Basic Electronics Engineering

Unit -1 1 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE Notes

Semiconductor basics, PN Junction diode construction & working

Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level (or negligible) of conductivity
when voltage is applied. Eg: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz. Typical resistivity level of an insulator is
of the order of 1010 to 1012 Ω-cm. The energy band structure of an insulator is shown

The energy required for a valance electron to become a free electron.

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J For an insulator, as shown in the figure there is a large forbidden band gap of
greater than 5Ev. Because of this large gap there a very few electrons in the CB and hence the
conductivity of insulator is poor. Even an increase in temperature or applied electric field is
insufficient to transfer electrons from VB to CB.
Conductors: A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when a voltage is
applied across its terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold. The
resistivity of a conductor is in the order of 10-4 and 10-6 Ω-cm. The Valance and conduction bands
overlap (fig1.1) and there is no energy gap for the electrons to move from valance band to conduction
band. This implies that there are free electrons in CB even at absolute zero temperature (0 K).
Therefore at room temperature when electric field is applied large current flows through the
conductor.
Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between the
insulator and conductor. The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 104 Ω-cm. Two of the most
commonly used are Silicon (Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.). Both have 4 valance
electrons. The forbidden band gap is in the order of 1eV. For eg., the band gap energy for Si, Ge and
GaAs is 1.21, 0.785 and 1.42 eV, respectively at absolute zero temperature (0K). At 0K and at low
temperatures, the valance band electrons do not have sufficient energy to move from V to CB. Thus
semiconductors act a insulators at 0K. as the temperature increases, a large number of valance
electrons acquire sufficient energy to leave the VB, cross the forbidden bandgap and reach CB. These
are now free electrons as they can move freely under the influence of electric field. At room
temperature there are sufficient electrons in the CB and hence the semiconductor is capable of
conducting some current at room temperature. Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its
resistance to the flow of charge or current.
Type of semiconductor

A pure form of semiconductors is called as intrinsic semiconductor. Conduction in

intrinsic sc is either due to thermal excitation or crystal defects. Si and Ge are the two most
important
semiconductors used. Other examples include Gallium arsenide GaAs, Indium Antimonide
(InSb) etc.Let us consider the structure of Si. A Si atomic no. is 14 and it has 4 valance electrons.
These 4 electrons are shared by four neighboring atoms in the crystal structure by means of
covalent bond. Fig.shows the crystal structure of Si at absolute zero temperature (0K). Hence a
pure SC acts has poor conductivity (due to lack of free electrons) at low or absolute zero
temperature.

At room temperature some of the covalent bonds break up to thermal energy as shown in fig.
The valance electrons that jump into conduction band are called as free electrons that are
available for conduction.
the absence of electrons in covalent bond is represented by a small circle usually referred to as
hole which is of positive charge. Even a hole serves as carrier of electricity in a manner similar
to that of free electron.
The mechanism by which a hole contributes to conductivity is explained as follows:
When a bond is in complete so that a hole exists, it is relatively easy for a valance electron in
the neighboring atom to leave its covalent bond to fill this hole. An electron moving from a bond
to fill a hole moves in a direction opposite to that of the electron. This hole, in its new position
may now be filled by an electron from another covalent bond and the hole will correspondingly
move one more step in the direction opposite to the motion of electron. Here we have a
mechanism for conduction of electricity which does not involve free electrons.

Fig show that there is a hole at ion 6. Imagine that an electron from ion 5 moves into the
hole at ion 6 so that the configuration of results. If we compare both, it appears
as if the hole has moved towards the left from ion6 to ion 5. Further if we compare and, the hole
moves from ion 5 to ion 4. This discussion indicates the motion of hole is in a direction
opposite to that of motion of electron. Hence we consider holes as physical entities whose
movement constitutes flow of current.
Note : In a pure semiconductor, the number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons.
Volt-amp characteristics,
Diode current equation,
Clipper and Clamper.
Zener diode and zener diode-based voltage regulator,
 UNIT II
RECTIFIERS & FILTERS

2.0 INTRODUCTION

For the operation of most of the electronics devices and circuits, a d.c. source is required. So it is
advantageous to convert domestic a.c. supply into d.c.voltages. The process of converting a.c. voltage
into d.c. voltage is called as rectification. This is achieved with i) Step-down Transformer, ii) Rectifier,
iii) Filter and iv) Voltage regulator circuits.
These elements constitute d.c. regulated power supply shown in the fig 1 below.

Fig 2.1: Block Diagram of regulated D.C Power Supply

ü Transformer – steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

ü Rectifier – converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
ü Smoothing – smooth the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
ü Regulator – eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

The block diagram of a regulated D.C. power supply consists of step-down transformer, rectifier,
filter, voltage regulator and load. An ideal regulated power supply is an electronics circuit designed to
provide a predetermined d.c. voltage Vo which is independent of the load current and variations in the
input voltage ad temperature. If the output of a regulator circuit is a AC voltage then it is termed as
voltage stabilizer, whereas if the output is a DC voltage then it is termed as voltage regulator.
2.1 RECTIFIER
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance
to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a
sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional Waveform, with a non-
zero average component. A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating
d.c. voltage (Unidirectional).
Characteristics of a Rectifier Circuit:
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance
to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a
sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional waveform, with a non-
zero average component.
A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c..Load currents: They
are two types of output current. They are average or d.c. current and RMS currents.
Average or DC current: The average current of a periodic function is defined as the area of one cycle of
the curve divided by the base.
It is expressed mathematically as
Area over one period
i) Average value/dc value/mean value=
Total time period
T
1
T ò0
Vdc = V d ( wt )

ii) Effective (or) R.M.S current:

The effective (or) R.M.S. current squared ofa periodic function of time is given by the area of one cycle
of the curve, which represents the square of the function divided by the base.

T
1
Vrms =
T0ò V 2 d ( wt )

iii) Peak factor:

It is the ratio of peak value to Rms value

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
iv) Form factor:

It is the ratio of Rms value to average value

Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

v) Ripple Factor ( G ) :
It is defined as ration of R.M.S. value of a.c. component to the d.c. component in the output is known
as “Ripple Factor”.
Vac
G=
Vdc

Vac = Vrms
2
-Vdc2

vi) Efficiency (h ):
It is the ratio of d.c output power to the a.c. input power. It signifies, how efficiently the rectifier circuit
converts a.c. power into d.c. power.

o / p power
h=
i / p power

vii) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying
the junction.

viii) Transformer Utilization Factor (UTF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the
Transformer used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as

Pdc
TUF =
p ac(rated )
ix) % Regulation:

The variation of the d.c. output voltage as a function of d.c. load current is called regulation. The
percentage regulation is defined as

VNL - VFL
% Re gulation = * 100
VFL

For an ideal power supply, % Regulation is zero.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS

Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.
1) Half - Wave Rectifier
2) Full – Wave Rectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier
2.2.1 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:
A Half – wave rectifier as shown in fig 1.2 is one, which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltage
using only one half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.

Fig 1.2: Basic structure of Half-Wave Rectifier

The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer-rectifying element i.e., p-
n junction diode and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected is series. The a.c. voltage is applied to the
rectifier circuit using step-down transformer
 V=Vm sin (wt)
The input to the rectifier circuit, Where Vm is the peak value of secondary a.c. voltage.

Operation:
For the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence it conducts.
Now a current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across RL. The waveform of the diode
current (or) load current is shown in fig 3.
For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not
Conduct. Now no current flows in the circuit i.e., i=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the negative half- cycle no
power is delivered to the load.

Analysis:

In the analysis of a HWR, the following parameters are to be analyzed.

1. DC output current
2. DC Output voltage
3. R.M.S. Current
4. R.M.S. voltage
5. Rectifier Efficiency (η )
6. Ripple factor (γ )
 7. Peak Factor
8. % Regulation
9. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
10. form factor
11. o/p frequency

Let a sinusoidal voltage Vi be applied to the input of the rectifier.

Then V=Vm sin (wt) Where Vm is the maximum value of the secondary voltage. Let the diode be
idealized to piece-wise linear approximation with resistance Rf in the forward direction i.e., in the ON
state and Rr (=∞) in the reverse direction i.e., in the OFF state. Now the current ‘i’ in the diode (or) in
the load resistance RL is given by V=Vm sin (wt)

i) AVERAGE VOLTAGE

T
1
T ò0
Vdc = V d ( wt )

2P
1
T ò0
Vdc = V (a )da

2P
1
2P Pò
Vdc = V (a )da

1
2P ò0
Vdc = Vm sin( wt )

Vm
Vdc =
P

ii).AVERAGE CURRENT:

Im
I dc =
P
iii) RMS VOLTAGE:

T
1
T ò0
Vrms = V 2 d ( wt )

2P
1
Vrms =
2P ò (V
0
m sim( wt )) 2 d ( wt )

Vm
Vrms =
2

IV) RMS CURRENT

Im
I rms =
P
V) PEAK FACTOR

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue

Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2)

Peak Factor =2

vi) FORM FACTOR

Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

(Vm / 2)
Form factor=
Vm / P

Form Factor =1.57

 Vac
vii) Ripple Factor: G=
Vdc

Vac = Vrms
2
-Vdc2

2
Vrms -Vdc2
G=
Vac

2
Vrms
G= -1
Vdc2

G = 1.21

viii) Efficiency (h ):

o / ppower
h= *100
i / ppower

p ac
h= *100
Pdc

h =40.8

ix) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer
used in the circuit. Therefore, transformer utilization factor is defined as
p dc
TUF =
Pac(rated )

TUF =0.286.
The value of TUF is low which shows that in half-wave circuit, the transformer is not fully utilized.
If the transformer rating is 1 KVA (1000VA) then the half-wave rectifier can deliver
1000 X 0.287 = 287 watts to resistance load.
x) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the
junction. The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half-wave
rectifier, PIV is Vm.

DISADVANTAGES OF HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

1. The ripple factor is high.

2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low.
Because of all these disadvantages, the half-wave rectifier circuit is normally not used as a
power rectifier circuit.

2.2.2) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the
applied ac voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used in this
circuit. The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer. A center-tap
transformer is the one, which produces two sinusoidal waveforms of same magnitude and frequency
but out of phase with respect to the ground in the secondary winding of the transformer. The full wave
rectifier is shown in the fig 4 below
Fig. 5 shows the input and output wave forms of the ckt.
During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at the
same time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not
conduct. The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input
voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and the anode of
D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2
and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. It is noted that the load current flows
in the both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction through the load resistance.

i) AVERAGEVOLTAGE

ii) AVERAGE CURRENT

iii) RMS VOLTAGE:

T
1
Vrms = ò
T 0
V 2 d ( wt )

2P
1
Vrms =
2P ò (V
0
m sim( wt )) 2 d ( wt )

IV) RMS CURRENT

2I m
I rms =
P

V) PEAK FACTOR

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
 Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2)

Peak Factor =2

vi) FORM FACTOR

Rms value
Form factor=
average value

(Vm / 2 )
Form factor=
2Vm / P

Form Factor =1.11

vii) Ripple Factor:

viii) Efficiency (h ):

o / ppower
h= *100
i / ppower
ix) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer
used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as
p dc
TUF =
Pac(rated )

x) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the
junction. The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half- wave
rectifier, PIV is 2Vm
xi) % Regulation

.
Advantages

1) Ripple factor = 0.482 (against 1.21 for HWR)

2) Rectification efficiency is 0.812 (against 0.405 for HWR)
3) Better TUF (secondary) is 0.574 (0.287 for HWR)
4) No core saturation problem
Disadvantages:
1) Requires center tapped transformer.

2.2.3) BRIDGE RECTIFIER.

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit
above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual
rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The
main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer,
thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode
bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current
during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below (fig
7).

The Positive Half-cycle

The Negative Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series (fig 8), but diodes D1
and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same
direction as before.

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is
also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC
voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows
through two diodes instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2
x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input V MAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply
frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply)

2.3 FILTERS

The output of a rectifier contains dc component as well as ac component. Filters are used to minimize
the undesirable ac i.e., ripple leaving only the dc component to appear at the output.