus to red.
2. Reaction with Zinc (Zn) Metal
 Take few zinc granules in a clean and dry test tube.
 Add HCl to the test tube containing zinc granules, such that zinc granules are totally submerged in
the acid.
 Place a cork having glass delivery tube.
 A vigorous reaction will take place after 2-3 minutes, with the evolution of a colourless, odourless
gas.
 On bringing a burning match-stick near the mouth of gas tube, the gas burns with a pale blue flame
producing pop sound (as shown in Fig. 2).
 Reaction 2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) ——> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2↑
Observation Acids (like HCl) liberate hydrogen (H2) gas on reacting with active metals like zinc
(Zn) which burn with a pop sound when burning splinter brought near to it.
3. Reaction with Solid Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3)
 Take a small amount of solid sodium carbonate in a flat bottom flask and some distilled water in it,
shake it well.
 Take a double bore cork with a thistle funnel and a delivery tube fitted in it, fit it on the open end of
the flask.
 Now add HCl in the flask through thistle tube.
 Reaction taken place with the evolution of colourless and odourless gas. Then gas is passed through
freshly prepared lime water with the help of delivery tube (as shown in Fig. 3).
 The lime water turns milky.

 Reaction
Na2CO3(aq)+2HCl(aq) ——–> 2NaCl(aq)+ CO2 ↑ + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 ↑ ——–> CaCO3(s) + H2O (l)
CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) ——–> Ca(HCO3)2 (aq)
Observation HCl on reacting with sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) liberates carbon dioxide (CO2) gas
which turns lime water milky. On passing the gas in excess of lime water, the milkiness disappears.
Observation Table

S.No. Experiment Observation Inference

Litmus test
Add few drops of dil. HCl to test
HCl has……. character.
tube A containing blue litmus Blue litmus solution turns
1. HCl…….. affect red litmus
solution. Add few drops of dil. HCl ………….. in colour.
solution.
to test tube B containing red litmus
solution.
Reaction with Zn metal
Zn reacts with dil. HCl and
On adding dil. HCl to Zn metal and
……. gas evolves. liberates …….. gas.
2. warming the contents.
A pop sound is obtained. Zn (s) + 2HCl(aq)
On bringing a burning match-stick
—->ZnCl2 + …
near the jet.
A colourless, odourless gas ……. gas is liberated on the
Reaction with Na2CO3 is evolved which turns lime reaction between dll. HCl and
3. Add a few drops of dil. HCI to water milky. On passing the Na2CO3.
Na2CO3. gas in excess in lime water, 2HCI + Na2CO3 ——–>
the milkiness disappears. 2NaCl +……… + H2O
Result/Conclusion

1. Hydrochloric acid turns blue litmus solution/paper to red but it does not affect red litmus solution/paper.
2. It reacts with zinc metal to liberate hydrogen gas and also forms zinc chloride as a product.
3. It reacts with sodium carbonate to liberate carbon dioxide.
Hence, we conclude that hydrochloric acid is acidic in nature.
2. Performing and observing the following reactions and classifying them into:

A. Combination reaction
B. Decomposition reaction
C. Displacement reaction
D. Double displacement reaction

i) Action of water on quicklime

ii) Action of heat on ferrous sulphate crystals
iii) Iron nails kept in copper sulphate solution
iv) Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solutions

Aim

Performing and observing the actions of-

1. Water on quicklime
2. Heat on ferrous sulphate crystals
3. Iron nails dipped in copper sulphate solution
4. Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solution
On the following reactions-

1. Combination reaction
2. Decomposition reaction
3. Displacement reaction
4. Double displacement reaction

Experiment 3(A) – Combination

Materials Required

1. Quick lime (Calcium oxide)

2. Borosil beaker
3. Glass rod
 4. Distilled water
5. Dropper
6. Test tube
7. Litmus paper strips

Procedure

1. Wash a borosil beaker with distilled water and dry it.

2. Take a small amount of calcium oxide (quick lime) and slowly add water to it.
3. Wash and take a clean glass rod to stir the mixture of quick lime and water.
4. Touch the beaker carefully from outside.
5. Observe the change.
6. With the help of dropper take a few drops of the mixture from the beaker and place it on red and blue
litmus paper strips.
7. Wait and observe.

Observation

Experiment Observation

Mixture in A hissing sound is heard during the reaction when water is added to the beaker
beaker containing quick lime. Due to the evolution of heat during the reaction the temperature
increases and makes the solution hot.

Solution on Drops on the red litmus paper strip change the colour of the paper to blue whereas there
litmus paper is no colour change observed on the blue litmus paper.

Result and Conclusion

From the above experiment we can conclude that the reaction occurred between calcium oxide (Quick lime) and
water combine to produce one single product slaked lime (Ca(OH) 2) is called combination reaction as well as an
exothermic reaction.
Experiment 3(B) – Decomposition

Materials Required

1. Ferrous sulphate crystals

2. Test tube holder
3. Boiling tube
4. Bunsen burner
5. Safety glass
6. Litmus paper strips

Procedure

1. Wash a boiling tube with distilled water and dry it.

 2. Take 2 grams of ferrous sulphate crystals in the tube.
3. Make a note of the colour of the crystals.
4. Use a test tube holder to hold the boiling tube.
5. Heat the boiling tube on the bunsen burner as shown in the figure.
6. Observe the colour of the residue got and smell the odour of the gases evolved.
7. Tiny colourless water droplets are seen near the neck of the tube.
8. Gently turn it towards your nose and smell for any gas evolved.
9. Wet blue and red litmus paper strips.
10. Hold the litmus paper strips near the mouth of the boiling tube.
11. Observe the change
12. Classify the type of reaction.

Observation

Experiment Observation

Boiling tube test Colour of Ferrous sulphate crystals changes from green to white and later brown.
The gas evolved smells like burning sulphur.

Litmus paper test Blue litmus paper strip turns red when comes in contact with gas.

Result and Conclusion

From the above experiment 3 (B) we can conclude that the reaction occurred on heating ferrous sulphate
crystals is decomposition reaction which decomposes to produce Fe2O3, SO2, and SO3. Since this
decomposition reaction is carried out by heating it is also known as a thermal decomposition reaction.
Experiment 3(C) – Displacement

Materials Required

1. Test tube stand

2. Two test tubes
3. Two iron nails
4. Measuring cylinder
5. Beaker
6. Sandpaper
7. Copper sulphate solution
8. Laboratory stand with clamp
9. Distilled water
10. Thread

Experimental Setup:

Procedure

1. Wash two test tubes with distilled water and dry them.
2. Label the test tube as P and Q.
3. Add 20mL of distilled water in the test tube and mix copper sulphate crystals in P.
4. Transfer 10Ml of solution from P to Q.
5. Take two iron nails by cleaning them with sandpaper.
6. Take one iron nail and dip it in the CuSO4 in test tube P for 15 minutes.
7. Take another iron nail and dip it in the CuSO4 in test tube Q for 15 minutes.
8. Observe the intensity of the blue colour of CuSO4 before and after the experiment performed in test tube
P and Q.
9. Record your results.

Observation
Experiment Before Experiment After Experiment

Colour of CuSo4 Blue Green

Colour of iron nail Silvery grey Brownish red coating

Result and Conclusion

From the above experiment 3 (C) we can conclude that the reaction occurred when iron nails were dipped in the
copper sulphate solution for 15 minutes the colour of the solution changes to green and brownish red copper
metal is deposited on the nail. Therefore this is a displacement reaction.

Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Experiment 3(D) – Double Displacement

Materials Required

1. Test tube stand

2. Measuring cylinder
3. Two test tubes
4. Glass rod
5. Conical flask
6. Barium chloride solution
7. Sodium sulphate solution

Procedure

1. Take two test tubes, wash them with distilled water and dry them.
2. Label the test tube as P and Q.
3. Pour 5mL of barium chloride in the test tube P and observe the colour.
 4. Pour 5mL of sodium sulphate in the test tube Q and observe the colour.
5. Take a conical flask and pour the solutions from both the test tube into it.
6. Stir the mixture added to the conical flask with a glass rod.
7. Keep it undisturbed for some time.
8. Observe the change in colour of the solution.
9. Record your results in the below-given table.

Observation

Experiment Observation

Colour of test tube P and test tube Q Colourless

Mixture of solution in conical flask Precipitation is formed

Result and Conclusion

From the above experiment 3 (D) we can conclude that the reaction occurred on mixing the solutions of barium
chloride and sodium sulphate produce a white precipitate compound by exchanging their ions. This reaction is
known as a double displacement reaction.
 3. OBSERVING THE ACTION OF ZINC, IRON, COPPER AND ALUMINIUM METALS FOR THE
FOLLOWING SALT SOLUTIONS.

Aim:

1. Observing the action of zinc, iron, copper and aluminium metals for the following salt solutions.
a. Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4)
b. Copper sulphate (CuSO4)
c. Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4)
d. Aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3)
2. Arranging the metals Zinc, Copper, Iron, and Aluminium in the decreasing order of reactivity based on
the results obtained from the above.

Materials required:

1. Aluminium foil
2. Zinc granules
3. Copper turnings
4. Iron filings
5. Copper sulphate solution
6. Aluminium sulphate solution
7. Zinc sulphate solution
8. Four 50ml beakers
9. Test tube
10. Test tube stand

Experimental Setup:
Procedure:

1. Wash four beakers with distilled water, dry them and label them A, B, C, D.
2. Prepare 50 mL solution with 5% concentration by volume of ferrous sulphate, aluminium sulphate,
copper sulphate, zinc sulphate.
3. Pour ZnSO4 in beaker A, FeSO4 in beaker B, CuSO4 in beaker C, Add Al2(SO4)3 in beaker D.
4. Wash four test tubes with distilled water and dry them.
5. Put them in a test tube stand and label them as P, Q, R, and S as shown in the figure above.
6. Take 10 mL of the saturated ferrous sulphate (FeSO4), copper sulphate (CuSO4), zinc sulphate (ZnSO4),
and aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3 ) in the test tube as shown in the figure.
7. Take metal strips of aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn). Clean them with sandpaper
before using it in the experiment.
8. Now dip one of the four metal strips in all the four test tubes and observe if any colour change occurs in
all four test tubes.
9. Continue step 8 with other metal strips by dipping in fresh aqueous solutions of metals and see the
displacement reaction.

Observation:

Metal Dipped Observation

in

Al ZnSO4 No change in the solution. Zinc metal which is greyish accumulates on Aluminium
metal.

Al CuSO4 Blue solution becomes colourless. Copper metal which appears reddish brown gets
accumulated.

Al Al2(SO4)3 No reaction.

Result and Conclusion:

Metals Inference
Aluminium Aluminium displaces zinc, copper, and iron from their solutions. Aluminium is the most
reactive metal.

Zinc Zinc displaces copper, and iron from their solutions. Zinc is more reactive than Cu and Fe
metal.

Iron Iron displaces copper from its solution. Therefore, copper is less reactive than iron.

Copper Copper does not displace any metal therefore it is the least reactive.

The decreasing order of reactivity of metals is as follows:

Al

Zn

Fe

Cu
4. Study of the following properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid)

i) Odour
ii) solubility in water
iii) effect on litmus
iv) reaction with Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate

Aim:

To study the following properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid)-

1. Odour (Smell)
2. Solubility in water
3. Effect on litmus
4. Reaction with sodium bicarbonate

Materials required:

1. Test tube
2. Litmus paper
3. Dropper
4. Cork fit
5. Test tube stand
6. Water
7. Beaker
8. Acetic acid
9. Sodium bicarbonate
10. Distilled water
11. Lime water (freshly prepared)

Theory:

The chemical name of acetic acid is ethanoic acid and has the chemical formula CH 3COOH. The COOH group
is called the carboxylic group which is responsible for the properties of ethanoic acid. This acid freezes at 16.6°
C hence called glacial acetic acid. It smells like vinegar and dissolves in water. It is a weak acid as it dissociates
particularly in water. It reacts with alcohol to obtain ester. It reacts with sodium bicarbonate to give carbon
dioxide gas.
Procedure:

 To determine the odour:

Step 1: Take a test tube of 10 mL.

Step 2: Add 5 mL of ethanoic acid into it

Step 3: Bring the test tube near your nose and smell it by wafting.

 To check the solubility in water:

Step 1: Take a test tube of 20 mL.

Step 2: Add 2 mL of ethanoic acid to it

Step 3: Pour 10-15 mL of distilled water and mix it.

 To determine the effect on litmus:

Step 1: Take a clean dropper

Step 2: Take a blue litmus paper

Step 3: Pour 2-3 drops of ethanoic acid on the litmus paper.

 Reaction with sodium bicarbonate:

Step 1: Take a test tube of 5 mL.

Step 2: Add a pinch of sodium bicarbonate to it

Step 3: Pour 1 mL of dilute ethanoic acid into the test tube.

Step 4: To the mouth of the test tube fix a cork with a bent delivery tube

Step 5: The other end of the delivery tube is required to be dipped in lime water.

Observation and results:

Properties Observation

Determination of odour Pungent/vinegar smell

Checking its solubility in water Dissolves in water

Determining the effect on litmus Blue litmus paper turns red

Reaction with sodium bicarbonate A colourless gas is produced which turns the lime water milky

Results:

1. Ethanoic acid or acetic acid or glacial acetic acid smells like vinegar.
2. Glacial acetic acid is water-soluble.
3. Ethanoic acid turns blue litmus paper red.
4. When acetic acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate, carbon dioxide gas is liberated.
5. Study of the comparative cleaning capacity of a sample of soap in soft and hard water.

Aim:

The aim of this experiment – Study the comparative cleaning capacity of a sample of soap in soft and hard
water.

Materials required:

1. Test tube (2)

2. Measuring cylinder
3. Test tube stand

Procedure :

1. Take a test tube and mark it as X.

2. Add 10 mL of soft water in it.
3. Take another test tube and mark it Y.
4. Add 10 mL of hard water in the test tube Y.
5. Add a few drops of soap solution in both the test tubes.
6. Shake the test tubes X and Y strongly for an equal amount of time.
7. Place both the test tubes on the test tube stand.
8. Observe and record the results.

Observation and results:

Test tube Observation

X Forms lather

Y White precipitate is formed

Results:

 The test tube which is marked X forms foam when mixed with soap solution.
 The test tube which is marked Y does not form foam but forms a white precipitate when mixed with
soap solution.
Unit II

1. PREPARE A TEMPORARY MOUNT OF A LEAF PEEL IN ORDER TO SHOW THE STOMATA

OF A LEAF.

Aim
To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel in order to show the stomata of a leaf

Material Required

 A potted plant of Bryophyllum or Tradescantia

 Needles
 Forceps
 Watch glass
 Dropper
 Glass slides
 A brush
 Coverslips
 Blotting paper
 Safranin
 Compound microscope
 Glycerine

Procedure

 Pick a healthy leaf from the potted plant

 Fold the leaf to gently pull the peel apart to separate a peeled section from the lower surface of the leaf.
Use the forceps to perform this step. Allow the peel to remain in a watch glass holding water for some
time.
 In the watch glass, stain the sample by adding some drops of safranin through a dropper.
 Take the peel out after 2-3 minutes. Set it on a clear glass slide
 Add a drop of glycerin on the peel. Put a clear coverslip over it gently using a needle.
 Excess glycerin and stain can be removed using blotting paper
 Examine the slide first under a low-power and then under a high-power magnification of a compound
microscope.

Diagram
Observation

 Visible epidermal cells. The cells in their outline are irregular with no intercellular spaces
 Small openings, stomata are scattered through the epidermal cells
 Guard cells are observed which have chloroplasts and nucleus
 Guard cells are observed having a thin outer covering and a thick inner boundary(concave)
 Guard cells control the closing and opening of the stomata.

Conclusions
Epidermal cells are found containing stomata on the lower surfaces of the leaf.
 2. EXPERIMENTALLY DEMONSTRATE THAT CARBON DIOXIDE IS RELEASED DURING
THE PROCESS OF RESPIRATION.

Aim
To experimentally demonstrate that carbon dioxide is released during the process of respiration.
Material Required

 Soaked gram seeds

 U-shaped delivery tube
 Conical flask
 Blotting paper (moist) /cotton wool
 Thread
 Water
 Beaker
 Test tube
 Rubber cork with a single hole
 Freshly prepared KOH solution (20%)
 Vaseline

Procedure

 Germinate close to 25 seeds. This can be done by wrapping them in moist blotting paper or cotton wool
for around 3 to 4 days
 Set up the germinated or sprouted seeds in the conical flask. Spray some water into the flask to dampen
the seeds
 With the help of a thread, suspend the conical flask containing the test tube having a freshly prepared
20% KOH solution.
 Use the rubber cork to seal the opening of the conical flask.
 One edge of the U-shaped glass delivery tube present in the conical flask should be inserted through the
hole in the rubber cork. The other edge should be placed into a beaker that is saturated with water
 All attachments of the set-up should be sealed. This can be done using vaseline to create an air-tight
environment
 The initial water level present in the U-shaped delivery tube needs to be marked.
 Leave the experimental set-up uninterrupted for 1 to 2 hours. Observe the fluctuations in the water level
in the tube.

Observation
Careful observation after a certain period of time reveals that the water level in the U-shaped delivery tube has
risen in the beaker.

Conclusions
The rise in level water indicates that carbon dioxide is released as a result of germinating gram seeds during the
process of respiration in the conical flask. The carbon dioxide that is released in the process is absorbed or
consumed by the KOH solution that is suspended in the test tube in the conical flask, creating a vacuum or a
void in the flask resulting in the upward water movement in the tube. Hence, the water level in the tube
changes.

3. STUDYING BINARY FISSION IN AMOEBA AND BUDDING IN YEAST WITH THE HELP OF
PREPARED SLIDES:

Aim
To study about (a) Binary Fission in amoeba and (b) Budding in yeast with the help of prepared slides

Material Required

 Compound microscope
 Permanent slides of budding in yeast and binary fission in amoeba

Procedure

 Place the slide under a compound microscope

 Focus the slide, first under low power and later under high power of the compound microscope
 Various stages of budding and binary fission can be carefully examined

Diagram
Observation
(a) Binary fission in Amoeba

 Initially, the pseudopodia are retrieved. The body of amoeba is coiled and becomes round
 Amitosis is observed, the division of the nucleus takes places which are followed by splitting of
cytoplasm
 At the point of fission in the body of the amoeba, a constriction starts to develop.
 The constriction or furrow turns deeper resulting in the formation of two daughter cells
(b) Budding in yeast

 Protuberance or a tiny outgrowth is observed on the parent cell

 Division of the nucleus is observed which is later seen in the bud
 Repetitive budding leads to the formation of a chain of cells

Conclusions
The prepared slides display asexual reproduction. One individual is involved to produce a new offspring of its
own kind.
4. Identification of the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (Pea, gram or red kidney bean).

Aim
To identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed

Material Required

 Seeds of red kidney bean/gram

 Forceps
 Magnifying glass
 Cloth
 Petri dish
 Water

Procedure

 Soak a few seeds overnight

 Next morning, drain the excess water out
 Now wrap the seeds in a clean and a moist cloth for a day, allow it to dry
 Next, carefully peel the seed coat
 With the help of forceps, dissect the seed so as to get two equal halves
 Examine with the help of a magnifying glass. Carefully identify and locate different parts of the seed
 Sketch out the interior of the seed you examined labeling all the parts as shown in the diagram.

Diagram

Observation

 The bean seed resembles the shape of a kidney. It has a convex and a concave side
 A scar known as the hilum is observed on the slightly darker side of the concave side
 A tiny pore known as the micropyle is located just adjacent to the hilum
 The seed is enclosed by a seed coat
  The embryo possesses two distinct and large cotyledons that resemble the shape of a kidney and are
white in color
 Lateral attachment of the cotyledons to the curved embryonal axis is observed
 Radicle is examined. It is the rod-shaped and lightly protrusive lower end of the embryonal axis that is
found placed towards the micropylar end.
 The upper end of the embryonal axis exhibits the plumule
 Hypocotyl is observed which is a section of the embryo axis found in between the radicle and adjunct of
cotyledon leaves
 The epicotyl is also observed which is the section of the embryo axis between the adjunct of cotyledon
leaves and plumule

Conclusion
Three principle parts of the embryo of dicot seeds are observed, they are:

 Cotyledons
 Plumule
 Radicle
Unit III
1. DETERMINATION OF THE FOCAL LENGTH OF:
I) CONCAVE MIRROR
II) CONVEX LENS
by obtaining the image of a distant object.

Aim
To determine the focal length of:

 Concave mirror
 Convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant object.

Materials Required

1. A concave mirror
2. A measuring scale
3. A screen holder
4. A mirror holder
5. A mirror stand

Procedure

1. The distance between the selected distinct object should be more than 50 ft.
2. The concave mirror placed on the mirror stand and the distant object should be facing each other.
3. The screen should be placed in front of the reflecting surface of the mirror. To obtain a clear, sharp
image the screen should be adjusted.
4. Using a metre scale the distance between the concave mirror and screen can be determined. The distance
is the same as the focal length of the given concave mirror.
5. Repeat the above procedure thrice to calculate the average focal length.

Experimental Setup
Observation Table

Sl.no Position of concave mirror (M) Position of screen (S) Focal length = (M-S)
cm

1 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

2 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

3 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

Calculation
Following is the mean value of the focal length of concave mirror:

f1+f2+f33cm=10cm

Result
10 cm is the focal length of the concave mirror.

To determine focal length of a convex lens:

Materials Required

1. A wooden bench
2. A convex lens
3. A lens holder
4. A screen fixed to a stand
5. A measuring scale
6. Experimental Setup

Procedure

1. Without disturbing the lens and screen, arrange both of them on the wooden bench.
2. Place the lens on the holder facing a distant object.
 3. Place the holder with the screen on the bench.
4. The position of the screen should be such that the sharp image of the distant object is obtained on it.
5. The difference between the position of the lens and the screen is equal to the focal length of the given
convex lens.
6. Now shift the focus to towards various other distant object and calculate the focal length of the convex
lens.

Observation Table

Sl.no Position of convex lens (L) Position of screen (S) Focal length = (L-S) cm

1 60 cm 50 cm f1 = 10cm

2 60 cm 50 cm f2 = 10cm

3 60 cm 50 cm f3 = 10cm

Calculation
Following is the mean value of the focal length of convex lens:

f1+f2+f33cm=10cm

Result
10 cm is the focal length of the convex lens.
2. TRACING THE PATH OF A RAY OF LIGHT PASSING THROUGH A RECTANGULAR GLASS
SLAB FOR DIFFERENT ANGLES OF INCIDENCE. MEASURE THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE,
ANGLE OF REFRACTION, ANGLE OF EMERGENCE, AND INTERPRET THE RESULT;

Aim
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of incidence.
Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence, and interpret the result.

Materials Required

1. A drawing board
2. 4-6 all pins
3. White sheet of paper
4. Rectangular glass slab
5. A protractor
6. A scale
7. A pencil
8. Thumb pins

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet on the soft drawing board using thumb pins.
2. Using a sharp pencil, draw the outline boundary of the glass slab, place it at the of the white paper.
3. Let ABCD be the rectangular figure obtained by drawing.
4. Mark point E on AB and draw a perpendicular EN and label it as a normal ray.
5. Draw one angle of 30° with the help of protractor with EN. Fix pins at P and Q at 4-5 cm on the ray that
is obtained by the angle.
6. Place the glass slab on the rectangular figure ABCD.
7. To fix R and S, see through the glass slab of side CD, such that when seen through the glass slab, all the
pins P, Q, R, and S should lie in a straight line.
8. Draw a small circle around the pins P, Q, R, and S and remove the pins.
9. Remove the glass slab.
10. Join points R and S such that it meets CD at point F. Draw a perpendicular N’M’ to CD at point F.
11. Using a pencil, join the points E and F.
12. Measure the angles formed at AB and CD, i.e, the incident angle, refracted angle, and emergent angle.
13. The lateral displacement is obtained by extending the ray PQ in a dotted line which is parallel ray to
FRS.
14. Measure the lateral displacement.
15. Repeat the same procedure for angle 45° and 60°.

Ray Diagram
Observation Table

Sl.no Angle of incidence Angle of refraction Angle of emergence ∠i – ∠e

∠i = ∠PEN ∠r = ∠MEF ∠e = ∠SFM’ ∠PEN – ∠SFM’

1 30° 28° 30° 0°

2 45° 43° 44.8° 0.2°

3 60° 56° 59.8° 0.2°

Due to human error the value of ∠i – ∠e may not be equal to zero.

Conclusion

1. The angle of incidence and the angle of emergence are almost equal.
2. As the light is traveling from rarer to denser optical medium, the angle of refraction will be lesser than
the angle of incidence.
3. For different angles of incidence, the lateral displacement will remain the same.
4. The light will bend towards the normal when it travels from an optically rarer medium to an optically
denser medium.
 3. TRACING THE PATH OF THE RAYS OF LIGHT THROUGH A GLASS PRISM:

Aim
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Materials Required
Following are the list of materials required for this experiment:

 A white sheet
 Soft board
 Thumb pins
 4-6 all pins
 Prism
 Pencil
 Scale
 Protractor
 Drawing board

Experimental Setup
Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

2. Place the triangular prism resting on its triangular base. Using a pencil, draw the outline of the prism.
3. Draw NEN normal to the face of the prism AB. make an angle between 30° and 60°.
4. On the line PE, fix two pins at a distance of 5cm from each other and mark these as P and Q.
5. Look for the images of the pins at P and Q through the other face of the prism AC.
6. Fix two pins at R and S such that they appear as a straight line as that of the P and Q when it is viewed
from AC face of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the prism.
8. At point F, make the points R and S meet by extending them.
9. PQE is the incident ray which is extended till it meets face AC. SRF is the emergent ray which is
extended backward to meet at point G.
10. Now mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of emergence ∠e and ∠D as
shown in the experimental setup.
11. Repeat the experiment for more angles between 30° and 60°.

Observations

1. At surface AB, the light ray enters and bends towards the normal on refraction.
2. At surface AC, the light ray bends away from the normal as it travels from one medium (glass) to the
other (air).
3. The angle of deviation is observed. Here, the emergent ray bends at an angle towards the direction of the
incident ray.

Conclusion

1. The incident ray bends towards the normal when it enters the prism and while leaving the prism it bends
away from the normal.
2. With the increase in the angle of incidence, the angle of deviation decreases. After attaining the
minimum value, it increases with an increase in the angle of incidence.
Unit IV
1. STUDYING THE DEPENDENCE OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (V) ACROSS A RESISTOR ON
THE CURRENT (I) PASSING THROUGH IT AND DETERMINE ITS RESISTANCE. ALSO, PLOT A
GRAPH BETWEEN V AND I.

Aim
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing through it and
determine its resistance. Also, plot a graph between V and I.

Materials Required
Following is the list of materials required for this experiment:

1. A battery
2. An insulated copper wire
3. A key
4. An ammeter
5. A voltmeter
6. A rheostat
7. A resistor
8. A piece of sandpaper

Circuit Diagram

Procedure

1. Arrange the devices as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the devices with the connecting wires keeping the key open.
3. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal of the ammeter.
4. Before connecting the voltmeter in the circuit, check for +ve and -ve terminals.
 5. Check for ammeter and voltmeter reading once the circuit is connected and also adjust the slider of
rheostat after inserting the key.
6. For current I and voltmeter V, record three different readings using a slider.
7. Record the observations in the observation table.
8. Using the formula R=V/I, calculate the resistance.
9. To plot the graph between V and I, take V on the x-axis and I on the y-axis.
10. For pure metals, resistance increases with an increase in temperature.

Observation Table

i) Least count of ammeter and voltmeter

Sl.no Ammeter (A) Voltmeter (V)

1 Range 0-0.5 A 0-0.1 V

2 Least count 0.01 A 0.01 V

3 Zero error (e) 0 0

4 Zero correction 0 0

ii) For the reading of ammeter and voltmeter

Sl.no Current in Ampere (I) Potential difference in volts (V) Resistance in ohms
(ammeter reading) (voltmeter reading) R = V/I (Ω)

Observed Corrected Observed Corrected

1 0 0.02 0 0.04 R1= 2Ω

2 0 0.03 0 0.06 R2= 2Ω

3 0 0.04 0 0.08 R3= 2Ω

Graph
Conclusions

1. For all the three readings, the R-value is the same and constant.
2. The ratio of potential difference V and current I is the resistance of a resistor.
3. With the help of the graph between V and I, Ohm’s law is verified as the plot is a straight line.
2. DETERMINATION OF THE EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE OF TWO RESISTORS WHEN
CONNECTED IN SERIES AND PARALLEL.

Aim
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in parallel.

Materials Required

1. A battery
2. A plug key
3. Connecting wires
4. An ammeter
5. A voltmeter
6. Rheostat
7. A piece of sandpaper
8. Two resistors of different values

Procedure

1. Make all the connections as shown in the experimental setup I by keeping the key off.
2. Insert the key when the circuit is connected appropriately.
3. For resistors R1 and R2, note three readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
4. Connect the circuit as shown in the experimental setup II.
5. Resistors and voltmeter both are connected in parallel.
6. Record three readings of ammeter and voltmeter and use a rheostat.
7. Remove the key.
8. With the help of the observation table, do the calculations.
Observation Table

Resistor used No.of Voltmeter Ammeter R=V/I Mean value of

observations reading in reading in (in resistance
Volts (V) Ampere (I) Ohm) (Ohm)

R1 (first resistor) a 0.01 0.01 1 R1 = 1 ohm

b 0.02 0.02 1

c 0.04 0.04 1

R2 (second resistor) a 0.02 0.01 2 R2 = 2 ohm

b 0.06 0.03 2

c 0.08 0.04 2

1/Rp=(1/R1)+(1/R2) a 0.026 0.04 0.67 Rp=0.67 ohm

Parallel 1/Rp=1.5 ohm
combination

Result

The calculated value of 1Rp=(1R1)+(1R2)=1.5Ω

1Rp

The experimental value of 1Rp=1.5Ω

1Rp

The equivalent resistance Rp is less than the individual resistance.