UNIT 2

Endocrine vs exocrine glands

Endocrine gland Exocrine glands

Endocrine glands are the glands that secrete hormones without ducts. Exocrine glands secrete hormones through ducts.
They release hormones directly into the bloodstream.

They secrete hormones They secrete sweat, enzymes, mucus and sebum

Secretory products are released directly into the bloodstream, Secretory products are released to an internal organ
eventually reaching the target organ. or the external surface through a duct.

Thyroid glands, parathyroid glands, pituitary glands, adrenal glands. Salivary glands, liver, Brunner’s glands, oesophageal
glands.

Pancreas is both an endocrine and exocrine gland

Types of gates

 Ionotropic receptors are a group of transmembrane ion channels that open or close in
response to the binding of a chemical messenger (ligand) such as a neurotransmitter.

 Metabotropic receptors are a subtype of membrane receptors that do not form an ion
channel pore but use signal transduction mechanisms, often G proteins, to activate a series
of intracellular events using second messenger chemicals.

Types of receptors

 Interal - also known as intracellular or cytoplasmic receptors

 External - from inside the cell to the plasma membrane.

 Fixed receptor mechanism - water soluble hormones and cant pass through lipid membrane

 Mobile receptor mechanism - lipid soluble hormones

Hormones

They are tiny chemical messengers, travelling along with the blood stream. They are produced by
endocrine glands, including the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal glands, gonads, (i.e., testes
and ovaries), thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, and pancreas
Functions,

 Growth and development

 Metabolism of the body

 Electrolyte composition of bodily fluids

 Reproduction

 Maintain homeostasis

Hormones are of two types

1. Amino acids (that further get converted to proteins/ polypeptides) eg: insulin

2. Steroids eg: sex hormones

Hormone mechanism

Endocrine glands involved: Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal
gland, pancreas (islets of langerhans) and the gonads (ovary and testis).

Basics

 Polypeptides and proteins are chains of amino acids of various lengths, primarily present in
hypothalamus, pituitary gland and pancreas. They can not enter the cells due to their
chemical structure.

1. Hypothalamus: Hypothalamus is a small region located in the diencephalon. It controls the

temperature, appetite, water balance, sleep and blood vessel constriction and dilation.

Hormones involved

a. Corticotropin- releasing hormone (CRH) helps in regulating the carbohydrate, protein and fat
metabolism. As well as sodium and water balance

b. Gonadotropin - releasing hormone (GnRH) helps in controlling sexual and reproductive

functions

c. Thyrotropin- releasing hormone (TRH) helps in controlling the metabolic process of all cells,
and hormonal regulation of lactation

d. Growth hormone- releasing hormone (GHRH) helps in organ growth

e. Somatostatin- affects bone and muscle growth

 f. Dopamine- repressing lactation until it is needed after childbirth

2. Pituitary gland: The pituitary is a gland about the size of a small marble and is located in the brain
directly below the hypothalamus. There are two parts, the anterior pituitary and the posterior
pituitary.

i) anterior pituitary : they stimulate target glands or directly affect target organs.

a. Adrenocorticotropic hormone - stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce corticosteroid

hormones; primarily cortisol

b. Gonadotropic hormone- contains 2 molecules, LH -luteinizing hormone and FSH- follicle

stimulating hormone. These two hormones regulate the production of female and male sex
hormones in the ovaries and testes as well as the production of the germ cells—that is, the
egg cells and sperm cells

c. Thyroid stimulating hormone - stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid
hormone.

d. Growth hormone - directly acts on the target [Link] facilitate linear growth of the
bones; promotes the growth of internal organs, fat (i.e., adipose) tissue, connective tissue,
endocrine glands, and muscle; and controls the development of the reproductive organs.

e. Prolactin - controls milk production in lactating women.

ii) posterior pituitary : it doesnt produce hormones but stores hormones.

a. Vasopressin also called arginine vasopressin (AVP) helps maintain water and electrolyte
economy. Reduces urine level and conserves water.

b. Oxytocin stimulates the contractions of the uterus during childbirth.

3. Adrenal gland: are small structures located on top of the kidneys. It contains 2 layers, adrenal
cortex (outer layer) and adrenal medulla (inner layer)

i) adrenal cortex- produces corticosteroids (glucocorticoids) and is also the source of small amounts
of sex hormones (estrogen mainly)

a. Cortisol - The primary glucocorticoid in humans is cortisol. Helps control carbohydrate,

protein, and lipid metabolism; protects against stress. It also helps control the glucose level
in the body, facilitates gluconeogenesis.

b. Aldosterone - primary mineralocorticoid in humans is aldosterone. Helps control the body’s

water and electrolyte regulation. increasing blood volume and decreases the ratio of sodium
to potassium concentrations in sweat and saliva, thereby preventing sodium loss via those
routes.

ii) adrenal medulla - adrenaline and noradrenaline; that are released as part of the fight-or-flight
response to various stress factors.
4. Gonads: Refers to the ovaries and testes

They have two major functions

I. They produce the germ cells

Ii. Synthesize steroid sex hormones that are necessary for the development and function of both
female and male reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics

Hormones involved:

a. Estrogen - exert feminizing effects. Helps in development and functioning of the female
genitalia and breasts. During puberty, estrogens promote the growth of the uterus, breasts,
and vagina. Also helps with typical female shape; regulate the pubertal growth spurt and in
the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

It also helps regulate the menstrual cycle and hormonal regulation of pregnancy and lactation,
and maintaining female libido.

b. Progestogens - The ovaries produce progestogens during a certain phase of the menstrual
cycle. It changes in the uterine lining and stimulate the development of the mammary glands
in the breasts

b. Androgens - The principal androgenic steroid is testosterone. Involved in development and

growth of the male genital tract and also promotes protein generation, which leads to
increased muscle mass.

Other functions - growth at adult height; deepening of the voice; growth of facial, pubic, axillary,
and body hair; and increase in muscularity and strength

5. Thyroid gland: The thyroid gland, which consists of two lobes, is located in front of the windpipe
just below the voice box.

Produces two main structurally related hormones which are iodinated derivatives of the amino acid
tyrosine.

a. Thyroxine (T4)

b. Triiodothyronine (T3)

Both hormones are collectively referred to as “thyroid hormone.”

Thyroid hormone function:

a. promotes metabolic processes involving carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids that help
generate the energy required for the body’s functions.

b. Essential role in development of the central nervous system during late fetal and early
postnatal developmental stages.

c. Thyroid gland produce calcitonin, hormone that helps maintain normal calcium levels in the
blood, inhibiting the constant erosion of bones
6. Parathyroid gland: The parathyroid glands are four pea sized bodies located behind the thyroid
gland that produce parathyroid hormone (PTH).

Functions

a. promotes the release of stored calcium from the bones as well as bone resorption

b. increases calcium levels in the blood

c. stimulates the absorption of calcium from the food in the gastrointestinal tract

The production of this hormone is not controlled by pituitary hormones but by the calcium levels in
the blood.

7. Pancreas: The pancreas is located in the abdomen, behind the stomach.

It has 2 distinct functions

a. it acts as an exocrine organ

b. produce various digestive enzymes that are secreted into the gut, for effective digestion.

2 main hormones involved

I. Insulin - Insulin is produced in the beta cells of the Islets of [Link] is the only blood
sugar-lowering hormone in the body.

 breakdown of glucose, and inhibits gluconeogenesis (glucose to glycogen)

 transport of amino acids into cells and protein

 Increases fat synthesis

Ii. Glucagon - Glucagon is produced in the alpha cells of the Islets of Langerhans. It is the second
blood-sugar–regulating pancreatic hormone is glucagon. Glucagon increases blood glucose levels;
accordingly, its main actions generally are opposite to those of insulin.

AXIS