Types of D.C.

Generator/Motor

D.C. Machine

Separately-Excited Self-Excited

Compound
Shunt Wound Series Wound
Wound

Short Shunt Long Shunt

Types of D.C. Generators/motor
 Introduction

♪ Electrical Machine:
An electrical machine is a device which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy or vice versa.
♪ When the input to an electrical machine is mechanical energy, and the
output is electrical energy, the machine is called a generator.
♪ Thus, a generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.

♪ When the input to an electrical machine is electrical energy, and the

output is mechanical energy, the machine is called an electric motor.
♪ Thus an electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Construction of DC Machine
 Construction of DC Machine
♪ The main parts of DC Machine (motor or generator) are as
follows:
1. Yoke
2. Pole core
3. Pole shoes
4. Field winding
5. Armature core
6. Armature winding or conductor
7. Commutator Commutator

8. Brushes and bearings

Brush
 Construction of DC Machine
1. Yoke

♪ Function
• It provide mechanical Support for poles
• It also provide protection to whole machine from
dust, moisture etc.
• Yoke is also called as frame.
♪ Material used
• For small M/C yoke is made of cast iron.
• For large M/C it is made of cast steel or rolled
steel.
 Construction of DC Machine
2. Pole & Pole core

♪ Function
• Pole of a generator is an electromagnet.
• The field winding is wounded over pole.
• Pole provides magnetic flux when field winding is
excited.
♪ Material used
• Pole core or pole made of cast iron or cast steel.
• The laminations are done to reduce the power lose
due to eddy currents. laminations made using the
process called annealing.
 Construction of DC Machine
3. Pole Shoe

♪ Function
• It is extended part of pole. It enlarge area of pole
• Due to this enlarged area, flux is spread out in the
air gap and more flux can pass through the air
gap to armature.
♪ Material used
• It is made of cast iron or cast steel.
 Construction of DC Machine
4. Field windings

♪ Function
• It is wound around pole core and called as field
winding.
• When Current is passed through field winding it
electro magnetize the poles which produce
necessary flux.
♪ Material used
• The material used for field conductor is copper.
 Construction of DC Machine
5. Armature Core

♪ Function
• It has large number of slots in its periphery
• Armature conductors are placed in this slots
• It is also provide path of low reluctance to
the flux produced by field winding
♪ Material used
• High permeability low reluctance materials
such as cast iron are used for armature core.
• The lamination is provided so as to reduce
the loss due to eddy current.
 Construction of DC Machine
6. Armature Winding

♪ Function
• Armature conductor are inter connected to
form armature Winding
• When armature winding is rotated using
prime mover in the magnetic flux, voltage
gets induced in it.
• Armature winding is connected to external
circuit.
♪ Material used
• It is made of conducting material such as
copper.
 Construction of DC Machine
7. Commutator

♪ Function
• It Convert alternating current induce in the armature winding to unidirectional
current.
• It collects the current from armature conductor and pass it to load with the help of
brushes

♪ Material used
• Hard drawn copper and mica
 Construction of DC Machine
8. Brushes

♪ Function
• Brushes collect the current from commutator
and apply it to external load.
• Brushes wear with time and it is should be
inspected regularly.
♪ Material used
• Brushes are made of carbon or graphite it is
rectangular in shape.
 Generator Working Principle
♪ An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
♪ When ever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced EMF is
produced according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
♪ The direction of induced EMF (and hence current) is given by Fleming’s right
hand rule.
♪ Therefore, the essential components of a generator are:
(a) a magnetic field
(b) moving conductor or conductors as to cut the flux
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
 Generator Working Principle
♪ Working principle of dc generator can be explained with single loop generator
concept.
Generator Working Principle
Generator Working Principle
Generator Working Principle
 Action of Commutator
♪ The induced emf in a conductor when it is under the influence of the north pole and the south
pole are opposite in nature, therefore, inside the armature conductors the induced emf is
always alternating or AC.
♪ To convert the AC emf to an unidirectional emf in the load, a commutator and brush
arrangement is made at the end of the coil (ABCD) as shown.
♪ The Conductor AB is always connected to commutator segment “a”. Similarly, conductor CD is
connected to “b”
♪ Therefore, the commutator also rotates as the coil ABCD rotates. The brushes “1” and “2” are
stationary and alternately makes contacts with “a” and “b”.
♪ From the figure, it is clear that the commutator and brush arrangement converting the AC
induced emf into DC emf (unidirectional) in the load ML
♪ In the DC generator the function of commutator is to convert the AC current to DC
current and therefore known as rotating rectifier
Action of Commutator
 Applications of D.C. Motors
1. D.C. shunt motor

• Lathes, fans, pumps and band saw drive requiring moderate torques.

2. D.C. Series motor

• Electric traction, high speed tools

3. Compound motor

• Rolling mills and other loads requiring large momentary toques.

Types of AC Motors
 Construction of Induction Motor

Stator – As its name indicates stator is a

stationary part of induction motor. A
stator winding is placed in the stator of
induction motor and the three phase
supply is given to it.
Rotor – The rotor is a rotating part of
induction motor. The rotor is connected
to the mechanical load through the
shaft.
 Construction of Induction Motor
Stator of Three Phase Induction Motor

♪ The stator of the three phase induction motor consists of three main parts :
1. Stator frame,
2. Stator core,
3. Stator winding or field winding.

Stator frame

Stator core with slots

Stator winding
 Construction of Induction Motor
1. Stator frame
♪ It is the outer most part of the three phase induction motor.
♪ It provide protection and mechanical strength to all the inner parts of the
induction motor
2. Stator core
♪ The main function of the stator core is to carry the alternating flux.
♪ In order to reduce the eddy current loss, the stator core is laminated.

3. Stator Winding or Field Winding

♪ The slots of stator core carries three phase windings

♪ The three phases of the winding are connected either in star or delta
depending upon which type of starting method is used.
 Construction of Induction Motor
Rotor of Three Phase Induction Motor

♪ Rotor of a 3 phase induction motor can be of either two types:

1. Squirrel cage rotor
2. Slip ring or wound rotor
 Construction of Induction Motor
1. Squirrel Cage Rotor

♪ Most of the induction motors (upto 90%) are of squirrel cage type.
♪ Squirrel cage type rotor has very simple and almost indestructible
construction.
♪ The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars

♪ The rotor conductors are permanently shorted

by the copper or aluminum rings called the end
rings.
♪ This rotor complete closed circuit resembling
like a cage and hence got its name as "squirrel
cage induction motor"
 Construction of Induction Motor
Advantages:

♪ Its construction is very simple and rugged.

♪ As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors requires less
maintenance.

Applications:

♪ Squirrel cage induction motor is used in lathes, drilling machine, fan, blower
printing machines etc.
 Construction of Induction Motor
2. Slip Ring Rotor

♪ The rotor also carries star or delta winding similar to that of stator winding.
♪ The rotor consists of numbers of slots and rotor winding are placed inside
these slots.

♪ Slip ring induction motor

consists of slip rings
connected on same shaft as
that of rotor.
♪ The brushes are used to
carry current to and from
the rotor winding.
 Construction of Induction Motor
Advantages:

♪ It has high starting torque and low starting current.

♪ Possibility of adding additional resistance to control speed.

Applications:

♪ Slip ring induction motor are used where high starting torque is required i.e
in hoists, cranes, elevator etc.
 Principle of operation
♪ The basic principle of operation is described by Faraday’s Law.
♪ The rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an induced
voltage in the rotor windings
♪ Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for both squirrel
cage and slip-ring rotor, and induced current flows in the rotor windings
♪ The rotor current produces another magnetic field
♪ A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two magnetic fields

 ind = k BR  BS
where τind is the induced torque and BR and BS are the magnetic flux
densities of the rotor and the stator respectively
 Law of Electromagnetic Induction

♪ Faraday’s Law:
“when the magnetic flux linking a circuit changes, an EMF is induced in
the circuit proportional to the rate of change of the flux linkage”

𝑑∅
E=-N Volts
𝑑𝑡
♪ Lenz’s Law:
“The direction of an induced current is always such as to oppose the
magnetic field that produces it”

30
Statically Induced EMF

Dynamically Induced EMF

 Induced EMF
♪ An EMF is induced in a coil or conductor whenever there is a change in flux
linkages.
♪ This change in flux linkages can be brought in the following two ways:
1. The conductor is stationary and the magnetic field is moving or changing.
This kind of induced EMF is known as Statically Induced EMF (e.g.
Transformer)
2. The conductor is moved in a stationary magnetic field in such a way that
there is a magnitude change in flux linkages. This kind of induced EMF is
known as Dynamically Induced EMF (e.g. Generator)

32
 Types of Transformers
♪ Transformers can be categorized in different ways, depending upon their
purpose, use, construction etc. The types of transformer are as follows:
1. Step Up Transformer & Step Down Transformer
2. Three Phase Transformer & Single Phase Transformer
3. Two Winding Transformer & Auto Transformer
4. Outdoor Transformer & Indoor Transformer
5. Core Type Transformer & Shell Type Transformer

67
68
 Introduction
♪ One of the main advantages of a.c. transmission and distribution is the ease
with which an alternating voltage can be increased or decreased by
transformers.
♪ Losses in transformers are generally low and thus efficiency is high.
♪ Being static they have a long life and are very stable.
♪ Transformers range in size from the miniature units used in electronic
applications to the large power transformers used in power stations.
♪ The principle of operation is the same for each.

34
35
 Circuit Diagram & Symbol for a Transformer

Circuit Diagram of Transformer Symbol of Transformer

♪ An electrical power transformer is a static device, which transforms electrical

energy from one circuit to another without with out changing its power and
frequency, but may be at different voltage levels depending upon the need.
39
 Construction of Transformer
♪ The three main parts of a transformer are:
1. Primary Winding: The winding that takes electrical power, and produces
magnetic flux when it is connected to an electrical source.
2. Magnetic Core: Provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux produced by
the primary winding. The flux passes through a low reluctance path
linked with secondary winding creating a closed magnetic circuit.
3. Secondary Winding: The winding that provides the desired output
voltage due to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

40
 The Principle of Operation of a Transformer
♪ The working principle of the single phase transformer is based on the
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
♪ According to Faraday’s Law “when the magnetic flux linking a circuit
changes, an EMF is induced in the circuit proportional to the rate of change
of the flux linkage”
♪ The principle of operation of a transformer has been explained in the
following simple steps:
1. As soon as the primary winding is connected to a single–phase supply, an
AC current starts flowing through it.
2. An alternating flux is produced in the core by the AC primary current.
3. The alternating flux gets linked with the secondary winding through the
core.
4. Now, according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction this varying
flux will induce voltage into the secondary winding. 41
 The Principle of Operation of a Transformer
♪ The induced EMF (E), in a coil of N turns is given by,
𝑑∅
E=-N Volts
𝑑𝑡
♪ EMF induced in transformer primary winding is given by,
𝑑∅
E1 = - N1 Volts
𝑑𝑡
♪ EMF induced in transformer secondary winding is given by,
𝑑∅
E2 = - N2 Volts
𝑑𝑡

42
 IDEAL Transformers
♪ Ideal transformer is a transformer which does not have any loss.
♪ In other words, an ideal transformer gives output power exactly equal to the
input power.
♪ An ideal transformer is one that has
1. No winding resistance (i.e. no copper losses)
2. No leakage flux
3. No iron losses (i.e. eddy current and hysteresis losses) in the core.

43
 Introduction to Alternator
♪ The machine which produces 3 phase power from mechanical power is called
an alternator or synchronous generator.
♪ The working of an alternator is based on the principle that when the flux
linking a conductor changes, an emf is induced in the conductor.
Unit 2 - MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS

N SRIDHAR
AP/EEE/MITS
 Introduction
• Measurement:
It is the act or result of quantitative
comparison between a predefined standard and
an unknown quantity.
• Instrument:
It is a device or mechanism used to
determine the present value of a quantity under
observation.
 Classification of Instruments
• Instruments can be classified as:
1. Absolute instruments
2. Secondary instruments

1. Absolute instruments:
 Absolute instruments indicate the value of the quantity
being measured in terms of constant of instruments
and its deflection.
 No comparison with standard instrument is necessary.
 Example: tangent galvanometer, Rayleigh current
balance.
 Continued…
2. Secondary instruments:
 The secondary instruments need calibration with
respect to the absolute instruments.
 The secondary instruments determine the value of
the quantity being measured from the deflection
of the instruments.
 Calibration is a must for secondary instrument,
without calibration the deflection obtained is
meaningless.
 Example: Ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.
 Continued…
• Classification based on the nature of operation:
 Secondary instruments are further classified
according to the nature of operation as:
1. Indicating
2. Recording
3. Integrating instruments.
 Indicating instruments indicate the
instantaneous value of quantity under
measurement.
 Continued…
Recording instruments give a continuous
record of variation of quantity being measured
(such as voltage, frequency, power etc.).
Recorders are commonly used in power plants,
process industries.
An integrating instrument is one which takes
into consideration the period or the time over
which the quantity is supplied. e.g. ampere-
hour meter, energy meter.
 Continued…
• Electrical instruments can also classified as:
1. A.C. instruments
2. D.C. instruments
3. A.C./D.C. instruments
 Some electrical instruments can measure only
A.C. quantity, e.g. induction type instruments,
some can measure only D.C. quantity, e.g.
P.M.M.C. instruments. Some can work on both
a.c. and d.c. e.g. moving iron instruments,
dynamometer instruments etc.
 Continued…
• Analog or Digital instruments:
 One more way of classifying instrument is:
1. Analog instruments
2. Digital instruments.
 Analog information is continuous and stepless
function of time. Analog instruments are easy to
understand, calibrate and maintain.
 Digital information is in form of discrete pulses
or steps. Digital instruments have higher
resolution, high readability.
Operation of Indicating Instruments
• For satisfactory operation of any indicating
instrument, following three torques must act
together appropriately:
1. Deflecting torque
2. Controlling torque
3. Damping torque
 Continued…
1. Deflecting Torque:
• It causes the moving system of the instrument to
move from its position of rest.
• Deflecting torque is produced by using any one
of the following effects of electric current:
i. Magnetic effect
ii.Electromagnetic induction effect
iii.Heating effect
iv.Electrostatic effect
 Continued…
2. Controlling Torque:
• It limits the movement of moving systems. It
also ensures that magnitude of deflection is
always the same for the given value of input
quantity under measurement.
• Controlling torque acts in the opposite
direction to that of the deflecting torque.
• At steady state,
Deflecting torque = Controlling torque
 Continued…
3. Damping Torque:
• Due to deflecting torque, pointer moves in one
direction while due to controlling torque pointer moves
in opposite direction.
• Due to these opposite torques, the pointer may oscillate
in the forward and backward direction if the damping
torque is not present.
• Damping torque brings the moving system to rest
quickly in its final position.
• Damping torque acts only when the moving system is
actually moving. If moving system is at rest, damping
torque is zero.
 Continued…
• Types of instruments used for Voltmeter and
Ammeters:
 The practically used ammeters and voltmeters can
be of the following two types:
1. Permanent ,magnet moving coil (PMMC) type
2. Moving iron (MI) type
3. Hot wire type
4. Induction type
 Moving Coil Instruments
• Moving coil instruments (ammeter and
voltmeter) are of two types:
1. Permanent magnet moving coil type (PMMC)
used only for D.C.
2. Dynamometer type can be used for AC as
well DC.
 Continued…
1. PMMC Instruments:
 They are also known as d’Arsonval
instruments.
 These instruments works on the
electromagnetic effect of current.
 A permanent magnet used to produce
magnetic flux and coil that carries the current
to be measures moves in this field.
 Continued…
• Working principle:
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a force. It is given by expression,
F = BIL
Where F = Force in Newton,
B = Flux density is tesla,
I = Current is ampere,
L = Length of conductor in meter.
 The current I which is to be measured is passed through the moving coil
and experiences a force which is directly proportional to this current.
 Due to this force the coil moves and the pointer attached to it will also
move.
 The angle through which the pointer moves is proportional to current I.
 Continued…
• Construction of PMMC instrument:
 A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminum frame
(spindle) positioned between the poles of a U shaped
permanent magnet which is made up of magnetic alloys
like alnico.
 The coil is pivoted on the jewelled bearing and thus the
coil is free to rotate. The current is fed to the coil
through spiral springs which are two in numbers.
 The coil which carries a current, which is to be
measured, moves in a strong magnetic field produced
by a permanent magnet and a pointer is attached to the
spindle which shows the measured value.
 Continued…

Fig.(1): construction of PMMC instrument

 Continued…
• Deflecting Torque:
 It can be proved that the expression for the deflecting
torque is given by,
Td = G x I
where G = constant
I = Current through the moving coil
• Controlling Torque:
 The controlling torque is given by,
Tc = C. θ
where C = Control spring constant in N-m/rad
θ = Deflection of coil from zero position
 Continued…
For steady state, the controlling torque is equal
to the deflection torque
∴ Tc = Td
i.e. Cθ = GI
∴θ∝I
Thus deflection of the pointer is proportional
to current passed through the coil.
 Continued…
• Advantages of PMMC Instruments:
1. The PMMC consumes less power and has great
accuracy.
2. It has uniformly divided scale and can cover arc of
270 degree.
3. The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
4. It can be modified as ammeter or voltmeter with
suitable resistance.
5. It has efficient damping characteristics and is not
affected by stray magnetic field.
6. It produces no losses due to hysteresis.
 Continued…
• Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments:
1. The moving coil instrument can only be used on
D.C supply as the reversal of current produces
reversal of torque on the coil.
2. It’s very delicate and sometimes uses ac circuit
with a rectifier.
3. It’s costly as compared to moving coil iron
instruments.
4. It may show error due to loss of magnetism of
permanent magnet.
 Dynamometer type moving Coil
Instruments
 It is modification of PMMC instrument.
 Permanent magnet in PMMC is replaced by two fixed
coils.

• Principle of working:
 It works on the principle that whenever a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, force
is exerted on the conductor.
 In this case, fixed coils produced magnetic field.
Moving coil carrying the current to be measured is
suspended in this magnetic field.
 Continued…
Hence it experiences a torque. The moving coil
then rotates through an angle proportional to
the current flowing through the moving coil.
As the pointer is attached to the moving coil,
we get the pointer deflection proportional to
the current to be measured.
 Continued…
• Construction:
 As shown in fig.(1), F1, F2 are two identical circular,
air cored coils. They are connected in series and these
coils are placed in parallel to each other.
 They produced a uniform magnetic field. M is a light
moving coils. It lies in the magnetic field produced by
F1, F2. moving coil is supported by a spindle and
jeweled bearing.
 Two control springs wound in opposite directions are
used as leads to pass current in moving coil. These
springs produce the controlling torque. Damping torque
is obtained using air-friction damping.
 Continued…

Fig.(1): Dynamometer type moving coil instrument

 Continued…
• Advantages:
1. Used of iron is avoided. Hence it is free from
hysteresis and eddy current losses.
2. It is useful for both a.c. and d.c.
measurements.
3. High degree of accuracy.
4. It can be used as a transfer instrument. It is
often used as a standard instrument for
calibrating ammeter and volt meters.
 Continued…
• Limitations:
1. Scale is nonlinear.
2. Torque to weight ratio is small.
3. It is an expensive instrument.
4. The instrument has low sensitivity.
5. Shielding should be provided to avoid effect
of stray magnetic field.
 Moving Iron (MI) instruments
Where ruggedness is more important than high
degree of accuracy, moving iron instruments
are used.
• Types of moving iron instruments:
1. Attraction type
2. Repulsion type
 Continued…
1. Attraction type moving iron instrument:
• Construction of the attraction type moving iron
instrument is as shown in the given figure (1).
• The moving iron, i.e. the disc of soft iron, is eccentrically
mounted. Coil is situated around the disc. When the coil
is excited it produces magnetic field.
• Due to magnetic field the moving iron moves from the
weaker field outside the coil to the stronger field inside
the coil. Thus moving iron gets attracted inwards and thus
the name attraction type.
 Continued…
• The controlling torque is provided by the
balance weights attached to the moving iron.
Spring also can be used to provide controlling
torque.
• Damping is provided by air friction in which
aluminum piston is attached to the moving
system and moves in a closed air damping
chamber.
 Continued…

Fig.(1): attraction type moving instrument

 Continued…
2. Repulsion type moving iron instrument:
• In these type of instruments there two vanes present
inside the coil in which one is fixed while other is
movable. These both vanes gets similarly magnetized
when coil is excited. Thus there is a force of repulsion
between both vanes causing movement in movable
vane. There are further two different designs of
repulsion type moving iron instruments.
i. Radial vane type:
• In radial vane type radial strips of iron are used as
moving vanes. The fixed vane is attached to the coil
and moving is attached to the moving spindle.
 Continued…
ii. Coaxial vane type:
• In coaxial vane type the fixed as well as moving
vanes are the sections of coaxial cylinders as
shown in above figure.

The controlling torque is provided by the springs

or balancing weights (in vertically mounted
instrument). The damping is provided by air
friction damping same as in attraction type
moving iron instruments.
 Continued…

Fig.(2):Repulsion type Moving Iron Instrument

 Continued…
• Advantages of Moving iron Instruments:
1. Suitable of a.c. as well as d.c. measurements.
2. Good accuracy.
3. Cheaper in cost as compared to permanents
magnet moving coil instruments.
4. The instrument has high torque to weight ratio.
5. The instrument can be used for low frequency
measurement also.
 Continued…
• Disadvantages of Moving iron instruments:
1. Power consumed by the instrument is high as
compared to that of the permanent magnet
moving coil instrument.
2. The scale is non-uniform.
3. Due to the presence of iron part in the
operating system, error due to the hysteresis
effect is introduced. To reduce this effect
nickel iron alloys are used.