LABORATORY MANUAL

[Link]. –I (MECHANICAL) Semester II

ELEMENTS OF MATERIALS AND

MANUFACTURING

NAME (in CAPITAL) :

Admi. No. :

DIVISION & BATCH :

ACADEMIC YEAR :

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SARDAR VALLABHBHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SURAT (GUJARAT STATE) INDIA
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SARDAR VALLABHBHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SURAT (GUJARAT STATE) INDIA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. / Ms. of

B.E. – I (Mech.) semester II, Admi. No. Div. Batch

has satisfactorily completed the laboratory term work in the subject of

ELEMENTS OF MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING during academic year

Date:

In-charge Faculty

Head of Department

Declaration:
 Safety Guidelines & Code of Conduct

I, namely Mr./Ms. the undersigned,

Admission No. solemnly declare that I have thoroughly studied and give assurance
to follow all the Safety Guidelines & Code of Conduct mentioned below.

➢ All students are expected to be in ‘Workshop Apron’ while working in various shops. The apron
should be made of navy-blue cotton cloth (without design / print), half sleeve and length at least
15 cm below the knee level.
➢ Avoid wearing clothes that might catch moving or rotating parts. Long sleeves of shirts, loose
fitting clothes, long hair, necktie, wristwatch, jewelry, etc.
➢ Always wear safety shoes while working in Workshop.
➢ All students are required to bring Lab. Manual & job drawing / figures in each turn.
➢ Know the locations of First Aid box and fire extinguishers available in the Workshop.
➢ Do not operate any machine without learning the complete procedure to operate it.
➢ Always clamp jobs and tools firmly on machines before switching on the machine.
➢ Be familiar with the STOP button and Emergency STOP button of machines.
➢ Always keep your body and clothes away from moving machine parts.
➢ Wear safety goggles when working in areas where sparks, chips, particles etc. are flying.
➢ Pay full attention on the machines while operating it.
➢ Never talk to anyone while operating the machines.
➢ Use of Cell phone is not permitted while working in the Workshop.
➢ Stop the machine before making measurements or adjustments.
➢ Never touch moving parts, belts, rotating tools. etc.
➢ Do not touch any live wire inside the Workshop.
➢ All the students are required to take care of their precious belongings by themselves.
➢ Follow all the safety instructions given by concerned Shop Instructors.
➢ I, the undersigned, solemnly declare that I have thoroughly studied and give assurance to follow
all the Safety Guidelines & Code of Conduct mentioned above.

Date:

Signature of a student
 INDEX

Sr. No. TITLE DATE SIGN

1. Testing of clay content of moulding sand

2. Determination of grain fineness number of moulding sand

3. Determination of moisture content of moulding sand

4. Demonstration of Permanent mould casting process

5. Demonstration and practice on Manual metal arc welding

process

6. Demonstration of the effects of the welding parameters on

GTAW process

7. Demonstration and practice on Oxy acetylene gas welding

8. Demonstration of the effects of the welding parameters on

oxy acetylene gas welding

9. Demonstration and Practice on Gas cutting

10. Practice on soldering of galvanized steel

11. Demonstration of selected forming operation

 Date:
PRACTICAL 1
AIM: Testing of clay content of moulding sand.
Materials used: Base sand, 5 % NaoH solution and water.
Apparatus used: Wash bottle, measuring jar, mechanical stirrer and siphon tube.
Theory:

1. Clay can be those particles having less than 20 microns size. Moulding sand contains
2 to 50 percent of clay. When mixed with water it imparts, binding strength and plasticity.
2. Clay consists of two ingredients a) Fine silt and b) True clay. Fine silt as no binding
power whereas true clay imparts the necessary boundary strength to the moulding sand;
thereby the mould does not loose its shape after ramming.
3. Clay also can define as those particles which when mixed with water, agitated and then
made to settled, fails to settle down at the rate of 1”/mm.
4. The particles of clay are plate like from and have a very large surface area compared
to its thickness and therefore have a very high affinity to absorb moisture.
5. Clay is the main constituent in a moulding sand and mixture other than sand grains. Clay
imparts binding action to the sand and hence the strength.
6. Clay is of mineral origin available in plenty on earth. It is made of alumina silicate. The
types of clay are a) montmorillonite b) Kaolinite and c) illite the first type is generally
referred to as Bentonite. Clay is the main constituent in a moulding sand mixture other
than sand grain. Clay help impart binding action to the sand and hence strength to the
sand.
Procedure:
1. Take 100 g of base sand in a wash bottle and add 475 ml of distilled water and 25ml
of NaOH solution to it.
2. Using the mechanical stirrer, stir the mixture for about 5 minutes add distilled water
to make up the level to 6" height. Stir the mixture again for 2 minutes. Now allow the
content of the bottle to settle down.
3. Siphon out 5” level of unclean water using a standard siphon.
4. Add distilled water again up to 6" height and stir the content again. Allow the mixture
to settle down for 5 minutes.
5. Siphon out 5” level of water from the bottom of the bottle
6. Repeat the above procedure for 3-4 times till the water becomes clear in the wash
bottle.
7. Transfer the wet sand from the bottle in to a tray and dry in it in an oven at 110ºC to
remove moisture. Note down the dry sand weight accurately. Using the calculations
find percentage of clay.

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PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND

Good moulding sand must possess the following properties. The properties are determined by
the amount of clay, moisture content and by the shape and size of the silica grain in the sand.

PERMEABILITY:
It is the ability of sand to allow the gasses to escape from the mould.

COHESIVENESS OR STRENGTH:
This is the ability of sand particles to stick together. Insufficient strength may lead to a
collapse in the mould or its partial destruction during conveying turning over or closing.

ADHESIVENESS:
The sand particles must be capable of adhering to another body, i.e, they should cling to the
sides of the moulding boxes.

PLASTICITY:
It is the property to retain it shape when the pressure of the pattern is removed.

REFRACTORINESS:
The sand must be capable of withstanding the high temperature of the molten metal
without fusing.

BINDING:
Binder allows sand to flow to take up pattern shape.

CHEMICAL RESISTIVITY:
Moulding sand should not chemically react or combine with molten metal so that it can be
used again and again.

FLOWBILITY:
It is the ability of sand to take up the desired shape.
The Different tests to determine the essential qualities of foundry sand are as follows:
1. Compression, shear and tensile strength test on universal sand testing machine.
i) Moulding sand must have good strength otherwise it may lead to collapse of mould.
ii) It must be retained when the molten metal enters the mould (bond strength)
iii) To retain its shape when the patter is removed and movement of the mould.
2. Permeability test.
It is the property of moulding sand which allows gases to pass through easily in the
mould.
3. Core and mould hardness test.
The hardness test is useful to find out the moulds surface uniformly.
4. Sieve analysis to find the grain fineness number of base sand.
To find the average grain fineness number for the selection of fine, medium, and course
sand.

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5. Clay content determination in base sand.
It is to find the % of the clay content in the base sand.

Figure 1.1: Clay Washer

Calculations
Weight of sand W1= 100 gms

Weight of dried sand W2 =------------ gms

% of clay= ( W1- W2) X 100

100
Results and discussion:

The % of clay is ----------------- %

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Lab Assignment:
1. Discuss whether the % of Water is present is high or low and whether this % is enough to act as binder
in the sand.
2. Why clay content test is essential?
3. What is active clay and dead clay?
4. What is the meaning of green sand?

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 Date:
PRACTICAL 2

AIM: Determination of Grain fineness number of moulding sand.

Materials used: Base sand- Silica sand.
Apparatus used: Electronic weighing scale, stopwatch, sieve shaker.
Theory:
1. The base sand is a mixture of grains having a variety of shapes such as a) Round
b) sub-angular c) angular d) compounded grains.

Base sand is relatively free from any binder or additives.

2. Depending on the average size of the grains, the sand can be grouped into: a) Fine b)
Medium and c) Coarse grains.

3. The shape and size of grains has a large influence on the permeability of sand mix as
well as on the bonding action.
4. The shape and size of grains determine the possibility of its application in various
types of foundry practice.
Ex: Fine grain sand results in good surface, on the casting but gases cannot escape out
of the mould made from it. Coarse grain sand allows gases to escape out easily but the
casting surface will be very rough. Hence grain size should select appropriately.
5. The given size of sand grains is designated by a number called grain fineness number
that indicates the average size of grains in the mixture.
6. The size is determined by passing the sand through sieves having specified
apparatus which are measured in microns.
7. The sieve number designates the pore size through which the sand grains, may
pass through it or retained in it.
8. Average grains fineness number can be found out by the equation
GFN = Q/P

Where Q = sum of product of percentage sand retained in sieves and Corresponding

multiplier.

P = sum of percentage of sand retained in sieves.

Procedure:
1. Take 50 gm or100 gm of dry sand and place in the top sieve of a series and close the
lid.
2. Place the whole assembly of sieves on the vibratory sieve shaker and clamp it.
3. Switch on the motor and allow the sieve assembly to vibrate for 5 minutes. Then
switch off the motor.

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 4. Collect the sand particles retained in each of the sieve separately and weigh in Electronic
weighing scale and enter into the tabular column. Calculate the percentage weight
retained by each of the sieves. Multiply this value with the multiplier for each sieve.

(Calculate the average GFN using the formula as shown below.)

Total weight of sand taken = 100 g.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Sr. No. Sieve no. Weight in grams

% Multiplying Product
in microns
Empty Sieve factor
Sieve with sand Retained e = c x d
W1 W2
1 900 10

2 700 15

3 400 30

4 300 40

5 212 50

6 150 70

7 Sieve pan 300

P= c Q = e

% Retained C = Weight of sand in each sieve x 100

Total weight of sand

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 Calculation: AFS grain number = Q (sum) / P (total) Results; The average grain fineness

number is =

Figure 2.1 Sieve Shaker

Graph: Percentage of sand retained v/s sieve number

Lab Assignment:

1. What is AFS fineness number?

2. What is the principle to determine it?
3. Mention different types of sieve series.
4. Explain in brief the procedure to define grain size with the help of sieve shaker apparatus?
5. Enlist and explain in brief various sand particle shape with neat sketch?
6. Enlist and explain in brief other methods used to determine sand particle size?
7. Which sand is most commonly used in industry? Also define its optimum particle size range?

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 Date:
PRACTICAL 3

AIM: Determination of moisture content of moulding sand.

Apparatus: Sand Muller

Material: Given sand sample, bentonite (One type of clay)

Procedure:

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 Result:

Lab Assignment:
1. Explain the principle to determine moisture contain of sand.
2. Explain the characteristics of molding Sand
3. What is the significance of moisture in molding sand? What is the range of moisture content in
molding sand?
4. List out Methods for measurement of moisture content in sand.
5. Explain in brief the procedure of direct weight method and rapid moisture determination method with
significant formula and equation

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 Date:
PRACTICAL 4
AIM: Demonstration of Permanent mould casting process.
Apparatus:

Material:

Procedure:

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Result:

Lab Assignment:
1. What is the difference between expandable molding and permanent molding?

2. List out advantages and disadvantages of the casting process.

3. What are the common defects of casting process?

4. Classify permanent casting process

5. Discuss Advantages of permanent molding process over sand casting process.

6. Explain in brief about stir casting process.

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 Date:
PRACTICAL 5
AIM: Demonstration and Practice on Manual Metal Arc Welding process.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Welding is a process in which two materials, usually metals, and is permanently joined
together by coalescence, resulting from temperature, pressure, and metallurgical conditions.
The particular combination of temperature and pressure can range from high temperature
with no pressure to high pressure with any increase in temperature.
Thus, welding can be achieved under a wide variety of conditions and numerous
welding processes have been developed and are routinely used in manufacturing.

5.2 PRINCIPLE OF ARC WELDING PROCESS

In this process a joint is established by fusing the material near the region of joint by
means of an electric arc struck between the material to be joined and an electrode.
A high current low voltage electric power supply generates an arc of intense heat

reaching a temperature of approximately 3800 °C.

The electrode held externally may act as a filler rod or it is fed independently of the
electrode.
Due to higher levels of heat input, joints in thicker materials can be obtained by the arc
welding process. It is extensively used in a variety of structural applications.
Various types of arc welding processes are listed below.
1. Manual metal arc welding 2. Submerged arc welding

3. TIG welding 4. Plasma arc welding

5. MIG welding

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 Figure 5.1: Principle of arc welding process
5.3 ELECTRODE DESIGNATION SYSTEM AND STANDARD RANGE OF USE
• Various electrodes can be used for various application. Selection of electrode is made on
the basis of thickness of material, welding machine specification, type of joint, length of
joint, position of welding etc.

Figure 5.2: Electrode designation system

• After selecting a proper combination, selection of welding parameter is required for
sound weld.
• Table 5.1 suggests some welding parameter range for various applications.

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 Table 5.1 Standard current and voltage range of E7018 electrode (MFG. by HONAVAR
Electrodes Pvt. Ltd, India)
Electrode Diameter Length (mm) Current (Amp) Voltage (V)
(mm)
2.5 350 80 – 100 24 – 25
3.15 450 100 – 135 24 – 25
4.0 450 140 – 190 24 – 25
5.0 450 180 – 250 24 – 25
6.3 450 250 – 320 24 – 25

Lab Assignment:
1. Position of welding during practice.
2. Designation of electrode and welding parameters used during practice.
3. List various coating materials used. Also suggest polarity for specific coating material.
4. List various manufacturers and their welding parameter range of welding electrode.

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 Date:
PRACTICAL 6
AIM: Demonstration of the effects of the welding parameters on GTAW process.

6.1 PRINCIPLE OF TIG WELDING PROCESS

• TIG welding works on same principle of arc welding. In a TIG welding process, a high
intense arc is produced between tungsten electrode and work piece.
• In this welding mostly work piece is connected to the positive terminal and electrode is
connected to negative terminal. This arc produces heat energy which is further used
to join metal plate by fusion welding.
• A shielding gas is also used which protect the weld surface from oxidization.

Figure 6.1 Principle of TIG welding process

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6.2 EQUIPMENTS

6.2.1 Power Source

• The first unit of equipment‟s is power source. A high current power source needed for
TIG welding. It uses both AC and DC power source.
• Mostly DC current is used for stainless steel, Mild Steel, Copper, Titanium, Nickel
alloy, etc. and AC current is used for aluminum, aluminum alloy and magnesium.
• Power source consist a transformer, a rectifier and electronic controls. Mostly 10 – 35
V is required at 5-300 A current for proper arc generation.

Figure 6.2: Power source for TIG welding

6.2.2 TIG Torch

• It is a most important part of TIG welding. This torch has three main parts, tungsten
electrode, collets and nozzle.
• This torch is either water cooled or air cooled. In this torch, collet is used to hold the
tungsten electrode. These are available in varying diameter according to diameter of
tungsten electrode.
• The nozzle allows the arc and shielded gases to flow into welding zone. The nozzle cross
section is small which gives high intense arc.
• There are passes of shielded gases at nozzle. The nozzle of TIG needs to replace in regular
interval because it wears out due to presence of intense spark.
• Alumina gas lens nozzles are available in various size for various application.

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 A) B)
Figure 6.3: A) TIG Torch B) Alumina gas lens nozzles

Table 6.1 Alumina gas lens nozzle size chart

Description Size I.D. (mm)
Alumina gas lens nozzle 4 11
Alumina gas lens nozzle 5 8
Alumina gas lens nozzle 6 19
Alumina gas lens nozzle 7 16
Alumina gas lens nozzle 8 13
12 19
Large alumina gas lens nozzle
10 16
Large alumina gas lens nozzle

Alumina gas lens nozzle 8 13

Alumina gas lens nozzle 7 11
Alumina gas lens nozzle 6 10
Alumina gas lens nozzle 5 8
Alumina gas lens nozzle 4 6
Alumina gas lens nozzle 11 18
Large alumina gas lens nozzle 8 13
Large alumina gas lens nozzle 6 10
8 13
Large E alumina gas lens nozzle

6 10
Large E alumina gas lens nozzle

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6.2.3 Shielding Gas Supply System:

• Normally argon or other inert gases are used as shielded gas. The main purpose of
shielded gas to protects the weld from oxidization.
• Shielded gas does not allow coming oxygen or other air into welded zone. The
selection of inert gas is depending upon metal to be welded.

Figure 6.4: Shielding gas (Argon) cylinder and regulator

• Some suggested nozzle sizes along with the gas flow rate which can be used for
various material thickness are given in table below.

Table 6.2 Suggested nozzle sizes and gas flow rate

Material thickness (mm) Gas nozzle diameter (mm) Shielding gas flow rate (litre/min)

Argon Helium
Up to 1 9.5 3.4 7.5
1 to 3 9.5 4.5 9.5
3 to 5 12.5 5.6 11.8
5 to 9 12.5 7.0 14.2
9 to 12 16 8.0 16.5
>12 25 12.0 21.0

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 Table 6.3: Electrode sizes and current ranges

Typical current range (Amp)

DC AC
DCEN 70 % penetration Wave (50/50) balanced
Tungsten Gas Ceriated, Ceriated, Ceriated,
diameter cup I.D Lanthanated, Pure Lanthanated, Pure Lanthanated,
(mm) (mm) Thoriated Thoriated Thoriated

1.016 9.525 15 – 80 20 – 60 15 – 80 10 – 30 20 – 60
1.524 9.525 70 – 150 50 – 100 70 – 150 30 – 80 60 – 120
2.362 12.7 150 – 250 100 – 160 140 – 235 110 – 130 100 – 180
2.5 25 260 – 340 170 – 240 240 – 300 140 – 180 190 – 290

6.2.4 Filler Material:

• For welding of thin sheets filler material is not used.

• For welding of thick sheets, filler material is used in form of rods which are directly feed into
weld zone manually.

Figure 6.5: Filler wire for TIG welding

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 Figure 6.6: TIG welding process set-up
Lab Assignment:

1. Type and size of electrode used in welding process.

2. Size of gas nozzle used with TIG torch.
3. Base metal type, its thickness and melting temperature.
4. Type and diameter of filler wire used.
5. Type of power source used and value of Amperage during practice.
6. List down well known manufacturers of TIG welding machines with its specifications.
7. Discuss the effects of various process parameters like, current or voltage, standoff
distance, power source, Transverse speed, torch angle on weld strength and weld bead
width.

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 Date:
PRACTICAL 7
AIM: Demonstration and Practice on Oxy - Acetylene Gas Welding Process.

7.1 PRINCIPLE OF GAS WELDING PROCESS

• Gas welding is a most important type of welding process. It is done by burning of fuel
gases with the help of oxygen which forms a concentrated flame of high temperature.
• This flame directly strikes the weld area and melts the weld surface and filler material.
• The melted part of welding plates diffused in one another and creates a weld joint after
cooling.
• This welding method can be used to join most of common metals used in daily life.

7.2 GAS WELDING EQUIPMENTS

Figure 7.1: Gas welding equipment

7.2.1 Welding Torch

• Welding torches are most important part of gas welding. Both the fuel gas and oxygen at
suitable pressure fed through hoses to the welding torch.

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 • There are valves for each gas witch control the flow of gases inside the torch. Both
gases mixed there and form a flammable mixture.
• These gases ignite to burn at the nozzle. The fire flame flow through nozzle and strikes at
welding plates.
• The nozzle thickness depends on the size of the welding plates and material to be
welded.

7.2.2 Cylinders and regulators

• Acetylene and oxygen gas is stored in compressed gas cylinders. These gas Cylinders
differ widely in capacity, design and color code.
• However, in most of the countries, the standard size of these cylinders is 6 to 7 m3 and
is painted black for oxygen and maroon for acetylene.
• An acetylene cylinder is filled with some absorptive material, which is saturated with a
chemical solvent acetone. Acetone has the ability to absorb a large volume of acetylene
and release it as the pressure falls.
• If large quantities of acetylene gas are being consumed, it is much cheaper to generate the
gas at the place of use with the help of acetylene gas generators. Acetylen e gas is generated
by carbide-to-water method.
• The cylinder and hose connections have left-handed threads on the acetylene regulator
while these are right handed on the oxygen regulator.

A) B)
Figure 7.2: A) Oxygen regulator B) Acetylene regulator

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7.2.3 Arrestor

• These are essential to avoid accidents during welding. In case of flash back of flame, it
prevents it to reach into the filled cylinder. Separate arrestors are required for oxygen and
acetylene gas cylinders. Two arrestors are attached with the hose at the cylinder regulator
end and two at the torch end

Figure 7.3: Arrestors

7.2.4 Hoses

• The hoses are color-coded for visual identification. The color of the hoses varies between
countries. In the United States, the oxygen hose is green, and the fuel hose is red. In the
UK and other countries, the oxygen hose is blue (black hoses may still be found on old
equipment), and the acetylene (fuel) hose is red.

Figure 7.4: Gas welding hoses

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 Table 7.1 Oxygen hose standards size

Maximum working pressure

Nominal size I.D. (mm) O.D. (mm) Weight (g/m)
(MPa)

6 6.4 13.2 2.0 130

8 8.0 15.0 2.0 160
9 9.5 16.5 2.0 180
19 19.0 30.0 1.0 580
25 25.4 37.5 1.0 790

Table 7.2 Acetylene hose standards size

Maximum working pressure

Nominal size I.D. (mm) O.D. (mm) Weight (g/m)
(MPa)

6 6.3 12.3 0.15 120

8 8.0 14.2 0.15 140
9 9.5 15.9 0.15 170
19 19.0 30.0 0.15 590
25 25.4 37.5 0.15 800

7.3 FLAME TEMPERATURE

• Any hydrocarbon can be used for gas welding. But experimentally, oxy – acetylene gas
welding gives the maximum flame temperature.
• Acetylene, Hydrogen, Propane, Butane, Natural gas, LPG etc. can be used in various
applications. But selection of fuel gas depends on economics of welding, base metal
properties and working conditions

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 Table 7.3 Selection chart of filler metal, flame type and flux for various metals

Material Filler metals Flame type Flux

Aluminium Matching Slightly reducing Aluminium flux
Brass Neavy brass Slightly oxidizing Borax flux
Bronze Copper Slightly oxidizing Borax flux
Copper Copper Neutral -
Copper - Nickel Copper nickel Reducing -
Inconel Matching Slightly reducing Fluoride flux
Cast iron Cast iron Neutral Borax flux
Wrought iron Steel Neutral -
Lead Lead Slightly reducing -
Monel Matching Slightly reducing Monel flux
Nickel Nickel Slightly reducing -
Nickel - Silver Nickel - Silver Reducing -
Low alloy steel Steel Slightly reducing -
High carbon steel Steel Reducing -
Low carbon steel Steel Neutral -
Medium carbon steel Steel Slightly reducing -
Stainless steel Matching Slightly reducing Stainless steel flux

Table 7.4 Temperature comparison of various gases

Fuel gas Flame temperature (0C)

In oxygen In air

Acetylene 3480 2650

Hydrogen 2980 2200
Propane 2925 2090
Butane 2980 2150
Natural gas 2775 2090

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 Table 7.5 Oxy - acetylene flame temperature

Ratio of O2 to C2H2 Type of flame Temperature (0C)

0.8 – 1.0 Carburizing 3065

0.9 – 1.0 Carburizing 3150
1.0 – 1.0 Neutral 3100
1.5 – 1.0 Oxidizing 3427
1.8 – 1.0 Oxidizing 3482
2.0 – 1.0 Oxidizing 3370
2.5 – 1.0 Oxidizing 3315

Lab Assignment:

1. Different types of flames produced during practice.

2. Type of base metal and filler metal used during practice.
3. Type of flame used for welding practice.
4. Various size of cylinders used and amount of gas filled into it.
5. Explain various types of flames obtained, in gas welding. State their specific
applications.

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 Date:
PRACTICAL 8
AIM: Demonstration of the effects of the welding parameters on Oxy - Acetylene Gas
Welding Process.

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 Date:
PRACTICAL 9
AIM: Demonstration and Practice on Gas cutting process.

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PRACTICAL 10
AIM: Practice on soldering of Galvanized steel.

Equipment: Solder, Galvanized steel sheet

10.1 Introduction:
Soldering is a process used for joining metal parts to form a mechanical or electrical bond. It
typically uses a low melting point metal alloy (solder) which is melted and applied to the metal
parts to be joined and this bond to the metal parts and forms a connection when the solder
solidifies. It is different to welding in that the parts being joined are not melted and are usually not
the same material as the solder.
Soldering is a common practice for assembling electrical components and wiring. Although it can
be used for plumbing, sheet metal fabrication or automotive radiator repair the techniques and
materials used are different to those used for electrical work.

Figure 10.1: Soldering

10.2 Types of Solder:

There are different types of solder used for electrical work. They are broadly classified as tin/lead
solders or lead free solders. Tin/lead solders have been used for many years because of their ease
of use however they have been phased out of commercial use due to the harmful effects on humans
and the environment. Tin/lead solder is still available and is used by “hobbyists” and other non-
commercial users as it is still easier to use than lead free types. When using tin/lead (or leaded)
solder there are additional safety precautions that must be observed.

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 Figure 10.2: Different Gauge of Solder wire

10.3 Flux
For electrical soldering both solder wire and solder paste contain flux. This helps to clean the
surfaces being soldered and prevent oxidization of the hot solder. The composition of the flux will
vary depending on whether it is in a paste or wire, leaded or unleaded solder. Solder wire usually
contains a flux called “rosin”. Most fluxes will produce fumes when the solder is heated and these
fumes are likely harmful to your health. For occasional soldering it may be sufficient to have a
well-ventilated work space but for longer or repeated exposure a fume extractor should be used.
Solder flux can also cause solder to spatter and eye protection should be worn when soldering.

Figure 10.3 Range of Solder tips

Organic Fluxes
Organic fluxes are either rosin or water soluble materials. Rosin used for fluxes are wood
gum, and other rosin which are not water soluble. Organic fluxes are mostly used for

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electrical and electronic circuit making. These are chemically unstable at elevated temperature
but non-corrosive at room temperature.

Inorganic Fluxes
Inorganic fluxes are consists of inorganic acids; mixture of metal chlorides (zinc and
ammonium chlorides). These are used to achieve rapid and active fluxing where formation
of oxide films are problems.

10.4 Different types of Solders

Most of the solder metals are the alloy of tin and lead. These alloys exhibit a wide range of
melting point so different type of soldering metal can be used for variety of applications.
Percentage of lead is kept least due to its toxic properties. Tin becomes chemically active at
soldering temperature and promotes the wetting action required for making the joint. Copper,
silver and antimony are also used in soldering metal as per the strength requirements of the joint.
Different solder their melting point and applications are given in the Table 10.1.

Table 10.1: Common Soldering Alloys and their Applications

Filler Metal Compositions
Melting Applications
Tin Lead Silver Zinc Antimon Point
− 96 04 − − 305oC Joint making at
elevated
60 40 − − − 188oC Electronic circuits
50 50 − − − 199oC Wire joining
40 60 − − − 208oC Automobile
91 − − 09 − 200oC Joining of
aluminium wires
95 − − − 05 238oC Plumbing, etc.
A solder is selected on the basis of its melting point. If metals to be joined have higher melting
point solder of higher melting point is generally selected. Solder of high melting point provides
better strength of the joint.

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Lab Assignment:
1. What are the steps you have followed for soldering?
2. What are defects that can occur due to soldering and their remedies?
3. What are the safety precaution you have to take during soldering operation?

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 Date:
PRACTICAL 11
AIM: Demonstration of selected Forming operations.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

• Sheet metal work is very useful trade in engineering work and for our day-to-day
needs. Many articles (household and engineering) whose production by other methods will
be uneconomical and complicated are made from metal sheets.
• For successful working in the trade, we must have a good knowledge of projective
geometry, development of surfaces and properties of different metals.

11.2 METALS USED IN SHEET METAL WORKING

• There are different types of metals used in sheet metal work in the form' of sheets and
plates. The specifications of metal sheets are given in terms of their gauge numbers, length
and width Gauge number represents a thickness of metal sheets. The higher the gauge
number, the smaller the thickness.
• Some of the important sheet metals are as follows:

Black iron

• Black iron or uncoated sheet carries no artificial coating on its surface, but it is cheaper
than other types of metal sheets.
• Components made from this type of metal are pans, tanks, cabinets, almirahs, stove
pipes, etc.

Galvanised iron

• It is soft iron sheet carries zinc coating on its surface which make the surface good
looking and rust resistant.
• Components made from this type of metal are storage tanks, buckets, heating ducts,
furnaces, gutters, pans, trunks, etc.

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Aluminum sheets

• Due to low strength of aluminum sheets they are not used in their pure form, hence suitable
amount of silicon manganese, copper and iron are added. It offers high resistance to
corrosion and abrasion.
• They are used in the manufacture of aero plane bodies, kitchenware and cabinets,
doors, windows arid building work, electrical appliances, etc.

Copper sheets

• Copper sheets are costlier but offers good resistance to corrosion and relatively good in
appearance. They are reddish in colour, highly ductile and malleable.
• They are used in applications like radiators of automobiles, heating appliance, gutters,
hoods and components in chemical plants.

Stainless steel

• Stainless steel offers high resistance to corrosion and exhibits a bright surface.
• It is used in the manufacture of food containing equipments, dairy equipments, food
processing plant, chemical plant, etc.

Tin plates

• Tin plates are used for those iron sheets which are coated with pure tin.
• Tin plates are used for making food containers, containers for cooking oils and ghee,
cans, etc.

11.3 METALS USED IN SHEET METAL WORKING

• Various metal forming processes are listed below.

1 Forging
2 Deep drawing
3 Wire drawing
4 Extrusion
5 Rolling

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 Figure 11.1: Parts manufactured by forging process

Figure 11.2: Parts manufactured by deep drawing process

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 Figure 11.3: Rolled metallic sheets

Lab Assignment:

1. Differentiate between hot working and cold working process

2. Explain deep drawing process with neat sketch.
3. Explain various metal working defects and its remedies.
4. Give the name of industries which produced components and use the sheet metal operations.
5. List various well known industries and plastic components manufactured by them.
6. Type of metal forming process used and material of the components

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