Thomas Hobbes (1581-1679)

Life Sketch of Thomas Hobbes

Born into the family of an Anglican clergyman.

Renowned English philosopher, scientist, and historian.
Famous for his political philosophy, especially in his book Leviathan (1651).
Witnessed the English civil war between monarchy supporters and republicans, siding with
the king.
The civil war, which led to the beheading of Charles I and the abolition of the monarchy,
deeply influenced his thinking.
Believed humans are driven by fear and self-interest.
Portrayed a bleak view of human nature.
Advocated for a strong and stable government as essential for civilized life.
 Argued that only an absolute monarch could provide this stability.
Strongly supported the idea of absolute monarchy.

Witness to the Civil War in England

He observed the civil war in England between supporters of the monarchy and
republicanism, siding with the king.
During this conflict, Charles I was executed, and the monarchy was abolished.
Witnessing the brutal events of the civil war profoundly influenced his thinking.
He became convinced that humans are driven by only two motivations: fear and self-
interest.
As a result, he portrayed a very grim view of human nature.
He believed that a strong and stable government was essential for civilized life and that this
could only be provided by an absolute monarch. This led him to strongly advocate for
absolute monarchy.
Hobbes was also influenced by various other political thinkers, scientists, and
mathematicians.
He drew the idea of the social contract from Plato and Hooker, who had used this concept in
earlier centuries, albeit in a vague manner.
Hobbes borrowed the concept of the law of nature from Grotius, equating the laws of nature
with the "dictates of reason."
He took the concept of sovereignty from Bodin but made significant improvements to it.
The idea of the mechanical nature of the world, which underpinned Hobbes' philosophy, was
borrowed from Galileo.
For his materialistic theory and scientific methods, he was indebted to Descartes.
 Works of Hobbes
Hobbes wrote De Cive in 1642, with its English version published in 1651.
Leviathan was written during Hobbes' exile in France and published in London upon
his return in 1651.
He is also known for other works like The De Corpore (1655) and De Homine (1658).
Hobbes produced several pamphlets during his controversies with theologians.

Methodology of Hobbes
Hobbes made a significant contribution to political theory by introducing the scientific method,
applying it for the first time to social sciences. He emphasized drawing conclusions from
fundamental principles, assumptions, and established truths. Hobbes was a pioneer in asserting
that political theory is grounded in the concepts of matter and motion.
Threefold Significance of Hobbes' Methodology
Hobbes' methodology holds three key significances:
He completely dismissed the medieval idea of the soul or spirit, interpreting everything in
materialist terms. In this regard, he paved the way for Marx as a staunch materialist.
Hobbes rejected the medieval belief that the state emerged from the Fall. He argued that
the formation of a state by individuals was a crucial step in liberating them from the fears of
anarchy and chaos.
Hobbes' philosophy comprises three distinct parts:
Physics: The study of physical phenomena.
Psychology: The examination of mental phenomena.
Civil Philosophy: The exploration of civil society and governance.
 Hobbes's Posthumous Works
1682: Seven Philosophical Problems (English translation of Problematica Physica,
1662)
1682: A Garden of Geometrical Roses (English translation of Rosetum Geometricum,
1671)
1682: Some Principles and Problems in Geometry

Civil War Period (1642–1651)

The English Civil War began in 1642.
By mid-1644, the royalist cause started to weaken, and many royalists fled to Paris, where
they became known to Hobbes.
This influx of exiled royalists sparked Hobbes's political interest, leading to the re-
publication of De Cive.
The presence of exiled royalists also inspired Hobbes to write Leviathan, which outlined his
theory of civil government in response to the political crisis.
In 1650, a pirated version of The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic was released, split
into two volumes: the Fundamental Elements of Policie and the Elements of Law, Moral
and Politick.
A translation of De Cive was published in 1651 as Philosophical Rudiments concerning
Government and Society.
In Leviathan, Hobbes presented his ideas on the foundation of states and legitimate
governments, aiming to create an objective science of morality.
A significant part of the book argues for the necessity of a strong central authority to
prevent discord and civil war.
Hobbes sought protection from the revolutionary English government and returned to
London in winter 1651.
After submitting to the Council of State, he was allowed to live a private life in Fetter Lane.

Political Ideas of Hobbes

Hobbes' political ideas can be elaborated upon as follows:

Try yourself: Which concept did Thomas Hobbes emphasize in his political philosophy?

a. Divine right of kings

b. Social contract
Correct Answer

c. Anarchy and chaos

d. Republicanism

Explanation
- Thomas Hobbes emphasized the concept of the social contract in his political
philosophy, which refers to an implicit agreement among individuals to create a society
and a government for their mutual benefit and protection. This concept underscores the
idea that individuals surrender some freedoms in exchange for the protection and
stability provided by the government.

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Human Nature
Hobbes views individuals as driven by passions, emotions, and desires rather than as rational
beings. He believes that what a person desires is considered good, while what they dislike is seen
as evil. According to Hobbes, the concepts of good and bad are not fixed or objective; they are
subjective and constantly changing. He argues that there is no ultimate goal or end in life.
Hobbes also asserts that all men are equal by birth. While some may possess better mental
abilities and others may be physically stronger, the common desire for the same things leads to
conflicts among them. He states that competition, the desire for glory, and individual differences
make people aggressive and prone to quarrels.

Hobbes on State of Nature

Hobbes' views on the state of nature, a time in human history before the establishment of civil
society, are a reflection of his understanding of human nature. He believes that all men are equal
in their natural abilities, and no one is strong enough to be safe from others. According to
Hobbes, people are driven by the same three basic passions:
Desire for Safety
Desire for Gain
Desire for Glory

Desire for Gain

Hobbes argues that the desire for gain leads to violence when the desired object cannot be
divided or shared.
This desire fosters distrust among individuals, evident in behaviors like carrying weapons,
locking doors against neighbors, and hoarding possessions from family and servants.
Such circumstances create a state of war in the state of nature.
There is no room for industry under these conditions because the outcomes are uncertain,
leading to the absence of agriculture, trade, arts, written language, and society.

In the state of nature, Hobbes describes human life as solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.
Without a common authority to keep people in check, there is a constant struggle of everyone
against everyone else.

The Social Contract

People were very tired of the constant uncertainty in the state of nature and were driven by
the instinct of self-preservation to want a stable state.
 Hobbes believed that the state originated from people's foresight in preserving themselves
and their rational desire to escape the natural condition of constant conflict and war.

Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan (1651)

In his work "Leviathan," Thomas Hobbes presents the idea of the social contract as a crucial
moment when individuals come together and agree to give up some of their individual rights. This
is done to ensure that others also give up their rights, creating a stable society.
State of Nature and Social Contract
According to Hobbes, individuals in the state of nature are apolitical and asocial, meaning
they are not involved in political matters or social interactions.
The transition from the state of nature to the social contract is necessary to escape the
constant conflict and strife that arises from individuals being driven only by their appetites.
Hobbes argues that the only way to escape this chaos is by establishing a common power
that can restrain and protect every individual.

Establishing Common Power

To achieve peace and order, it is essential to set up a common power that replaces the
multitude of individual wills.
Each individual essentially says to others, "I authorize and give up my right to govern myself
to this man or this assembly of men, on the condition that you do the same and authorize all
his actions in the same way."
This mutual agreement is the foundation of the social contract, where individuals
collectively agree to submit to a central authority for the sake of security and order.

Features of Hobbes's Social Contract

Commonwealth or State: Hobbes argues that the Commonwealth or State is grounded in
reason rather than fear. People obey the state's authority out of rational understanding that
self-preservation is better achieved within the framework of the state. However, Hobbes
acknowledges that very few individuals obey the state purely on rational grounds.
 Submission to Authority: Individuals are bound to submit to the will of the state or ruler
without any rights against the sovereign. The parties to the social contract are individual
natural men, not groups. The sovereign is not a party to the contract but a product of it,
standing outside and above the contract.
Justification of Absolute Rule: Hobbes uses this framework to justify absolute or despotic
rule, denying individuals the right to resist the state. The minority has no right to object to
the majority's choice of the sovereign.
Fear of Punishment: Hobbes emphasizes that the fear of punishment, rather than reason, is
the effective agency that socializes individuals. The effectiveness of law depends on the
state's power to enforce it. As Hobbes puts it, "Covenants without the sword are but words."

Comparison of Social Contract Theories: Hobbes vs. Locke

State Origin: Both Hobbes and Locke believed that the state originated from a voluntary
agreement or social contract made by individuals.
Purpose of the Contract: Individuals entered into the social contract to establish sovereign
power that would protect them from the insecurity and dangers present in the state of
nature.
Role of Sovereign Power: The social contract, according to both thinkers, was essential for
the creation of sovereign authority, which was necessary to ensure security and order in
society.

Hobbes on Sovereignty
The sovereign is established through a social contract and holds all the powers that the people
agreed to surrender during its formation.

Features of Hobbesian View of Sovereignty

Individuals cannot lawfully form a new contract to create a new Leviathan because the initial
contract with the first sovereign is irrevocable.
The sovereign, not being a party to the contract, cannot be bound by its terms without
consent. The people are also unable to revolt against the sovereign's authority, as this would
 mean returning to the chaotic state of nature.
The sovereign has absolute power to make laws, unrestricted by any human authority,
whether superior or inferior.
The sovereign is not obligated to consider the opinions and wishes of the people, as they
have completely relinquished their power.
The sovereign is the primary source of all laws and is the sole interpreter of these laws.
Hobbes’ concept of sovereignty includes indivisible, inseparable, and incommunicable
powers.
The sovereign is absolute, indivisible, and inalienable. Even the right to property is granted
by the sovereign, allowing for taxation without the people's consent.
The sovereign is the main source of justice and has exclusive rights to declare war and make
peace.

Hobbes on Laws
Hobbes viewed law as a crucial tool for regulating individual behavior, establishing norms for
judging right and wrong.
The sovereign's laws are not restricted by natural law, divine law, or international law.
Laws are seen as commands from the commonwealth, communicated through various
means, to guide individuals in distinguishing between right and wrong.
 Try yourself: What did Thomas Hobbes believe were the two primary motivations driving
human behavior?

a. Love and compassion

b. Fear and self-interest

Correct Answer

c. Altruism and kindness

d. Curiosity and exploration

Explanation
- Thomas Hobbes believed that humans are primarily driven by fear and self-interest,
shaping their behavior and interactions in society.
- According to Hobbes, these two motivations are fundamental to understanding human
nature and the necessity of a strong central authority to prevent conflict and chaos.

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Rights and Liberty

In Hobbes' view, regarding the second group of freedoms, he allows individuals the right to
oppose the state if they are asked to do something that jeopardizes their life or bodily
integrity. However, it would be a mistake to conclude from this that Hobbes denies any
liberty to individuals in his work Leviathan.
Hobbes does grant liberty, but this liberty is fundamentally of a negative nature. He justifies
the allowance of liberty within the confines of law and sees no contradiction between the
two.
Individualism and Absolutism in Hobbes
Hobbes' entire work reflects a profound disdain not only for individualism as a concept but
also for basic rights that are widely acknowledged even in the most primitive societies today.
His political theory has been criticized as sheer despotism by some and lauded as a form of
extreme individualism by others.