Get Psyched to Score a FIVE

AP Psychology Review Guide

© March 2024: Get Psyched with Tim Steadman™

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(I’m not sure why but the big dog review books do it, so we are too!)

(It’s so that when you print out the paper front to back it doesn’t mess up the orientation, I think, at least)
 How To Use the
Get Psyched to Score a Five
Review Guide
_________________________________________________________
1. Scan the provided QR code to
bring you to the Get Psyched
with Tim Steadman YouTube
Page.

2. Subscribe to the channel,

this will allow you to easily
access the review videos as
well as stay up to date with newly released
content that will help you score that 5 on the
AP Psychology exam in May!

3. For your learning purposes, differentiate between the

categories of videos available.
Topic Review Videos Unit Review Videos Course Review Video

Specific Focus: Concentrates Summarized Content: Comprehensive Overview:

on individual topics from the Provides overviews of key Covers important concepts,
Course & Exam Description concepts, terms, and themes for terms, and topics across the
(CED). each unit. entire course.

Depth of Content: Offers Preparation Tool: Aids in Refresher: Designed as a final

detailed exploration to enhance preparing for unit tests or review before the AP test, not
comprehension. quizzes by summarizing for cramming all information.
essential information.
Learning Oriented: Aimed Highlights: Summarizes
at students learning the content Broad Overview: Focuses on major themes and key
for the first time or reinforcing the most important points knowledge areas in a concise
their understanding. without the depth of topic format.
review videos.
Features: Includes clear Strategic Review: Helps
explanations, relevant Assessment Aid: Helps students revisit the course
examples, and insightful students gauge their content and pinpoint topics for
commentary. understanding and identify further study.
areas needing further review.
Use Case: Ideal for deepening Exam Preparation: Assists
knowledge on particular Study Companion: Serves as in solidifying the
subjects within the curriculum. a crucial part of exam understanding of course
preparation, ensuring readiness material and refining study
for assessments. strategies for the AP Exam.
4. Watch the provided Topic Review Videos in order to complete
the review guide. These videos will give you an in-depth
understanding of important psychology concepts and theories
that will be fair game on the AP Psychology exam.

5. After recording your notes for the entire unit, you will have
the opportunity to reflect on your learning with a progress
check. Simply read each question and check the box if you are
comfortable with the concept. If you are not comfortable with a
specific topic, it is recommended to go back and watch the Topic
Review Video again (it’s also
advised to check other
resources such as course
textbooks, your teacher, and
reliable websites).

6. At the end of each unit,

there will be practice
selected response questions
as well as a unit specific FRQ
question. An answer key is
provided, it is recommended
to complete the questions
prior to viewing the answer
key (duh!).

7. After diligently completing your notes for each unit section,

proceed to the practice AP Psychology exam found toward the
back of this review guide. Tackle both the selected response and
Free Response Questions (FRQ) sections, then utilize the provided
answer key to grade your test. This key not only offers correct
answers but also indicates the specific unit and topic each
question pertains to, guiding you to identify areas where further
review might be beneficial. This process is designed to help you
gauge your comprehension and readiness, allowing
you to focus your study efforts more
effectively on sections that require
additional attention.

8. *Take your AP Psychology test and score a:

FIVE!
* REMEMBER! Your score does not
define your academic ability. If you
did not score what you hoped you
would, it means very little for your
future, keep pursuing your dreams!
 Table of Contents
AP Psychology Resources………………………………………………………………………………1
- The National Standards for High School Psychology…………………………………………………1
- Important Vocabulary Terms………………………………………………………………………………………….2
- The AP Psychology Exam Format…………………………………………………………………………………….11
Course Content…………………………………………………………………………………………………13
- Science Practice 1: Concept Application………………………………………………………………………...17
- Science Practice 2: Research Methods and Design………………………………………………………20
- Science Practice 3: Data Interpretation………………………………………………………………………..26
- Science Practice 4: Argumentation…………………………………………………………………………………31
- Unit I: Biological Bases of Behavior……………………………………………………………………………….33
- Unit II: Cognition……………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………73
- Unit III: Development and Learning……………………………………………………………………………….113
- Unit IV: Social Psychology and Personality……………………………………………………………….149
- Unit V: Mental and Physical Health……………………………………………………………………………187
Practice Test…………………………………………………………………………………………………..229
- Practice Test Directions……………………………………………………….…………………………………………229
- Multiple-Choice Section……………………………………………………….…………………………………………..231
- Free-Response Section……………………………………………………….…………………………………………….243
- Answer Key……………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………257
Enrichment………………………………………………………………………………………………………261
- Interesting Psychology Research Studies……………………………………………………………………263
- Influential Psychologist………………………………………………………………………………………………..265
- Careers in Psychology…………………………………………………………………………………………………….269
- Psychology in Film and TV……………………………………………………………………………………………..273
- Conduct Your Own Psychology Experiment…………………………………………………………..……277
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1

AP Psychology Resources
The National Standards for High School Psychology

Integrated Themes
o Psychological science relies on empirical evidence and adapts as new data develops.
o Psychology explains general principles that govern behavior while recognizing individual
di:erences.
o Psychological, biological, social, and cultural factors influence behavior and mental processes.
o Psychology values diversity, promotes equity, and fosters inclusion in pursuit of a more just
society.
o Our perceptions and biases filter out experiences of the world through an imperfect personal lens.
o Applying psychological principles can change our lives, organizations, and communities in positive
ways.
o Ethical principles guide psychology research and practice.

Biological Cognition Development Social And Mental and

•Biological Bases •Cognition and Learning Personality Physical
•Sensation •Memory •Life Span •Social Health
•Consciousness •Perception Development •Personality •Disorders
•Intelligence •Learning •Multiculturalism •Health
•Language and Gender •Therapies
•Motivation and
Emotion

Scientific Inquiry and Research Methods

Instruction on Scientific Inquiry and Research Methods are prevalent in all units of study.
2

Important Vocabulary Terms

Based on guidance from the College Board, our review will focus exclusively on terms listed in the
2024 updated Course & Exam Description (CED) for the AP Psychology Test. While other
psychology-related terms might appear on the exam, don't sweat it! Any term not included
in the CED will come with a handy definition in a footnote, ensuring you're well-prepared
and confident on test day. This approach guarantees that your study efforts are laser-
focused on the most relevant material, maximizing your preparation and potential for success.

•
Science Practices •
Random Assignment (2.B)
Placebo/Placebo Effect (2.B)
Concept Application • Single-Blind Study (2.B)
• Psychology • Double-Blind Study (2.B)
• Modern Perspectives (1.A) • Experimenter Bias (2.B)
o Behavioral • Social Desirability Bias (2.B)
o Psychodynamic • Qualitative Research (2.B)
o Humanistic • Structured Interviews (2.B)
o Cognitive • Quantitative Research (2.B)
o Evolutionary
• Likert Scales (2.B)
o Sociocultural
o Biological • Correlational Study (2.C)
• Directionality Problem (2.C)
• Cognitive Biases (1.B)
o Confirmation Bias • Self-Report Bias (2.C)
o Hindsight Bias • Social Desirability Bias (2.C)
o Overconfidence • Peer Review (2.C)
• Institutional Review (2.D)
Research Methods • Ethics in Research (2.D)
o Informed Consent/Assent
• Experimental Methodology (2.A)
o Protection From Harm
• Independent Variable (2.A) o Confidentiality/Anonymity
• Dependent Variable (2.A) o Deception (Confederates)
• Random Assignment (2.A) o Debrief
• Non-Experimental Methodology (2.A)
• Case Study (2.A)
Data Interpretation
• Correlation (2.A)
• Central Tendency (3.B)
• Meta-Analysis (2.A)
• Variation (3.B)
• Naturalistic Observation (2.A)
• Percentile Rank (3.B)
• Hypothesis (2.B)
• Mean (3.B)
• Falsifiable (2.B)
• Median (3.B)
• Operational Definition (2.B)
• Mode (3.B)
• Replicate (2.B)
• Range (3.B)
• Confounding Variable (2.B)
• Normal Curve (3.B)
• Sample (2.B)
• Skewed Curve (3.B)
• Population (2.B)
• Bimodal Distribution (3.B)
• Representative Sample (2.B)
• Standard Deviation (3.B)
• Random Sampling (2.B)
• Percentile Rank (3.B)
• Convenience Sampling (2.B)
• Regression Toward Mean (maybe) (3.B)
• Sampling Bias (2.B)
• Generalized (2.B)
• Experimental Group (2.B)
• Control Group (2.B)
3
•
Unit I – Biological Bases of •
Endorphins (1.3.B.2)
Substance P (1.3.B.2)
Behavior •
•
Acetylcholine (1.3.B.2)
Endocrine System (Not Listed but Necessary)
Topic 1.1: Interaction of Heredity & • Hormone (1.3.B.3)
Environment • Adrenaline (1.3.B.3)
• Nature (Heredity) (1.1.A.1.i) • Leptin (1.3.B.3)
• Predisposition (1.1.A.1.i) • Ghrelin (1.3.B.3)
• Melatonin (1.3.B.3)
• Nurture (Environment) ([Link])
• Oxytocin (1.3.B.3)
• Evolutionary Perspective (1.1.A.2)
• Psychoactive Drug (1.3.C.1)
• Natural Selection (1.1.A.2) • Agonist (1.3.C.1)
• Eugenics (1.1.A.2) • Antagonist (1.3.C.1)
• Twin/Family/Adoption Study (1.1.A.3) • Stimulants (Caffeine, Cocaine) (1.3.C.2.i)
• Depressants (Alcohol) ([Link])
Topic 1.2: Overview of the Nervous • Hallucinogens (Marijuana) ([Link])
• Opioids (Heroin) ([Link])
System • Tolerance (1.3.C.3)
• Central Nervous System (1.2.A.1) • Addiction (1.3.C.3)
• Brain (1.2.A.1) • Withdrawal (1.3.C.3)
• Spinal Cord (1.2.A.1)
• Peripheral Nervous System (1.2.A.2) Topic 1.4: The Brain
• Autonomic Nervous System (1.2.A.2) • Brain Stem (1.4.A.1)
• Somatic Nervous System (1.2.A.2) • Medulla (1.4.A.1)
• Sympathetic Nervous System (1.2.A.2.i) • Reticular Activating System (Reticular
• Parasympathetic Nervous System (1.2.A.2.i) Formation) (1.4.A.2)
• Cerebellum (1.4.A.3)
Topic 1.3: The Neuron & Neural • Cerebral Cortex (1.4.A.4)
• Limbic System (1.4.A.4)
Firing • Thalamus (1.4.A.4)
• Neuron (1.3.A.1) • Hypothalamus (1.4.A.4)
• Glial Cell (1.3.A.1) • Pituitary Gland (1.4.A.4)
• Reflex Arc (Spinal Reflex) (1.3.A.2) • Hippocampus (1.4.A.4)
• Sensory Neuron (Afferent) (1.3.A.2) • Amygdala (1.4.A.4)
• Motor Neuron (Efferent) (1.3.A.2) • Corpus Callosum (1.4.A.4)
• Interneuron (1.3.A.2) • Occipital Lobe (1.4.A.4.i)
• All-or-None Law (1.3.B.1) • Temporal Lobe ([Link])
• Depolarization (1.3.B.1) • Parietal Lobe ([Link])
• Refractory Period (1.3.B.1) • Somatosensory Cortex ([Link])
• Resting Potential (1.3.B.1) • Frontal Lobe ([Link])
• Reuptake (1.3.B.1) • Prefrontal Cortex ([Link])
• Stimulus Threshold (1.3.B.1) • Motor Cortex ([Link])
• Multiple Sclerosis (1.3.B.1) • Split Brain Procedure (1.4.A.5)
• Myasthenia Gravis (1.3.B.1) • Epilepsy (1.4.A.5)
• Action Potential (1.3.B.2) • Broca’s Area (1.4.A.5.i)
• Neurotransmitter (1.3.B.2) • Wernicke’s Area (1.4.A.5.i)
• Excitatory Message (1.3.B.2) • Aphasia (1.4.A.5.i)
• Inhibitory Message (1.3.B.2) • Cortex Specialization ([Link])
• Dopamine (1.3.B.2) • Contralateral Hemispheric Organization
• Serotonin (1.3.B.2) ([Link])
• Norepinephrine (1.3.B.2) • Brain Plasticity (Structural/Functional) (1.4.A.6)
• Glutamate (1.3.B.2) • Brain Scans (EEG, fMRI) (1.4.A.7)
• GABA (1.3.B.2) • Lesioning (1.4.A.7)
4

Topic 1.5: Sleep • Place Theory (1.6.C.2)

• Consciousness (Sleep/Wakefulness) (1.5.A.1) • Volley Theory (1.6.C.2)
• Circadian Rhythm (Jet Lag/Shift Work) • Frequency Theory (1.6.C.2)
(1.5.A.2) • Sound Localization (1.6.C.3)
• Sleep Stages (1.4.A.3) • Conduction Deafness (1.6.C.4)
• NREM (Stage I, II, III) (1.5.A.3.i) • Sensorineural Deafness (1.6.C.4)
• Hypnogogic Sensations (1.5.A.3.i) • Olfaction (1.6.D.1)
• REM Sleep (Paradoxical Sleep) • Pheromones (1.6.D.1)
• Dreams ([Link]) • Olfactory System (1.6.D.1)
• REM Rebound ([Link]) • Gustation (Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami,
• Activation-Synthesis Theory (1.5.A.4) Oleogustus) (1.6.D.2)
• Consolidation Theory (1.5.A.4) • Tastebuds (Not mentioned bur probably
important) (1.6.D.3)
• Restorative Theory (1.5.A.5)
• Supertaster, Medium Taster, Nontaster (1.6.D.3)
• Sleep Deprivation (Not Specifically Mentioned)
• Gate-Control Theory (1.6.F.1)
• Insomnia (1.5.A.6)
• Phantom Limb Sensation (1.6.F.1)
• Narcolepsy (1.5.A.6)
• Vestibular Sense (1.6.G.1)
• REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (1.5.A.6)
• Semicircular Canal (1.6.G.1)
• Sleep Apnea (1.5.A.6)
• Kinesthetic Sense (1.6.G.2)
• Somnambulism (1.5.A.6)

Topic 1.6: Sensation Unit II – Cognition

• Sensation (1.6.A.1) Topic 2.1: Perception
• Absolute Threshold (1.6.A.1) • Perception (2.1.A.1)
• Transduction (1.6.A.1) • Bottom-Up Processing (2.1.A.1)
• Just-Noticeable Difference (Difference • Top-Down Processing (2.1.A.1)
Threshold) (1.6.A.2) • Schemas (2.1.A.2)
• Sensory Adaptation (1.6.A.2) • Perceptual Sets (2.1.A.2)
• Weber’s Law (1.6.A.2) • Context Effect (2.1.A.3)
• Sensory Interaction (1.6.A.3) • Gestalt Psychology (2.1.A.4)
• Synesthesia (1.6.A.3) • Closure (2.1.A.4)
• Retina (1.6.B.1) • Figure-Ground Relationship (2.1.A.4)
• Blind Spot (1.6.B.1) • Proximity (2.1.A.4)
• Visual Nerve (Optic Nerve) (1.6.B.1) • Similarity (2.1.A.4)
• Lens (1.6.B.2) • Attention (2.1.A.5)
• Accommodation (in Vision) (1.6.B.2) • Selective Attention (2.1.A.5.i)
• Nearsightedness (1.6.B.2) • Cocktail Party Effect (2.1.A.5.i)
• Farsightedness (1.6.B.2) • Change Blindness ([Link])
• Rods (1.6.B.3) • Binocular Cues (2.1.A.B.1)
• Trichromatic Theory (1.6.B.4) • Retinal Disparity (2.1.A.B.1)
• Opponent Process Theory (1.6.B.4) • Convergence (2.1.A.B.1)
• Fovea (1.6.B.4.i) • Monocular Cues (2.1.A.B.2)
• Cones (1.6.B.4.i) • Relative Clarity (2.1.A.B.2)
• Blue (Short Wavelengths) (1.6.B.4.i) • Relative Size (2.1.A.B.2)
• Green (Medium Wavelengths) (1.6.B.4.i) • Texture Gradient (2.1.A.B.2)
• Red (Long Wavelengths) (1.6.B.4.i) • Linear Perspective (2.1.A.B.2)
• Afterimages ([Link]) • Interposition (2.1.A.B.2)
• Ganglion Cells ([Link]) • Perceptual Constancies (Shape/Size) (2.1.B.3)
• Dichromatism ([Link]) • Apparent Movement (2.1.B.4)
• Monochromatism ([Link])
• Prosopagnosia (1.6.B.5)
• Blindsight (1.6.B.5)
• Pitch (1.6.C.1)
• Amplitude (1.6.C.1)
5

Topic 2.2: Thinking, Problem- Topic 2.4: Encoding Memories

Solving, Judgements, and Decision- • Encoding (2.4.A.1)
• Mnemonic Device (2.4.A.2)
Making • Method of Loci (2.4.A.2)
• Concepts (2.2.A.1) • Chunking (Categories/Hierarchies) (2.4.A.3)
• Prototypes (2.2.A.1) • Spacing Effect (2.4.A.4)
• Schemas (2.2.A.2) • Massed Practice (2.4.A.4)
• Assimilation (2.2.A.2) • Distributed Practice (2.4.A.4)
• Accommodation (in Thinking) (2.2.A.2) • Serial Position Effect (2.4.A.5)
• Algorithms (2.2.A.3) • Primacy Effect (2.4.A.5)
• Heuristics (2.2.A.4) • Recency Effect (2.4.A.5)
• Representative Heuristic (2.2.A.4)
• Availability Heuristic (2.2.A.4) Topic 2.5: Storing Memories
• Mental Set (2.2.A.5) • Storage (2.5.A.1)
• Priming (2.2.A.5) • Maintenance Rehearsal (2.5.A.2)
• Framing (2.2.A.5) • Elaborative Rehearsal (2.5.A.2)
• Gambler’s Fallacy (2.2.A.6) • Autobiographical Memory (2.5.A.3)
• Sunk-Cost Fallacy (2.2.A.6) • Amnesia (Retrograde/Anterograde) (2.5.A.4)
• Executive Function (2.2.A.7) • Alzheimer’s Disease (2.5.A.4)
• Creativity (2.2.A.8) • Infantile Amnesia (2.5.A.4)
• Divergent Thinking (2.2.A.8)
• Convergent Thinking (2.2.A.8) Topic 2.6: Retrieving Memories
• Retrieval (2.6.A.1)
Topic 2.3: Introduction to Memory • Recall (2.6.A.1)
• Memory (2.3.A.1) • Recognition (2.6.A.1)
• Explicit Memory (2.3.A.1.i) • Context-Dependent Memory (2.6.A.2)
• Episodic (2.3.A.1.i) • Mood-Congruent Memory (2.6.A.2)
• Semantic (2.3.A.1.i) • State-Dependent Memory (2.6.A.2)
• Implicit Memory ([Link]) • Retrieval Practice Process (2.6.A.3)
• Procedural Memory ([Link]) • Testing Effect (2.6.A.3)
• Prospective Memory ([Link]) • Metacognition (2.6.A.3)
• Long-Term Potentiation (2.3.A.2)
• Working Memory Model (2.3.A.3)
Topic 2.7: Forgetting & Other
• Central Executive (2.3.A.3) Memory Challenges
• Phonological Loop (2.3.A.3) • Forgetting Curve (2.7.A.1)
• Visuospatial Sketchpad (2.3.A.3) • Encoding Failure (2.7.A.2)
• Multi-Store Model (2.3.A.4) • Interference Theory (Retroactive/Proactive)
• Sensory Memory (2.3.A.4) (2.7.A.2)
• Iconic Memory (2.3.A.4) • Inadequate Retrieval (Tip of the Tongue)
• Echoic Memory (2.3.A.4) (2.7.A.2)
• Short-Term Memory (2.3.A.4) • Repression (2.7.A.3)
• Long-Term Memory (2.3.A.4) • Misinformation Effect (2.7.A.4)
• Automatic Processing (2.3.A.4) • Source Amnesia (2.7.A.4)
• Effortful Processing (2.3.A.4) • Constructive Memory (Memory
• Levels of Processing Model (2.3.A.5) Consolidation/Imagination Inflation) (2.7.A.4)
• Shallow Processing (2.3.A.5)
• Deep Processing (2.3.A.5) Topic 2.8: Intelligence &
• Structural Processing (2.3.A.5) Achievement
• Phonemic Processing (2.3.A.5) • Intelligence (2.8.A.1)
• Semantic Processing (2.3.A.5) • G-Factor (2.8.A.1)
• Intelligence Quotient (IQ) (2.8.B.1)
• Standardized (2.8.B.2.i)
6
Topic 2.8: Intelligence & Achievement Topic 3.4: Cognitive Development
(Cont.) Across the Lifespan
• Valid ([Link]) • Schemas (3.4.A.1)
o Construct Validity
o Predictive Validity • Assimilation (3.4.A.1)
• Reliable ([Link]) • Accommodation (3.4.A.1)
o Test-Retest Method • Sensorimotor Stage (3.4.A.1.i)
o Split-Half Method • Object Permanence (3.4.A.1.i)
• Stereotype Threat (2.8.B.3) • Preoperational Stage ([Link])
• Stereotype Lift (2.8.B.3) • Conservation ([Link])
• Flynn Effect (2.8.C.1) • Reversibility ([Link])
• Achievement Test (2.8.D.1) • Animism ([Link])
• Aptitude Test (2.8.D.1)
• Egocentrism ([Link])
• Fixed Mindset (2.8.D.2)
• Growth Mindset (2.8.D.2)
• Theory of Mind ([Link])
• Concrete Operational Stage ([Link])
Unit III – Development & • Formal Operational Stage ([Link])
• Scaffolding (3.4.A.2)
Learning • Zone of Proximal Development (3.4.A.2)
Topic 3.1: Themes and Methods in • Crystallized Intelligence (3.4.A.3)
Developmental Psychology • Fluid Intelligence (3.4.A.3)
• Dementia (3.4.A.3)
• Developmental Psychology (3.1.A.1)
• Stability and Change (3.1.A.1) Topic 3.5: Communication and
• Nature and Nurture (3.1.A.1)
Language Development
• Continuous and Discontinuous Stages
• Language (3.5.A.1)
(3.1.A.1)
• Generative Language (3.5.A.1)
• Cross-Sectional Research (3.9.B)
• Phonemes (3.5.A.1)
• Longitudinal Research (3.9.B)
• Morphemes (3.5.A.1)
Topic 3.2: Physical Development • Semantics (3.5.A.1)
Across the Lifespan • Grammar (3.5.A.1)
• Teratogens (3.2.A.1) • Syntax (3.5.A.1)
• Infancy (3.2.B.1) • Cooing (3.5.B.1)
• Fine Motor Skills (3.2.B.1) • Babbling (3.5.B.1)
• Gross Motor Skills (3.2.B.1) • One-Word Stage (3.5.B.1)
• Infant Reflexes (3.2.B.2) • Telegraphic Speech (3.5.B.1)
• Rooting (3.2.B.2) • Overgeneralization (3.5.B.1)
• Visual Cliff Experiment (3.2.B.3) Topic 3.6: Social-Emotional
• Critical Period Hypothesis (3.2.B.4)
• Puberty (3.2.C.1)
Development Across the Lifespan
• Ecological Systems Theory (3.6.A.1)
• Primary Sex Characteristics (3.2.C.1)
• Microsystem (3.6.A.1)
• Secondary Sex Characteristics (3.2.C.1)
• Mesosystem (3.6.A.1)
• Menarche (3.2.C.1)
• Exosystem (3.6.A.1)
• Spermarche (3.2.C.1)
• Macrosystem (3.6.A.1)
• Menopause (3.2.D.1)
• Chronosystem (3.6.A.1)
Topic 3.3: Gender & Sexual
Orientation
• Sex (3.3.A)
• Gender (3.3.A)
7
Topic 3.6: Social-Emotional Across the • Positive Punishment (3.8.A.2)
Lifespan (Cont.) • Negative Punishment (3.8.A.2)
• Authoritarian (3.6.A.2) • Primary Reinforcer (3.8.A.2)
• Authoritative (3.6.A.2) • Secondary Reinforcer (3.8.A.2)
• Permissive (3.6.A.2) • Reinforcement Discrimination (3.8.A.2)
• Secure Attachment (3.6.A.3) • Reinforcement Generalization (3.8.A.2)
• Insecure Attachment (Avoidant, Anxious, • Shaping (3.8.A.3)
Disorganized) (3.6.A.3) • Successive Approximations (3.8.A.3)
• Temperament (3.6.A.3) • Instinctive Drift (3.8.A.3)
• Separation Anxiety (3.6.A.3.i) • Superstitious Behaviors (3.8.A.4)
• Contact Comfort ([Link]) • Learned Helplessness (3.8.A.4)
• Parallel Play (3.6.A.4.i) • Continuous Reinforcement (3.8.A.5.i)
• Pretend Play (3.6.A.4.i) • Partial Reinforcement ([Link])
• Imaginary Audience ([Link]) • Fixed-Interval ([Link])
• Personal Fable ([Link]) • Variable-Interval ([Link])
• Social Clock (3.6.A.5.i) • Fixed-Ratio ([Link])
• Psychosocial Development (Eight Stages • Variable-Ratio ([Link])
Included) (3.6.A.6)
• Aversive Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
Topic 3.9: Social, Cognitive, and
(3.6.A.7) Neurological Factors in Learning
• Achievement (3.6.A.8) • Social Learning Theory (3.9.A.1)
• Diffusion (3.6.A.8) • Vicarious Conditioning (Observational
• Foreclosure (3.6.A.8) Learning) (3.9.A.1)
• Moratorium (3.6.A.8) • Modeling (3.9.A.1)
• Insight Learning (3.9.B.1)
Topic 3.7: Classical Conditioning • Latent Learning (3.9.B.2)
• Classical Conditioning (3.7.A.1) • Cognitive Maps (3.9.B.2)
• Acquisition (3.7.A.2)
• Associative Learning (3.7.A.2) Unit IV – Social Psychology
• Unconditioned Stimulus (3.7.A.2.i)
• Unconditioned Response (3.7.A.2.i) & Personality
• Conditioned Stimulus (3.7.A.2.i) Topic 4.1: Attribution Theory and
• Conditioned Response (3.7.A.2.i) Person Perception
• Extinction ([Link]) • Attribution Theory (4.1.A.1)
• Spontaneous Recovery ([Link]) • Dispositional Attribution (4.1.A.1)
• Stimulus Discrimination ([Link]) • Situational Attribution (4.1.A.1)
• Stimulus Generalization ([Link]) • Explanatory Style (Optimism/Pessimism)
• Higher-Order Conditioning (3.7.A.2.v) (4.1.A.2)
• Counterconditioning (3.7.A.3) • Actor-Observer Bias (4.1.A.3)
• Taste Aversion (3.7.A.4) • Fundamental Attribution Error (4.1.A.3)
• Biological Preparedness (3.7.A.4) • Self-Serving Bias (4.1.A.3)
• Biological Predisposition (3.7.A.4) • External Locus of Control (4.1.B)
• One-Trial Learning (3.7.A.) • Internal Locus of Control (4.1.B)
• Habituation (3.7.A.5) • Mere Exposure Effect (4.1.C.1)
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (4.1.C.2)
Topic 3.8: Operant Conditioning
• Person Perception (4.1.C.3)
• Operant Conditioning (3.8.A.1)
• Social Comparison (Upward/Downward)
• Positive Reinforcement (3.8.A.2)
(4.1.C.3)
• Negative Reinforcement (3.8.A.2)
• Relative Deprivation (4.1.C.3)
8

Topic 4.2: Attitude Formation and Topic 4.4: Psychodynamic and

Attitude Change Humanistic Theories of Personality
• Stereotype (4.2.A.1) • Psychodynamic Theory of Personality
• Prejudice (4.2.A.1) (4.4.A.1)
• Discrimination (4.2.A.1) • Unconscious (4.4.A.1)
• Implicit Attitude (4.2.A.2) • Personality (4.4.A.1)
• Just-World Phenomenon (4.2.A.2) • Ego Defense Mechanism (4.4.A.2)
• In-Group / Out-Group (4.2.A.2) • Ego 4.4.A.2)
• Out-Group Homogeneity Bias (4.2.A.2) • Denial (4.4.A.2)
• In-group Bias (4.2.A.2) • Displacement (4.4.A.2)
• Ethnocentrism (4.2.A.2) • Projection (4.4.A.2)
• Belief Perseverance (4.2.B.1) • Regression (4.4.A.2)
• Confirmation Bias (Repeat) (4.2.B.1) • Repression (4.4.A.2)
• Cognitive Dissonance (4.2.B.2) • Sublimation (4.4.A.2)
• Projective Personality Test (4.4.A.3)
Topic 4.3: Psychology of Social • Preconscious (4.4.A.3)
Situations • Humanistic Theory of Personality (4.4.B.1)
• Social Norms (4.3.A.1) • Unconditional (Positive) Regard (4.4.B.1)
• Social Influence Theory (4.3.A.2) • Self-Actualizing Tendency (4.4.B.1)
• Normative (4.3.A.2)
• Informational (4.3.A.2) Topic 4.5: Social-Cognitive & Trait
• Persuasion (4.3.A.3) Theories of Personality
• Route to Persuasion (4.3.A.3i) • Social-Cognitive Theory of Personality
• Central Route Persuasion (4.3.A.3.i) (4.5.A.1)
• Peripheral Route to Persuasion (4.3.A.3.i) • Reciprocal Determinism (4.5.A.1)
• Halo Effect (4.3.A.3.i) • Self-Concept (4.5.A.1)
• Foot-in-the-Door Technique ([Link]) • Self-Efficacy (4.5.A.1)
• Door-in-the-Face Technique ([Link]) • Self-Esteem (4.5.A.1)
• Conformity (4.3.A.4) • Trait Theories (4.5.B.1)
• Obedience (4.3.A.5) • Trait (4.5.B.2)
• Individualism (4.3.B.1) • Big Five Theory (4.5.B.2)
• Collectivism (4.3.B.1) • Agreeableness (4.5.B.2)
• Multiculturalism (4.3.B.1) • Openness (4.5.B.2)
• Group Polarization (4.3.B.2) • Extraversion (4.5.B.2)
• Group Think (4.3.B.2) • Conscientiousness (4.5.B.2)
• Diffusion of Responsibility (4.3.B.2) • Emotional Stability (4.5.B.2)
• Social Loafing (4.3.B.2) • Personality Inventory (4.5.B.2)
• Deindividuation (4.3.B.2) • Factor Analysis (4.5.B.2)
• Social Facilitation (4.3.B.3)
• False Consensus Effect (4.3.B.4)
Topic 4.6: Motivation
• Motivation (4.6.A.1)
• Superordinate Goals (4.3.B.5)
• Drive-Reduction Theory (4.6.A.1)
• Social Trap (4.3.B.5)
• Arousal Theory (4.6.A.1)
• I/O Psychologist (4.3.B.6)
• Homeostasis (4.6.A.1)
• Burnout (4.3.B.6)
• Yerkes-Dodson Law (4.6.A.2)
• Altruism (4.3.C.1)
• Self-Determination Theory (4.6.A.2)
• Social Reciprocity Norm (4.3.C.1)
• Bystander Effect (Situational/Attentional
Variables) (4.3.C.2)
9
Topic 4.6: Motivation (Cont.) • General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
• Intrinsic Motivation (4.6.A.2) (5.1.C.1)
• Extrinsic Motivation (4.6.A.2) o Alarm Reaction
• Incentive Theory (4.6.A.2) o Resistance Phase
• Instincts (4.6.A.3) o Exhaustion Phase
• Lewin’s Motivational Conflict Theory • Tend-and-Befriend Theory (5.1.C.2)
(4.6.A.4) • Problem Focused Coping (5.1.D.1)
• Approach-Approach Conflict (4.6.A.4) • Emotion-Focused Coping (5.1.D.2)
• Approach-Avoidance Conflict (4.6.A.4)
• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict (4.6.A.4) Topic 5.2: Positive Psychology
• Sensation-Seeking Theory (4.6.A.5) • Positive Psychology (5.2.A.1)
o Experience Seeking • Positive Subjective Experiences (5.2.B.1)
o Thrill or Adventure Seeking • Subjective Well-Being (5.2.B.1)
o Disinhibition • Positive Objective Experiences (5.2.B.2)
o Boredom Susceptibility • Signature Strengths (Virtues) (5.2.B.2)
• Ghrelin (Repeat Unit I) (4.6.B.1.i) o Wisdom
• Leptin (Repeat Unit I) (4.6.B.1.i) o Courage
• Pituitary Gland (Repeat Unit I) (4.6.B.1.i) o Humanity
• Satiety (4.6.B.1.i) o Justice
o Temperance
Topic 4.7: Emotion o Transcendence
• Emotion (Affect) (4.7.A.1) • Posttraumatic Growth (5.2.B.3)
• Facial-Feedback Hypothesis (4.7.A.1)
• James-Lange, Canon-Bard, Schacter-Singer, Topic 5.3: Explaining & Classifying
Cognitive Appraisal (excluded but possibly Psychological Disorders
necessary) • Level of Dysfunction (5.3.A.1)
• Broaden-and-Build Theory of Emotion • Perception of Distress (5.3.A.1)
(4.7.A.2) • Deviation from the Social Norm (5.3.A.1)
• Basic Emotions (Anger, Disgust, Sadness, • Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of
Happiness, Surprise, Fear) (4.7.B.1) Mental Disorders (5.3.A.3)
• Display Rules (4.7.B.1) • International Classification of Mental
• Elicitors (4.7.B.1) Disorders (ICD) (5.3.A.3)
• Eclectic Approach (5.3.B.1)
Unit V – Mental & Physical • Behavioral Perspective (5.3.B.2)
• Psychodynamic Perspective (5.3.B.3)
Health • Humanistic Perspective (5.3.B.4)
Topic 5.1: Introduction to Health • Cognitive Perspective (5.3.B.5)
Psychology • Evolutionary Perspective (5.3.B.6)
• Health Psychology (5.1.A) • Sociocultural Perspective (5.3.B.7)
• Biological Perspective (5.3.B.8)
• Stress (5.1.B.1)
• Biopsychosocial Model (5.3.C.1)
• Hypertension (5.1.B.1)
• Diathesis-Stress Model (5.3.C.2)
• Eustress (Motivating Stressor) (5.1.B.2)
• Diathesis (5.3.C.2)
• Distress (Debilitating Stressor) (5.1.B.2)
• Traumatic Stress (5.1.B.2)
• Daily Hassle (5.1.B.2)
• Aversive Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
(Repeat from Unit III) (5.1.B.2)
10

Topic 5.4: Selection of Categories of • Dissociative Disorders (5.4.G.1)

o Dissociative Amnesia (with and
Psychological Disorders without fugue)
• Neurodevelopmental Disorders (5.4.A.1) o Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
o AD/HD • Dissociations (5.4.G.1)
o Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
• Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders
• Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorder (5.4.B.1) (5.4.H.1)
o Positive Symptoms
• Hypervigilance (5.4.H.1)
o Negative Symptoms
• Emotional Detachment (5.4.H.1)
• Delusions (5.4.B.1.i)
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (5.4.H.1)
o Persecution
o Grandeur • Feeding and Eating Disorders (5.4.I.1)
o Anorexia Nervosa
• Hallucinations ([Link])
o Bulimia Nervosa
• Disorganized Thinking ([Link])
• Personality Disorders (5.4.J.1)
• Disorganized Speech ([Link])
• Cluster A (5.4.J.1.i)
o Word Salad
o Paranoid
• Disorganized Motor Behaviors ([Link])
o Schizoid
• Catatonia ([Link]) o Schizotypal
o Excitement
• Cluster B ([Link])
o Stupor
o Antisocial
• Flat Affect (5.4.B.1.v) o Histrionic
• Catatonic Stupor (5.4.B.1.v) o Narcissistic
• Dopamine Hypothesis (5.4.B.2) o Borderline
• Depressive Disorders (5.4.C.1) • Cluster C ([Link])
o Major Depressive Disorder o Avoidant
o Persistent Depressive Disorder o Dependent
• Bipolar Disorder (5.4.D.1) o Obsessive-Compulsive Personality
• Mania (5.4.D.1) Disorder
• Bipolar Cycling (5.4.D.1)
o Bipolar I Topic 5.5: Treatment of
o Bipolar II
• Anxiety Disorder (5.4.E.1) Psychological Disorders
• Specific Phobia (5.4.E.1.i) • Psychotherapy (5.5.A.1)
o Acrophobia • Evidence-Based Intervention (5.5.A.1)
o Arachnophobia • Cultural Humility (5.5.A.1)
• Agoraphobia ([Link]) • Therapeutic Alliance (5.5.A.1)
• Panic Disorder ([Link]) • Psychotropic Medication (5.5.B.1)
• Panic Attack ([Link]) • Deinstitutionalization (5.5.B.1)
o Ataque de Nervios • Psychodynamic Therapy (5.5.D.1)
• Social Anxiety Disorder ([Link]) • Free Association (5.5.D.1)
o Taijin Kyofusho • Dream Interpretation (5.5.D.1)
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) • Cognitive Therapy (5.5.D.2)
(5.4.E.1.v) • Cognitive Restructuring (5.5.D.2)
• Obsessive-Compulsive and related Disorder • Fear Hierarchies (5.5.D.2)
(5.4.F.1) • Maladaptive Thinking (5.5.D.2)
o Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder • Cognitive Triad (5.5.D.2)
o Hoarding Disorder • Applied Behavior Analysis (5.5.D.3)
• Obsessions (5.4.F.1) • Exposure Therapy (5.5.D.3)
• Compulsions (5.4.F.1) o Systematic Desensitization
• Intrusive Thoughts (5.4.F.1) • Aversion Therapy (5.5.D.3)
11
Topic 5.5: Treatment of Psychological • Hypnosis (5.5.F.1)
Disorders (Cont.) • Antidepressants (5.5.G.1)
• Token Economy (5.5.D.3) • Antianxiety Drugs (5.5.G.1)
• Biofeedback (5.5.D.3) • Lithium (5.5.G.1)
• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (5.5.D.4) • Antipsychotic Medications (5.5.G.1)
• Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy • Tardive Dyskinesia (5.5.G.1)
(5.5.D.4) • Psychosurgery (5.5.G.2)
• Humanistic Therapy (5.5.D.5) • Lesioning (repeat from Unit I) (5.5.G.2)
• Person-Centered Therapy (5.5.D.5) • Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
• Active Listening (5.5.D.5) (5.5.G.2)
• Unconditional Positive Regard (5.5.D.5) • Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) (5.5.G.2)
• Group Therapy (5.5.E) • Lobotomy (5.5.G.2)

The AP Psychology Exam

The AP Psychology Exam is your chance to show what you've learned, matching up with the skills and
goals we've covered in our lessons and reviews. Clocking in at 2 hours and 40 minutes, the test has 75
multiple-choice questions and 2 essay-style free response questions, both parts counting the same
towards your score. For all the nitty-gritty on how the exam breaks down, including how it's scored
and how much time you get, check out the table below.
Number of Exam
Section Question Type Timing
Questions Weighting
I Multiple-Choice Questions 75 66.7% 90 mins.
II Free-Response Questions 2 33.3% 70 mins.
- Question 1: Article Analysis Question 1 16.65% -
- Question 2: Evidence-Based Question 1 16.65% -

Weight by Unit
Section 1: Multiple Choice: In the multiple-choice part of the AP Exam, you'll tackle both sets of
questions tied together by a common theme and standalone questions. Every one of the five units
we've studied gets its moment to shine, each having its own slice of the exam pie, as shown below:
Unit of Instruction Exam Weighting
Unit I: Biological Bases of Behavior 15-25%
Unit II: Cognition 15-25%
Unit III: Development and Learning 15-25%
Unit IV: Social Psychology and Personality 15-25%
Unit V: Mental and Physical Health 15-25%

In the multiple-choice section of the AP exam, you'll be tested on three out of the four key science
practices we've covered, with each practice getting a certain percentage of the exam's focus, as
detailed below:
Approximate Exam Weighting for
Science Practice
Multiple-Choice Section
Practice 1: Concept Application 65%
Practice 2: Research Methods and Design 25%
Practice 3: Data Interpretation 10%
12
Section 2: Free-Response: The free-response section will assess all four Science Practices and
feature opportunities for students to engage with summarized peer-reviewed research.
o For the Article Analysis Question (AAQ), you'll dive into a summarized version of a peer-
reviewed article. Your mission? To pinpoint key research components like the methodology
used, the variables in play, and the ethical standards adhered to. Plus, you'll need to make
sense of any basic stats thrown your way in the article. But that's not all – you'll also debate the
study's wider applicability and discuss how the findings bolster or challenge the psychological
theory at hand. You've got 25 minutes on the clock for this challenge, which includes 10
minutes dedicated just for reading. This question will test your mastery of Science Practices 2,
3, and 4, so get ready to show what you've learned!
o For the Evidence-Based Question (EBQ), gear up to engage with three summarized, peer-
reviewed articles all focusing on a unified theme. Your task? Craft a compelling argument on
the subject, pulling in evidence not just from these articles, but also from the wealth of
knowledge you've amassed in AP Psychology. Your argument should not only cite this evidence
but also critically reason through it to solidify your stance. With 45 minutes on the clock,
including 15 minutes allocated solely for reading, you'll have ample time to construct a well-
supported claim. This question zeroes in on assessing your skills in Science Practices 1 and 4,
challenging you to demonstrate your analytical prowess and evidence-based argumentation
skills.

Task Verbs Used in the Free-Response Questions

Task Verbs Used in the Free-Response Questions refers to specific action words or commands that
dictate the type of response you are expected to provide in your answers to the Free Response
Questions (FRQs). These verbs are crucial for understanding exactly what is being asked and how to
structure a response that meets the grading criteria. Each verb signals a particular kind of task, such
as:
Describe

•Provide the relevant characteristics of a specified topic.

Explain

•Provide information about how or why a relationship, process, pattern, position, situation, or outcome
occurs, using evidence and/or reasoning to support or qualify a claim.
•"Explain how" typically requires analyzing the relationship, process, pattern, position, situation, or
outcome.
•"Explain why" typically requires analysis of motivations or reasons for the relationship, process, pattern,
position, situation or outcome.

Identify/State

•Indicate or provide information about a specified topic, without elaboration or explanation.

Propose

•Provide a claim for a specified topic using your own words.

Support or Refute

•Provide reasoning that explains whether a claim or evidence should be upheld or rejected.

Use Evidence

•Provide information from a study (i.e. data, rationales, conclusions, hypotheses) that is specific and
relevant to a given topic.
13

Science Practices
14

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15

Science Practices
IN THIS SECTION
SUMMARY: The Science Practices in AP Psychology are designed to equip students with essential
skills for analyzing, evaluating, and applying psychological concepts and research findings. These
practices encompass a comprehensive approach to understanding human behavior and mental
processes through the lens of psychological theories, research methodologies, data interpretation, and
evidence-based argumentation. A key theme across these practices is the development of critical
thinking and analytical skills, enabling students to navigate and make sense of the complexities of
psychological science. By integrating these practices into their study, students learn to not only grasp
the content of psychology but also to apply this knowledge in various contexts, evaluate the validity of
research, and construct well-reasoned arguments supported by empirical evidence. This holistic
approach prepares students for success in both the AP Psychology Exam and future academic pursuits
in psychology and related fields.
KEY CONCEPTS:
o Integration of psychological theories and research findings into real-world contexts.
o Critical evaluation of both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies.
o Ethical considerations in the design and implementation of psychological research.
o The importance of operational definitions and replication in research studies.
o Identification and analysis of variables and data presented in various formats.
o Calculation and interpretation of statistical measures to understand research findings.
o Development of clear, evidence-based arguments and reasoning.
o Assessment of the credibility of sources and the validity of psychological claims.
o Understanding the impact of bias and confounding variables.
o The role of peer review and scientific processes in advancing psychological knowledge.

Practice 1: Concept Application

•Apply psychological perspectives, theories, concepts, and research findings.

Practice 2: Research Methods and Design

•Evaluate qualitative and quantitative research methods and study designs.

Practice 3: Data Interpretation

•Evaluate representations of psychological concepts in quantitative and qualitative research, including tables,
graphs, charts, figures, and diagrams.

Practice 4: Argumentation

•Develop and justify psychological arguments using evidence.

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17

Practice 1: Concept Application

Apply psychological perspectives, theories, concepts, and research findings.
What is PSYCHOLOGY?

The Modern Perspectives of Psychology

Perspective Explanation
Behavioral

Cognitive

Psychodynamic

Humanistic

Biological

Evolutionary

Sociocultural
18

Scenario Practice
Directions: Analyze the provided scenario and answer the questions that follow. Do your best to
relate Practice 1 information in your response.

The Vanishing Volunteer

At Westfield High, the annual charity marathon is a
highlight of the school year, and Kevin has
volunteered to help organize the event every year
since he was a freshman. This year, however, Kevin
seems less enthusiastic and eventually stops showing
up to the planning meetings altogether, without
explanation. His friends and fellow organizers, Maya
and Lucas, are puzzled by his sudden change in
behavior, considering how passionate Kevin used to
be about the event.

Utilizing FOUR modern perspectives of your choice, draw a comprehensive

conclusion about the possible reasons behind Kevin’s behavioral changes.
Perspective Application to Scenario

Perspective

Perspective

Perspective

Perspective
19
Explain how cultural norms, expectations, and circumstances at Westfield High could have
contributed to Kevin’s withdrawal from the charity marathon planning?

Reflect on how cognitive biases such as confirmation bias, hindsight bias, and overconfidence
could be at play in Kevin’s scenario and the reaction of his peers.
Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Overconfidence
Define: Define: Define:

Response:

Why is it important to understand the implications of applying psychological concepts or theories

inappropriately or discriminatorily?
20

Practice 2: Research Methods and Design

Evaluate qualitative and quantitative research methods and study designs.

General Research Information

Hypothesis: Falsifiable:

Scientific Method: Theory:

Component Information

Variable

Operational Definition

Confounding Variable(s)

Qualitative Measures: Quantitative Measures:

Measurement Instrument Structured Interview: Likert Scale:

Being able to apply findings from a study to broader

Generalized
populations beyond the original sample.
Peer-Review: Replication:

Conclusion
21

Research Methods
Experimental Research Non-Experimental Research

Experimental Research
Component Information
Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV)

Variables

Population:

Sample:

Representative Sample:

Participants
Random Sampling:

Convenience Sampling:

Sampling Bias:
22
Component Information
Experimental Group Control Group

Placebo:
Assignment of
Participants

Placebo Effect:

Random Assignment:

Confounding Variable’s Control for Confounding Variable’s

Experimenter Bias: Single-Blind Study:

Control for
Confounding
Variables
Social Desirability Bias: Double-Blind Study:

Strengths Weaknesses

Strengths &
Weaknesses
23

Non-Experimental Research
Method Description
Define:

Case Study Strengths Weaknesses

Define:

Directionality Problem:

Correlational Third-Variable Problem:

Study

Strengths Weaknesses
24
Method Description
Define:

Strengths Weaknesses
Meta-Analysis

Define:

Naturalistic Strengths Weaknesses

Observation

Define:

Strengths Weaknesses
Self-Report Bias:

Survey

**Social-Desirability Bias occurs in

surveys just as it does in experimental
research**
25

Ethical Considerations in Psychological Research

Important Organizations
American Psychological Association (APA): A professional organization representing
psychologist in the United States (as well as international members), dedicated to advancing
psychology as a science, profession, and means of promoting health, education, and human
welfare.
Institutional Review Board (IRB): Committees established by research institutions to
review and approve research involving human participants, ensuring that the studies comply
with ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of the subjects.
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUC): A committee required by law
for institutions that use non-human animals in research, teaching, or testing, responsible for
overseeing and evaluating all aspects of the institution's animal care and use program.

APA Ethical Guidelines

Guidelines Description
Principle A Psychologists must strive to benefit those they work with and take care to
Beneficence and do no harm, ensuring that their conduct is aimed at promoting well-being
Nonmaleficence while avoiding adverse outcomes.

Principle B Emphasizes that psychologists must build and maintain trust by adhering
Fidelity and to professional standards of conduct, clarifying their professional roles,
Responsibility and accepting responsibility for their actions.

Engage in honest, transparent, and accurate practices in science,

Principle C
teaching, and practice of psychology, striving to be truthful and uphold
Integrity
the virtues of honesty and straightforwardness.

Principle D All persons are entitled to access to and benefit from the contributions of
Justice psychology, and are also protected from unjust practices and biases.

Principle E Respect the fundamental rights, dignity, and worth of all individuals,
Respect for People’s acknowledging and protecting individuals' rights to privacy,
Rights and Dignity confidentiality, and self-determination.

Staying Ethical!
Protection From Harm Informed Consent/Assent

Maintaining Confidentiality/Anonymity Deception

Debrief
26

Practice 3: Data Interpretation

Evaluate representations of psychological concepts in quantitative and qualitative research,
including tables, graphs, charts, figures, and diagrams.

Statistics in Psychology

Measures of Central Tendency & Variability

Central Tendency
A statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of the middle or typical value
of a dataset, often described using the mean, median, or mode.
Mean Median Mode

Calculate the Mean, Median, and Mode of the Data Set Below

43 83 57 12 91 Mean: _______________

Median: ______________

25 3 6 67 43 43 57 Mode: _______________

Data Distribution
Positively Skewed Curve Normal Curve Negatively Skewed Curve
Rough Sketch Rough Sketch Rough Sketch

Definition Definition Definition

27

Bimodal Distribution
Define:
Two Peaks in Data

Researcher Considerations:

Variability
The extent to which data points in a data set differ from each other and from the central tendency
of the data set.
Term Definition

Range

Standard of
Deviation

Percentile Rank

The Empirical Rule

68-95-99.7
o About 67% of data falls within one
standard of deviation.
o About 95% falls within two standards
of deviation.
o About 99.7% falls within three
standards of deviation.
28

Regression Toward the Mean

Define: Example:

Identifying Psychological Concepts in Variability & Central Tendency

Directions: Identify statistical and psychological concepts depicted in the research data.

Stress Levels Across Different Age Groups*

Age Group Average Stress Level (0-10) Standard Deviation
18-25 7.3 0.6
26-33 6.8 1.1
34-31 6.5 1.0
42-49 6.2 0.9
50-57 5.9 0.8
58-65 5.5 0.7
*Hypothetical Data Set

Age Group: 18-25*

Reported Stress Level (By Individual)
7.0 6.8 8.2
7.5 7.3 7.1
6.9 8.4 7.8
7.2 7.0 6.7
8.1 7.4 6.5
*Hypothetical Data Set

Identify Measures of Central Tendency (18-25 Age Group)

Mean Median Mode

Identify Measures of Variability (18-25 Age Group)

Range Standard of Deviation
Given the standard of deviation of stress levels in the 18-25 age group is
0.6, what does this number tell us about how the stress levels vary
among individuals in this age group?
29

Interpreting Quantitative or Qualitative Inferential Data

Interpreting Correlational Data
Positive Correlation Negative Correlation
Define: Define:

Correlational Coefficient
Component Description

Direction of
Correlation
+ or -

Strength of
Correlation
0-1

CIRCLE the Strongest Correlation by Analyzing the Coefficient’s Below

-.32 +.82 +.73

+.57 -.19 -.96
30

Identifying Psychological Concepts in Inferential Data

Directions: Identify statistical and psychological concepts depicted in the research data.

Screen Time and GPA for High School Students*

Student Daily Screen Time (Hours) GPA
1 1 3.8
2 2 3.6
3 4 3.2
4 3 3.4
5 5 3.0
6 6 2.8
7 2 3.7
8 3 3.5
9 7 2.5
10 1.5 3.9
*Hypothetical Data Set

Describe the relationship between daily screen time and GPA based on the correlational
coefficient provided. Is it positive, negative or non-existent?

Given the correlational coefficient, how strong do you think the relationship.

What trend do you observe in the scatter plot regarding the relationship between daily screen
time and GPA?

Based on the data presented, what predictions can you make about a student’s GPA if you know their
daily screen time?

How confident are you in the predictions made from this data? What factors might affect the
accuracy of these predictions?
31

Practice 4: Argumentation
Develop and justify psychological arguments using evidence.

Tips for Scientific Argumentation

Argumentation Explanation

Propose a
Defensible Claim

Provide Reasoning
Grounded in
Evidence

To Support, Refute,
or Modify an
Established Claim

Practice Article Analysis Question (AAQ)

Directions: Use the provided hypothetical research study to complete the sample AAQ question.

The Effects of Video Game Training on Problem-Solving Skills in Teenagers

Introduction
A study published in the Journal of Get Psyched University investigated whether daily video game
training could improve problem-solving skills in teenagers. The researchers hypothesized that
playing strategic video games would enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving abilities.
Participants
The study included 200 participants aged 13-17 years. Participants were randomly assigned to two
groups: 100 participants in the video game training group and 100 participants in the control group.
Both groups were similar in terms of age, gender, and ethnicity.
Method
The researchers used a double-blind, controlled experimental design. Participants in the video game
training group played a strategic video game for 30 minutes daily, while the control group engaged in
non-cognitive activities such as watching educational videos, both for a duration of three months.
Problem-solving skills were operationally defined as performance on a series of puzzles and logic
tasks.
Results & Discussion
The results indicated that the video game training group had a significantly higher mean score on the
problem-solving tasks compared to the control group. The mean score for the video game training
group was 85, while the mean score for the control group was 70.

The researchers concluded that daily video game training may help improve problem-solving skills
in teenagers. They also discussed ethical considerations, such as obtaining informed consent and
ensuring confidentiality. However, they noted that further research is needed to generalize the
findings to a broader population.
Fake Source
Steadman, T. F., & Titan, G. P. (2024). The effects of video game training on problem-solving skills in
teenagers. Journal of Get Psyched University, 1(1), 45-60.
32
Directions: Your response to the question should be provided in six parts: A, B, C, D, E, and F. Write
the response to each part of the question in complete sentences. Use appropriate psychological
terminology in your response.

Using the source provided, respond to all parts of the question.

(A) Identify the research method used in the study.
(B) State the operational definition of problem-solving skills.
(C) Describe the meaning of the differences in the means for the problem-solving tasks between
the video game training group and the control group.
(D)Identify at least one ethical guideline applied by the researcher.
(E) Explain the extent to which the research findings may or may not be generalizable using
specific and relevant evidence from the study.
(F) Explain how at least one of the research findings supports or refutes the researchers’
hypothesis that playing strategic video games enhances problem-solving skills.

Student Responses
Part Response

E
33

Unit I Cover

Unit I
Biological Bases of Behavior
34

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35

Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior

IN THIS SECTION
SUMMARY: The Biological Bases of Behavior in AP Psychology meticulously unravels how
biological factors are pivotal to understanding human psychology, presenting an in-depth exploration
into the nervous system's role in mediating behaviors and mental processes. This unit delves not only
into the microscopic world of neurons and neural communication, which forms the foundation of
psychological phenomena, but also broadens the scope to examine brain research at a macroscopic
level. By studying various parts of the brain, students gain insights into how different regions
contribute to a wide array of psychological functions, from basic survival instincts to complex
cognitive processes. Furthermore, the unit explores the dynamic interplay between genetics and the
environment, illuminating their roles in shaping individual behaviors. It also delves into the sensory
pathways, highlighting how they govern our interactions with the world through perception. The
intriguing phenomena of different states of consciousness, including sleep and dreaming, are
examined to understand their biological underpinnings. The influence of the endocrine system on
behavior underscores the biochemical mechanisms driving emotions and motivations, while the
concept of brain plasticity reveals the brain's remarkable adaptability in response to learning and
experiences.
KEY CONCEPTS:
o Examine the influence of genetic factors and heredity on psychological traits and behaviors.
o Differentiate between the central and peripheral nervous system and their roles.
o Understand the role of neurons in transmitting information within the nervous system.
o Explore how chemical messengers like neurotransmitters and hormones influence behavior.
o Identify and describing the functions of major brain regions.
o Examine the impact of circadian rhythms and sleep cycles on behavior and mental states.
o Investigate how sensory organs detect and respond to environmental stimuli.
UNIT AT A GLANCE
Interaction of Overview of
The Neuron &
Heredity & the Nervous
Neural Firing
Environment System

The Brain Sleep Sensation

36

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37

Interaction of Heredity and Environment

Explain the relationship between heredity and environment in shaping behavior and mental
processes (Topic 1.1).

Nature VS Nurture
Nature (Heredity) Nurture (Environment)

The Interaction Between Nature and Nurture

Summary:

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example: A child might inherit a genetic predisposition for high intelligence, but whether this
potential is fully realized may depend on the child’s upbringing, educational opportunities, and
social interactions.

Charles Darwin & Evolutionary Psychology

Natural Selection:
38

Did You Know?

Epigenetics is the study of how your behavior and environment
can cause changes that affect the way your genes work.
**Your genetic makeup is not changing, but epigenetics changes how your body reads its
genetic code. Environmental factors such as stress and your diet can impact how your genes
are expressed. Think of epigenetic molecules as light switches attached to your DNA. These
“switches” can turn genes on and off without changing the DNA sequence itself**

NOT to be confused with Eugenics, which aims at improving the genetic quality of a human
population, often through selective breeding. Historically, eugenics has been associated with
attempts to promote certain traits deemed as desirable and reduce or eliminate those
considered undesirable, based on flawed interpretations of heredity and fitness.

Common Research Methods for Genetics & Psychology

Twin Study Adoption Study Family Study

Example: The Minnesota Example: The Colorado Example: Amish Study of Major
Study of Twins Reared Apart Adoption Project Affective Disorder
Study found several similarities Found evidence of both genetic Explored the genetics of mood
between identical twins reared and environmental influences disorders in the Amish,
apart in various traits, such as on intelligence, with adopted studying their genetics to track
intelligence, personality, and children showing more the potential genetic causes of
interests. similarity to biological parents. bipolar and depressive
disorders.
39

Overview of the Nervous System

Differentiate among the subsystems of the human nervous system and their functions (Topic 1.2).

The Central Nervous System

The Brain:

Spinal Cord:

The Peripheral Nervous System

Network of nerves that connects the CNS to the rest of the body, responsible for transmitting
sensory information to the brain and carrying out motor commands to muscles and organs.

Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System

40

The Neuron and Neural Firing

Explain how the structures and functions of typical neurons in the central nervous system affect
behavior and mental processes (Topic 1.3).

The Neuron The Glial Cell

The Neuron
Dendrites
Axon

Nucleus

Glial Cells
Myelin Sheath Glial cells such as
Cell Body Oligodendrocytes make up the
myelin sheath of a neuron!

Types of Neurons
Sensory Neuron Motor Neuron Interneuron
Function: Function: Function:

Location: Location: Location:

41

The Reflex Arc

Define:

The Reflex Arc Process

Step 1: Detection by Sensory Neurons

Step 2: Signal Transmission to the Central Nervous System

Step 3: Processing in the Central Nervous System

Step 4: Activation of Motor Neurons

Step 5: Response Execution

42

Tbe Action Potential

Term Definition

Action
Potential

Stimulus
Threshold

All-or-
Nothing
Principle

Refractory
Period

Resting
Potential

Reuptake

Issues With Neural Transmission

Multiple Sclerosis (MS):

Myasthenia Gravis (MG):

43

Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers used by neurons to send signals to each other or to other cells in the body.
Think of it as a tiny messenger that jumps from one cell to another at meeting points called
synapses, influencing how we think, feel, and move.
Excitatory Message Inhibitory Message

Neurotransmitter Function

Dopamine

Serotonin

Norepinephrine

Glutamate

GABA

Endorphins

Substance P

Acetylcholine
44

Neural Transmission
Presynaptic Neuron Postsynaptic Neuron
(Sends Message) (Receives Message)

Synaptic Vesicle
(Stores Neurotransmitters)
Synaptic Gap
(Point of communication in
neural transmission)

The Endocrine System

Regulates and releases hormones (chemical messengers in the endocrine system) in the body.

Important Hormones Hypothalamus

Adrenaline:

Leptin:

Ghrelin:

Melatonin:

Oxytocin:

Pituitary Gland
45

Psychoactive Drugs and Neural Transmission

Psychoactive Drugs:

Agonist Antagonist Reuptake Inhibitor

Categories of Psychoactive Drugs

Category Effect on the Brain Example(s)

Stimulant

Depressant

Hallucinogens

Opioids
46

Psychoactive Drugs – General Information

Term Definition

Tolerance

Addiction

Withdrawal

The Brain
Explain how structures and functions of the brain apply to behaviors (Topic 1.4)

Major Brain Structures and Regions

Structure Function
The Brainstem
(Lower part of the brain, connecting the cerebrum with the spinal cord and regulating vital functions such as
breathing, heart rate, and consciousness.)

Medulla

Cerebellum

Reticular Activating
System
(RAS)
The Limbic System
(Bordering the brain stem, the limbic system is responsible for behaviors related to emotions,
motivation, encoding of memories, and olfaction (our sense of smell))

The Brain’s Reward

Center

Thalamus

Hypothalamus
47
Structure Function

Pituitary Gland

Hippocampus

Amygdala

The Cerebral Cortex

(The outer layer of the brain’s cerebrum, involved in complex functions such as thought, memory,
awareness, language, and consciousness. Divided by the left and right hemispheres)

Corpus Callosum

Occipital Lobe

Temporal Lobe

Parietal Lobe

Frontal Lobe

Specialized Areas of the Brain

(Specialized areas of the brain located on the cerebral surface, responsible for complex processing
that goes on between the arrival of input in the primary sensory cortices and the generation of
behavior)

Prefrontal Cortex

Motor Cortex

Somatosensory Cortex
48
Structure Function

Broca’s Area

Wernicke’s Area

Aphasia:

The Split-Brain Procedure

Procedure:

Purpose:

Cortex Specialization:

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization:

Brain Plasticity
Functional Plasticity Structural Plasticity
49

Scanning the Brain

fMRI EEG

Studying the Brain

Lesioning Case Study (Involving Brain Research)

Sleep
Explain how the sleep/wake cycle affects behavior and mental processes throughout the day and
night (Topic 1.5).

Consciousness
Definition:

Wakefulness Sleep

The Biological Clock

Circadian Rhythm:

Circadian Rhythm Disruptions

Jet Lag Shift Work
50

Stages of Sleep
Stage Information
Characteristics:

Stage 1 NREM
Hypnagogic Hallucination:

Characteristics:

Sleep Spindles:

Stage 2 NREM

K-Complex:

Characteristics:

Stage 3 NREM

Characteristics:

Sleep Paralysis:

REM Sleep

REM Rebound:

Duration of ONE Sleep Cycle

__________ Minutes
51
Why Do We Sleep?
Restorative Theory:

Adaptive Theory:

Why Do We Dream?
Activation-Synthesis Theory:

Memory Consolidation Theories:

Sleep Deprivation
Define:

Major Symptoms:
52

Sleep Disorders
Disorder Symptoms Treatment

Insomnia

Narcolepsy

REM Sleep
Behavior
Disorder

Sleep Apnea

Somnambulism

Sleep Disorder Facts

- Insomnia is one of the most prevalent sleep
disorders, affecting anywhere from 30-35% adults at
some point in their lifetime.
- Research on Narcolepsy has shown a strong
genetic link to the disorder being passed down from
parent to offspring.
- In some cultures, Somnambulism was viewed as a
spiritual or supernatural occurrence.
53

Sensation
Explain how the process of sensation is related to behavior and mental processes (Topic 1.5).

Sensation:

Transduction

Sensory Thresholds
Absolute Threshold Difference Threshold
Define: Define:

Weber’s Law:

Important Concepts in Sensation

Concept Definition

Sensory Adaptation

Sensory Interaction

Synesthesia
54

The Major Senses

Important Information to Know
Vison, Hearing, Smell, Taste, Touch, Kinesthesia, Vestibular
Sensory Receptor: A specialized cell or group of nerve endings that responds to specific stimuli from the
environment, such as light, sound, touch, temperature, or chemical compounds. These receptors convert
physical stimuli into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the nervous system, allowing the brain
to perceive and interpret the external world.

Specific sensory receptors are located in the sensory organ of each specific sense.
_____________________________________________________________________
Vision

Anatomy of the Eye

Place the area of the eye in the appropriate blank above, then provide the purpose of each area.
Retina: Visual Nerve:

Lens: Fovea:

Important Terms/Concepts Related to Vision

Term/Concept Definition

Blind Spot

Accommodation
55

Process of Visual Transduction

To the Brain
Rods & Cones
↓
Bipolar Cells
↓
Ganglion Cells
↓
Thalamus
↓
Occipital Lobe
↓
Primary Visual Cortex

Cells Involved in Transduction

Fill in the blank with the appropriate cell, then provide a definition of that cell.
Ganglion Cell: Bipolar Cell:

Rods: Cones:

Seeing in Color
Theories Explaining Color Vision
The Trichromatic Theory The Opponent-Process Theory
Information: Information:

After-Image:
56

Issues with Vision

Issue/Disorder Description
Issues with the EYE

Nearsightedness

Farsightedness

Dichromatism Monochromatism

Color Blindness

Issues with the BRAIN

Prosopagnosia
(Face Blindness)

Blindsight

Hearing
57

Important Terms/Concepts Related to Hearing

Term/Concept Definition

Pitch

Amplitude

Sound Localization

How Do We Hear?
Theories Explaining the Sense of Hearing
Theory Description

Frequency Theory

Volley Theory

Place Theory

Process of Sound Transduction

Soundwaves enter Hair Cells in the Basilar Membrane, Information is sent to the Thalamus,
located in the Chochlea, are the then redirected to the Temporal Lobe
the inner ear through sensory receptor sites that transduce where it will be processed by the
the Ear Drum. soundwaes into neural messages. brain.

Issues with Hearing

Conductive Hearing Loss Sensorineural Hearing Loss
58

The Chemical Senses: Smell

The Olfactory System

Terms/Concepts Related to the Olfactory System

Term/Concept Explanation

Olfaction

Pheromones

Olfactory Bulb

Olfactory Epithelium

Olfactory Cortex

Process of Smell Transduction

Olfactory
Olfactory Bulb
Recpetors in the
processes, Nueral message is
Chemical smell olfactory
refines, and relays processed in the
goes through epithelium
neural messages Olfactory Cortex
nostrils. transduce the
to various parts of part of the brain.
scent into a neural
the brain.
message.
59
The sense of Smell is the only sense that does not send neural messages to the
Thalamus, explain the purpose of this:

How does the interconnection between the olfactory system and the limbic system
contribute to the relationship between smell and memory?

The Chemical Senses: Taste

Gustation:

Gustatory Cortex:

Identify the Basic Types of Taste

Umami

Oleogustus
60

Process of Taste Transduction

Stimulus Encounter
Chemicals in food dissolve in saliva and contact
taste buds.

Activation of Taste Receptors

Chemicals activate specific receptors within
taste buds depending on basic tastes.

Signal Generation & Neural Impulse

Activation of receptors generates an electric
signal, creating a neural impulse.
Taste Buds are the sensory receptors for
our sense of taste, transducing basic tastes
Transmission to the Brain into neural messages that can be read and
Neural impulse travels to the thalamus where it interpreted by the brain.
is then relayed to the gustatory cortex.

Types of Tasters
Type Description

Supertasters

Medium Tasters

Nontasters

How do the chemical senses of taste and smell interact to influence our perception of
flavor, and what would the impact be on taste if the sense of smell were impaired? Why
is this?
61

The Body Senses: Touch & Pain

Sensory Receptors for Touch & Pain
Sensory receptors for touch and pain are located all throughout the body, present in skin,
muscles, joints, bones, and internal organs.
Nociceptors Mechanoreceptors Thermoreceptors
Detect signals related to Tuned to mechanical stimuli Responds to changes in
damage or potential damage such as pressure, stretching, or temperature, allowing the
to the body, resulting in the vibration, contributing to the organism to sense warmth and
perception of pain. sense of touch. cold.

Gate-Control Theory Touch & Pain Receptors

Define:

Process of Touch & Pain Transduction

Stimulus Detection
Sensory receptors in the skin detect specific stimuli.

Signal Generation
When receptors are activated they convert the physical stimuli into electral energy.

Transmission to the Spinal Cord

Sensory neurons transmit the message to the spinal cord.

Processing in the Brain

The message is sent to the Thalamus where it is relayed to the Somatosensory Cortex.
62

Did You Know?

Phantom Limb Sensation: A phenomenon experienced by individuals who have lost a
limb, yet continue to feel sensations, including pain, in the absent limb. This occurs
because the brain's sensory map retains a representation of the missing limb, and neurons
corresponding to that area can still be activated, causing the sensation that the limb is still
present.

Interesting Facts
Mirror Therapy: Some patients with phantom limb pain have found relief through mirror
therapy, where a mirror is positioned to reflect the remaining limb, creating the illusion that the
missing limb is still there. This can help the brain "retrain" its sensory map and reduce pain.

Prevalence and Variation: The majority of amputees experience some form of phantom limb
sensations. These sensations can vary widely in type, including itching, tingling, and even the
feeling of performing movements with the absent limb.

The Kinesthetic & Vestibular Senses

Kinesthetic Sense Vestibular Sense

Function

Sensory
Receptor

Process of
Transduction

Areas of the
Brain
Involved
63

Achievement Unlocked: Unit I!

Directions: Great job on finishing Unit I of your AP Psychology review guide! You're on your way to
acing the AP exam with a stellar score of 5! Before you dive into the next unit, make sure to take
advantage of the Unit I Progress Check. This tool is designed to help you gauge your mastery of the
material, highlighting areas where you're confident and areas that might need a bit more review. Once
you're feeling solid about the entire unit, challenge yourself with the practice multiple-choice and
free-response questions. These come with answer keys for self-assessment and are modeled after the
College Board's exam format, ensuring you're getting the most accurate test preparation experience.
Keep up the fantastic work, and you'll be well-prepared for success on exam day! BUT before doing
some more work, enjoy these psychology related knee slappers!

Psych Jokes of the Dad Variety

Q: Why did the synapse break up with the neuron?
A: Because every time they got close, the neuron kept sending mixed messages!

Q: How many psychologists does it take to change a lightbulb?

A: Only one…but the lightbulb must want to change!

Unit I Progress Check

The Biological Bases of Behavior
I can…
o Explain the relationship between heredity and environment in shaping behavior and
mental processes.
o Differentiate among the subsystems of the human nervous system and their functions.
o Explain how the structures and functions of typical neurons in the central nervous system
affect behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how the basic process of neural transmission is related to behavior and mental
processes.
o Explain how psychoactive drugs affect behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how structures and functions of the brain apply to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how the sleep/wake cycle affects behavior and mental processes throughout the
day and night.
o Explain how the process of sensation is related to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how the structures and functions of the visual sensory system relate to behavior
and mental processes.
o Explain how the structures and functions of the auditory sensory system relate to behavior
and mental processes.
o Explain how the structures and functions of the chemical sensory system relate to
behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how the structures and functions of the touch sensory system relate to behavior
and mental processes.
o Explain how the structures and functions of the pain sensory system relate to behavior and
mental processes.
o Explain how the structures and functions that maintain balance (vestibular) and body
movement (kinesthetic) relate to behavior and mental processes.
64

Unit I Multiple-Choice Practice

Directions: Using the knowledge you have gained from the Science Practices as well as Unit I – The
Biological Bases, in order to answer the following multiple-choice questions. Take your time and
remember to read through each question carefully.

1. A psychologist conducting research on the effects of neurotransmitter levels on mood decides

to use a medication that increases serotonin availability in the synaptic gap. This approach is
most likely based on which hypothesis?
a. Increased serotonin levels can improve mood and alleviate depression.
b. Decreasing serotonin levels can enhance cognitive function.
c. Serotonin has no impact on mood but affects memory retention.
d. Blocking serotonin receptors can reduce anxiety symptoms.

2. In an experiment designed to study the role of sleep-in memory consolidation, participants are
taught a new language vocabulary and then divided into two groups. One group is allowed to
sleep for 8 hours, while the other is kept awake. Participants' recall of the vocabulary is tested
the next day. What is the independent variable in this study?
a. The amount of sleep participants get.
b. The new language vocabulary taught to participants.
c. The recall ability of participants.
d. The time between learning and testing.

3. Which of the following techniques would best allow a researcher to determine the specific brain
areas activated during a memory task?
a. Lesion Studies
b. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
c. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
d. The use of neurotransmitter blockers.

4. A study finds that individuals with a certain genetic mutation have a significantly higher
number of synaptic connections in the hippocampus. This mutation is most likely associated
with:
a. Reduced Cognitive Abilities
b. Enhanced Memory Formation
c. Impaired Sensory Perception
d. Decreased Emotional Regulation

5. Understanding that the sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for "fight or flight"
while the parasympathetic nervous system promotes "rest and digest," a psychologist would
predict that during an anxiety attack, a person's heart rate would:
a. Decrease due to parasympathetic activation.
b. Increase due to sympathetic activation.
c. Remain unchanged as both systems balance each other out.
d. Fluctuate unpredictability due to conflicting signals.
65

Unit I Free-Response Practice

Practice Article Analysis Question
Directions: Carefully read and analyze the provided research and questions, applying key concepts
from the current unit. Use specific evidence and scientific practices discussed in class to construct
your responses. Ensure your answers are concise, clear, and directly related to the unit's material.
Don’t forget to use the FRQ tips from the review guide shown at the beginning of the review guide to
help you ace these FRQs!
Introduction

Despite centuries of traditional use and anecdotal evidence supporting the mental health benefits of
psilocybin-containing mushrooms, few modern, rigorous studies have been conducted to explore its
therapeutic potential. In this study, researchers investigated the feasibility, safety, and efficacy of
psilocybin, combined with psychological support, as a treatment for patients with unipolar,
treatment-resistant depression.
Participants

Participants were rigorously selected for the study on treatment-resistant depression through a
two-step process, beginning with an initial phone screening to gauge eligibility, followed by a
comprehensive in-person assessment. Eligibility required a moderate to severe major depression
diagnosis, confirmed by a Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D) score of 17 or higher, and a
lack of response to at least two distinct antidepressant treatments of six weeks' duration each within
the current episode.
Recruitment tapped into the North West London Clinical Research Network, allowing both
physician referrals and self-referrals from UK residents. After initial contact via email, letter, or
phone, candidates received detailed study information and underwent telephone screening by the
trial's lead psychiatrist, who verified demographic, medical, and psychiatric details. General
practitioners or psychiatrists of prospective participants also submitted written confirmation of
diagnoses and mental health histories.
Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptoms (QIDS)
Baseline 1 week 2 weeks 3 weeks 5 weeks 3 months
Mean (SD) 19.2 7.4 6.3 6.4 8.2 10.0
(2.0) (4.9) (4.6) (5.1) (5.4) (6.0)

Difference -11.8 -12.9 -12.8 -11.0 -9.2

versus - (-9.15 to --- (-10.64 to -- (-9.9 to (-7.7 to (-5.69 to
Baseline -14.35) -15.16 -15.6) -14.2) -12.71)
P-Value 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003
(Statistical
Significance)
Hedges’ G 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 2.7 2.0
66
Method
In the study, participants were individuals suffering from moderate-to-severe unipolar, treatment-
resistant depression. They received two oral doses of psilocybin (10 mg and 25 mg) seven days apart
in a supportive setting, without a control group. Psychological support was provided before, during,
and after each session. The primary outcome measure was the intensity of psilocybin's effects as
reported by patients. Depressive symptoms were evaluated using standard assessments from one
week to three months after treatment, with the 16-item Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptoms
(QIDS) serving as the primary efficacy outcome (QIDS scores range from 0-27 with depressive
symptoms worsening as the score increases)
The method involved meticulous screening and psychological support. Screening included consent,
a thorough evaluation of mental health history, psychiatric interviews, and health checks.
Participants also underwent baseline and post-treatment functional MRI scans. The dosing sessions
were conducted in a decorated room with music, supervised by psychiatrists using a non-directive
supportive approach. Safety and psychological effects were monitored throughout, with adverse
events being transient and mostly mild.
Statistical analysis aimed at assessing feasibility, safety, and preliminary efficacy, without a formal
power calculation due to the small scale. Non-parametric and parametric tests were used to analyze
changes in depressive symptoms, with effect sizes calculated using Hedges’ g formula. This
methodological approach, despite being open-label and limited by sample size, provides a
comprehensive framework for understanding psilocybin's potential in treating treatment-resistant
depression, warranting further, more rigorous studies.
Results and Discussion
The study's results revealed a significant reduction in depressive symptoms among participants,
which was both immediate and sustained over time. Participants, all of whom had treatment-
resistant depression, received two doses of psilocybin in a supportive setting. The primary measure
of effectiveness was the change in depressive symptoms as assessed by the 16-item Quick Inventory
of Depressive Symptoms (QIDS), alongside other scales for depression and anxiety. The findings
showed that depressive symptoms markedly decreased one week after the treatment and remained
significantly reduced three months later. Specifically, the average QIDS scores indicated a
substantial improvement from baseline at both the one-week and three-month follow-ups, with
Hedges’ g indicating a large effect size.

Adverse events were transient and predominantly mild, including anxiety during the onset of
psilocybin effects, confusion, mild nausea, and headache. These effects were anticipated based on
the known psychological impacts of psilocybin and did not result in any serious or unexpected
complications. This tolerability, combined with the observed reductions in depressive symptoms,
suggests psilocybin could be a valuable treatment avenue for those with treatment-resistant
depression.
67

The discussion emphasizes the pilot nature of the study and the need for more rigorous trials to
further evaluate psilocybin’s therapeutic potential. Despite its limitations, including the open-label
design and small sample size, the study provides preliminary evidence supporting the safety and
efficacy of psilocybin for treating depression. It also raises important considerations for future
research, such as exploring the mechanisms behind psilocybin’s effects and optimizing treatment
protocols to include psychological support and a therapeutic setting. The study contributes to a
growing body of research suggesting psychedelics may offer new pathways for treating mental
health conditions that are difficult to manage with current treatment options.
Source
Carhart-Harris, R., Bolstridge, M., Rucker, J., Day, C., Erritzøe, D., Kaelen, M., Bloomfield, M.,
Rickard, J. A., Forbes, B., Feilding, A., Taylor, D., Pilling, S., Curran, V. H., & Nutt, D. (2016).
Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: an open-label
feasibility study. The Lancet Psychiatry, 3(7), 619–627. [Link]
0366(16)30065-7
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Article Analysis Question (AAQ) Response

Directions: Your response to the question should be provided in six parts: A, B, C, D, E, and F. Write
the response to each part of the question in complete sentences. Use appropriate psychological
terminology in your response.

Using the source provided, respond to all parts of the question.

(G)Describe the main hypothesis of the study.
(H) Explain how the researchers ensured the ethical treatment of participants throughout
the study.
(I) Identify the independent and dependent variables in the study.
(J) Propose why the study’s findings could be significant in the field of psychology, especially in
treating unipolar treatment-resistant depression.
(K) Describe the meaning of the differences in the means for the baseline data and 1-week data.
(L) Explain why the results of this study might or might not be generalizable to all individuals
with depression.

Use Next Page for Extra Space

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Unit I – Answer Key

Directions: Hold up! If you've skipped straight to the answer key without giving
those questions a shot, it's time to pump the brakes. Consider this your friendly
nudge to go back and challenge your brain first. Trust me, the answers are much
more rewarding when you've wrestled with the questions a bit. Don't make Freud
psychoanalyze your eagerness to peek at the answers; give those neurons a
workout, then come back here. Ready, set, go... back to the questions, that is!

Part I – Multiple Choice

1. A: The medication increasing serotonin availability suggests the hypothesis that serotonin
positively influences mood, aligning with the understanding that higher serotonin levels are
associated with improved mood and are often targeted in treatments for depression.
2. A: The independent variable is the condition that the researcher manipulates to observe its
effect on the dependent variable. In this study, the manipulation involves whether participants
get to sleep or stay awake, affecting their memory consolidation.
3. C: fMRI allows researchers to observe brain activity by detecting changes associated with
blood flow. This technique is ideal for identifying specific brain areas activated during tasks
such as memory processing.
4. B: Since the hippocampus is critical for memory formation, an increase in synaptic
connections within this region would likely facilitate enhanced memory abilities, suggesting a
positive association with memory formation.
5. B: During an anxiety attack, the sympathetic nervous system activates the body's "fight or
flight" response, which includes increasing the heart rate to prepare for rapid action, reflecting
sympathetic nervous system activation.

Part II – Free Response (Possible Responses)

To earn a point, students must…
(A) Summarize the purpose based on its investigation into psilocybin’s potential to alleviate
symptoms of depression that have not responded to traditional treatments.
(B) Detail the consent process, measures taken to ensure participants’ safety, and how the study
addressed potential psychological risks associated with psilocybin use.
(C) Define Variables:
a. Independent Variable: Psilocybin
b. Dependent Variable: Changes in Depression Severity (Shown in QIDS)
(D)Consider the study’s potential impact on developing new treatments and its contribution to
understanding how psychedelics might influence mental health.
(E) Explain the relationship between a QIDS score and depression. A higher score equates to more
severe depression symptoms. Going from a baseline mean of 19.2 to 7.4 after one week of
treatment tells us that the depressive symptoms have decreased as a result of the psilocybin.
(F) Discuss factors like the study’s specific focus on treatment-resistant cases, the controlled
environment of the treatment, and the participant selection process that may limit broader
applicability.
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Unit II
Cognition
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Unit II: Cognition

IN THIS SECTION
SUMMARY: Cognition in AP Psychology provides a thorough examination of how we gather,
process, store, and utilize information, which is essential for understanding the intricacies of human
thought and intelligence. This unit delves into the mental activities that enable perception, memory,
problem-solving, and language, offering insights into the cognitive processes that underlie our daily
interactions and decision-making. Through topics such as the structures of memory, the dynamics of
cognitive biases, the development and use of language, and the nature of intelligence and creativity,
students gain a deeper appreciation for the cognitive functions that drive behavior and shape our
understanding of the world. Central to this unit is an exploration of the ways in which information is
encoded into memory, strategies for enhancing memory retention, and the factors that influence
memory retrieval. The unit also addresses how cognitive biases like the confirmation bias and
heuristics can lead to errors in judgment and decision-making, emphasizing the importance of critical
thinking in overcoming these biases. Additionally, the study of language acquisition and its
relationship to cognitive development provides valuable perspectives on how we communicate and
understand complex ideas.
KEY CONCEPTS:
o Understand how we interpret sensory information to make sense of our environment.
o Explore the cognitive processes involved in problem-solving and decision-making.
o Examine the different types of memory and how they function.
o Investigate how information is transformed into a memory and how it is maintained over time.
o Understand how stored information is accessed and brought into conscious awareness.
o Explore the reasons behind forgetting and how memories can be distorted.
o Examine different theories of intelligence and methods to measure cognitive abilities.

UNIT AT A GLANCE
Thinking,
Problem-Solving, Introduction to Encoding
Perception
Judgements & Memory Memories
Decision Making

Forgetting and
Retrieving Intelligence and
Storing Memories Other Memory
Memories Achievement
Challenges
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Perception
Explain how internal and external factors influence perception, and how visual perceptual
processes produce correct or incorrect interpretations of stimuli (Topic 2.1).

Perception
Define:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bottom-Up Processing Top-Down Processing

Example
Bottom-Up & Top-Down Processing work together to form meaningful perceptions.
You're in the school cafeteria, hungrily scanning the options. From a distance, you spot what looks
like your favorite pizza – pepperoni! Excited, you rush over, only to find out it's actually a veggie
pizza with toppings that looked like pepperoni from afar.
Bottom-Up Processing: Initially spotting what you thought was pepperoni pizza based on visual
cues alone, like color and shape, without any preconceived ideas.
Top-Down Processing: Your excitement and rush towards the pizza were driven by your
expectations and desire for pepperoni pizza, affecting how you interpreted those visual cues.

Principles of Perception
Principle Description

Schema
(In Perception)

Perceptual Set
78
Principle Description

Context Effect

Selective Attention

Cocktail Party Effect

Change Blindness

Gestalt Psychology
Define:

Gestalt Principles
Figure-Ground:

Closure:

Proximity:

Similarity:
79

Depth Perception
Ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and to judge distance and movement.
Monocular Depth Cues Binocular Depth Cues
Define: Define:

Convergence:
Relative Clarity:

Relative Size:

Retinal Disparity:

Texture Gradient:

Linear Perspective:

Interposition:
80

Perceptual Constancies
Size Constancy Shape Constancy
Define: Define:

Apparent Movement:

____________________________________________________________________
Optical Illusions
Optical illusions aren't just tricks or simple entertainment; they reveal fascinating insights into how
our brains process visual information. Here are some intriguing principles behind common optical
illusions:
o Phi Phenomenon: Stationary lights flickering back and forth, creating the compelling
illusion of a single light moving smoothly. This illusion tricks the brain into seeing motion
where there is none, showcasing our mind's desire to fill in the gaps of visual information.
o Motion Aftereffect: Ever stared at a waterfall for a long time then looked away, only to see
the stationary rocks appear to move? This phenomenon, also known as the "waterfall effect,"
demonstrates the brain's adaptation to motion, leading to a temporary illusion of reverse
motion in stationary objects.
o Wagon-Wheel Effect: Commonly observed in movies or spinning objects like car wheels,
this effect makes wheels appear to spin backwards or stand still. The illusion results from the
frame rate of the camera capturing the
spinning object in slices of time, creating a
disjointed perception of motion.
o Rotating Snakes: A static image that
seems alive! The "Rotating Snakes" illusion
features a series of circular patterns that
appear to swirl or rotate independently. The
interplay of color contrasts and geometric
shapes fools the brain into perceiving motion
in a still image.
81

Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgements & Decision-Making

Explain how psychological concepts and theories account for thinking, problem-solving, judgement,
and decision-making. (Topic 2.2).

P ro
cepts The Basis of Thought toty
Con pes

Schemas
Define:

Foreshadowing: Unit III – Development & Learning

Modifying Our Schemas: Assimilation & Accommodation
Imagine your brain as a giant puzzle, always eager to add
new pieces. When you learn something that fits right in
with what you already know, like discovering a new breed of
dog when you're a dog lover, that's assimilation. Your brain
just slots that new dog right into your existing "dog puzzle"
without breaking a sweat.
But sometimes, you come across a piece that doesn't fit
anywhere, like finding out about octopuses and their
incredible intelligence. This is where your brain does some
gymnastics, bending and stretching, to make room for this
brand-new "sea creature puzzle." This stretching and
making new space? That's accommodation.
As we grow, our brain's puzzle gets more complex and
colorful, thanks to this tag team of assimilation and
accommodation. And guess what? This isn't the last you'll
hear of them. When we start learning about Jean Piaget, a
cognitive psychologist, in Unit 3, we'll see how he believed
these processes help us from being tiny tots to savvy adults.
So, keep these puzzle pieces in mind - they're key to
understanding how we all think and learn!
82

Problem-Solving & Decision-Making

Problem-Solving Strategies
Efficiency vs Accuracy
Algorithms Heuristics in Problem-Solving
Define: Define:

Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses

Example Example

Heuristics in Decision-Making
Representative Heuristic Availability Heuristic
83

Influences on Decision-Making
Strategy Description

Mental Set

Framing

Priming

Obstacles in Decision-Making
Obstacle Description

Gambler’s Fallacy

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Additional Cognitive Processes

Executive Function:

Key Components of Executive Function

Component Brief Description

Working Memory

Cognitive Flexibility

Inhibitory Control
84

Creativity
A way of thinking that generates novel ideas.
Convergent Thinking Divergent Thinking

Hindering Creativity: Functional Fixedness

Define:

How might functional fixedness hinder our creative thoughts?

85

Introduction to Memory
Explain how the types, structures, and processes of memory works (Topic 2.3).

Memory
Define:

Types of Memory Description

Define:

Episodic Memory Semantic Memory

Explicit Memory

Define:

Implicit Memory Procedural Memory

Prospective Memory
86

Long-Term Potentiation
Define:

Alan Baddeley’s Working Memory Model

The Working Memory Model:

Components of Working Memory

Component Description

Central Executive

Phonological Loop

Visuospatial Sketchpad
87

The Multi-Store Model of Memory

Fill in the blanks to the Multi-Store Model below:

Stimulus Input

Components of the Multi-Store Model of Memory

Component Description
Information Registered:

Capacity:

Duration:

Iconic Memory Echoic Memory

Sensory Memory

Information Registered:

Capacity:
Short-Term Memory

Duration:
88
Component Description
Information Registered:

Capacity:
Long-Term Memory

Duration:

Important Memory Processes

Process Description

Encoding

Storage

Retrieval

Automatic vs Effortful Processing

Automatic Processing Effortful Processing

Levels of Processing Model

A model that suggests memory retention depends on the depth of processing, with deeper, more
meaningful processing leading to better long-term retention of information.
Shallow Processing Deep Processing

Structural Encoding Phonemic Encoding Semantic Encoding

89

Encoding Memory
Explain how different encoding processes work to get information into memory (Topic 2.4).

Mnemonic Devices
Define:

The Method of Loci

Improving Encoding
Concept Description

Chunking

Categories

Hierarchies
90

The Spacing Effect

A cognitive phenomenon where learning and memory retention are enhanced when study sessions
are spread out over time, rather than crammed into a single session.
Massed Practice Distributed Practice

The Serial Position Effect

Define:

Primacy Effect Recency Effect

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Storing Memories
Explain how memory storage processes retain information in memory (Topic 2.5).

Rehearsing Information
Maintenance Rehearsal Elaborative Rehearsal
91

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)

Autobiographical Memory:

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM) is a rare condition characterized by an
individual's extraordinary ability to recall minute details of personal life events, even from years
past, with incredible accuracy and vividness. The reason why some people have HSAM is not
entirely understood, but research suggests a combination of biological, genetic, and psychological
factors contribute to this exceptional memory capability.

Amnesia
A condition characterized by the loss of memories, such as facts, information, and experiences,
often caused by brain injury, disease, or psychological trauma.
Retrograde Anterograde
92

Infantile Amnesia
Define:

Alzheimer’s Disease
Symptoms:

Causes:

Retrieving Memories
Explain how memory retrieval processes get information out of memory (Topic 2.6).

Recall & Recognition

Recall Recognition
Define: Define:

Retrieval Cue:
93

Encoding Specificity Principles

The recall of information is most effective when the conditions present at the time of encoding
(learning) are similar to those at the time of retrieval.
Principle Description

Context-Dependent
Memory

Mood-Congruent
Memory

State-Dependent
Memory

Retrieval Practice Processes

Actively recalling information from memory, a technique shown to enhance and strengthen long-
term memory retention more effectively than passive review.
Process Description

Testing Effect

Metacognition

Forgetting & Other Memory Challenges

Explain possible reasons why memory failure or errors may occur (Topic 2.7).

The Forgetting Curve

A hypothesis, proposed by
psychologist Hermann
Ebbinghaus, that describes the
exponential decline of memory
retention over time, showing how
information is lost rapidly if no
effort is made to retain it, but the
rate of memory loss decreases as
time extends.
94

Trouble with Retrieval

Principle Description

Encoding Failure

Proactive Interference:

Interference
Theory Retroactive Interference:

Tip-of-the-Tongue
Phenomenon

Repression

ENCODING FAILURE – EXAMPLE

In our daily lives, we encounter
countless details, yet not all of them are
encoded into our long-term memory. To
illustrate this, consider the humble
penny: despite handling this coin
frequently, the precise details of its
design may not be accurately stored in
our memory. This exercise, featuring
various versions of the penny with only
one accurate representation, challenges
you to identify the correct one,
highlighting the selective nature of our
memory encoding process.
95

False Memories
When a person recalls something that did not happen or recalls it differently from the way it
actually happened, often influenced by misinformation, suggestion, or the merging of actual
memories with imagination or other sources.
Theory Description

Misinformation
Effect

Source
Amnesia

Define:

Memory Consolidation:

Constructive
Memory

Imagination Inflation:

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Psychologist Profile
Dr. Elizabeth Loftus
Elizabeth Loftus is a prominent American cognitive psychologist
renowned for her extensive research on human memory,
particularly in the area of false memories. Her pioneering work has
significantly shaped our understanding of how memories can be
influenced by suggestion, leading to the creation or alteration of
false memories. Through a series of innovative experiments, Loftus
demonstrated that people's recollections of events could be distorted
by misinformation presented after the fact, challenging the
reliability of eyewitness testimony and highlighting the malleable
nature of human memory. Her contributions have had profound
implications for the fields of psychology, law, and forensic science,
making her a key figure in the study of memory and cognition.
96

Intelligence & Achievement

Explain how both modern and historical theories have sought to describe intelligence, detailing the
methods used to measure intelligence and how these assessments are influenced by systemic issues,
both quantitatively and qualitatively. Additionally, elucidate the ways in which academic
achievement is measured and experienced, comparing and contrasting these processes with the
assessment of intelligence (Topic 2.8).

Intelligence
Define:

Measuring Intelligence
Charles Spearman’s G Factor Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
97

The Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Define:

Mental Age:

***Today, IQ tests are used to identify students for educational services***

Measuring Intelligence in Tests

Standardized Valid Reliable
Define: Define: Define:

Construct Validity: Test-Retest Method:

Examples:

Predictive Validity: Split-Half Method:

98

Socio-Culturally Responsive Assessments

Designed to be fair and equitable across diverse cultural and social groups, acknowledging and
addressing the varied backgrounds and experiences of individuals.
Important Term Description

Stereotype Threat

Stereotype Lift

Tracking Changes in IQ Scores Amongst Populations

The Flynn Effect:

Variation of IQ Scores
Intra-group vs Inter-group Variability
Intra-Group Variability Inter-Group Variability
99

Impact of IQ Test Results

Intelligence tests, once seen as straightforward measures of mental ability, have played a
controversial role in history. Beyond the classroom, these tests have gatekept jobs, decided military
ranks, influenced who gets into college, and even impacted immigration to the U.S. Surprisingly,
what began as tools for educational assessment turned into mechanisms for societal selection,
raising ethical questions about fairness and bias.
For example, in the early 20th century, intelligence tests were used to categorize military recruits
during World Wars. They've also influenced immigration policies, with tests sometimes used to
support quotas or restrictions based on perceived intellectual capabilities of people from different
regions.
This use of intelligence scores has sparked debates about how we define and measure "intelligence"
and who gets to decide the criteria for success in society. It's led to a reevaluation of such tests,
pushing for assessments that are more inclusive, fair, and reflective of diverse abilities and
backgrounds.
As we learn about the complexities of intelligence and its measurement, it's vital to remember the
profound impact these assessments can have on real lives and opportunities. It underscores the
importance of ethical considerations in psychological testing and the ongoing quest for more
equitable measures of potential and ability.

Forms of Test
Achievement Test Aptitude Test

Example(s)

Fixed vs Growth Mindset

Fixed Mindset Growth Mindset
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Achievement Unlocked: Unit II!

Directions: Congratulations on completing Unit II! You've taken a big step forward in your AP
Psychology journey, delving into the fascinating realms of intelligence, memory, and learning. As you
celebrate this milestone, remember to solidify your understanding by completing the Unit II progress
check, practicing multiple choice questions, and tackling the FRQs. These exercises are crucial for
reinforcing your knowledge and preparing you for the exam ahead. Keep up the great work and stay
focused on your path to success in AP Psychology! BUT before you do that, check out this fun
psychology cartoon!

Unit II Progress Check

Cognition
I can…
o Explain how internal and external factors influence perception.
o Explain how visual perceptual processes produce correct or incorrect interpretations of
stimuli.
o Explain how psychological concepts and theories account for thinking, problem-solving,
judgement, and decision making.
o Explain how the types, structures, and processes of memory work.
o Explain how different encoding processes work to get information inro memory.
o Explain how memory storage processes retain information in memory.
o Explain how memory retrieval processes get information out of memory.
o Explain possible reasons why memory failure or errors may occur.
o Explain how modern and historical theories describe intelligence.
o Explain how intelligence is measured.
o Explain how systemic issues relate to the quantitative and qualitative uses of intelligence
assessments.
o Explain how academic achievement is measured and experienced as compared to
intelligence.
102

Unit II Multiple-Choice Practice

Directions: Using the knowledge you have gained from the Science Practices as well as Unit II –
Cognition, in order to answer the following multiple-choice questions. Take your time and remember
to read through each question carefully.

1. A cognitive psychologist conducts a study to investigate the effect of sleep deprivation on

problem-solving skills. Participants are divided into two groups; one group is allowed 8 hours
of sleep, and the other is restricted to 4 hours of sleep. The next day, both groups are given a
set of puzzles to solve. In this study, the independent variable is:
a. The type of puzzles given.
b. The number of puzzles solved.
c. The amount of sleep participants receives.
d. The problem-solving skills of participants.

2. According to the levels-of-processing theory of memory, which of the following study methods
is likely to lead to the best long-term retention of vocabulary words?
a. Repeating the same words our loud several times.
b. Writing each word in a sentence that gives it context.
c. Reading the list of words over and over.
d. Highlighting the words in different colors.

3. A study finds a correlation coefficient of -0.45 between the number of hours spent playing
video games per week and scores on a memory recall test. This finding suggests that:
a. Playing more video games causes a decrease in memory recall ability.
b. There is a moderate negative relationship between video game play and memory recall.
c. Increased memory recall is causing more hours to be spent playing video games.
d. No relationship exists between video game play and memory recall.

4. Elizabeth is trying to memorize the capitals of all 50 states in the U.S. To enhance her memory
through the method of loci, she should:
a. Study a map of the U.S. for 10 minutes every day.
b. Associate each capital with a specific location in a familiar route or place.
c. Create a rhyme or song that includes the names of all the capitals.
d. Break the list into chunks of ten and memorize each chunk separately.

5. In an experiment studying the serial position effect on word list recall, the dependent variable
would most likely be:
a. The length of the word list provided to participants.
b. The position of words within the list.
c. The number of words correctly recalled from the list.
d. The time allowed for memorizing the word list.
103

Unit II Free-Response Practice

Practice Evidence Based Question
Directions: This question will have three parts: Part A, Part B, and Part C. Use the three sources
provided to answer all parts of the question. For Part B and Part C, you must cite the source that you
used to answer the question. You can do this in two different ways:
- Parenthetical Citation
o Example: “…(Source A)
- Embedded Citation
o Example: “According to Source A…”
Write the response to each part of the question in complete sentences. Use appropriate psychological
terminology.

Question: Using the sources provided, develop and justify an argument about the impact of
cell phone use on learning outcomes and memory retention in high school students.

Source A
Introduction
With the pervasive integration of smartphones into academic settings and their potential to
influence student behavior, there is growing concern about their impact on learning outcomes and
student well-being within educational environments. This study examines the effects of smartphone
presence and use in college classrooms on students' comprehension of course material and their
psychological well-being, focusing on aspects such as anxiety and mindfulness.
Participants
The study involved 108 undergraduate students from a college in New York City, who were part of a
research project conducted in the Spring of 2020. These students came from four different classes
in the Behavioral Sciences Department. The group was almost evenly split by gender, with 59
females and 49 males participating. The students represented a diverse range of ethnic
backgrounds, including 41% Asian American, 30% White/Caucasian, 10% Latinx or Hispanic, 10%
Black/African American, and 10% unidentified. Ages ranged from 18 to 47, showing a broad
spectrum of undergraduate students. The study divided these participants into two groups: 36
students in an experimental group and 72 in a control group, to examine the effects of certain
variables on their learning and psychological well-being. This careful selection and diverse
participant pool helped ensure that the study's findings would be widely applicable and grounded in
a real-world context.
Method
In this investigation, participants were undergraduate students from four different behavioral
science courses at a New York City-based institution, with two classes designated as the control
group where smartphone usage was not restricted, and two as the quasi-experimental group where
students were asked to place their smartphones at the front of the classroom, away from their
desks. The study measured two primary outcomes: course comprehension and psychological well-
being, which encompassed levels of anxiety and mindfulness during class sessions. Course
comprehension was evaluated through a self-reported survey, using a scale to gauge students'
engagement and understanding of the course material. Psychological well-being was assessed by
measuring students' self-reported anxiety and mindfulness levels, with both being quantified
through specially designed questionnaires. Data from these instruments were analyzed to examine
the relationship between smartphone use and the measured outcomes.
104
Results and Discussion
The study from Source A aimed to uncover how smartphone usage in the classroom influences
students' understanding of the material, their mindfulness, and their anxiety levels. The research
revealed that students who were separated from their smartphones during class—meaning they
couldn't access them at all—had significantly better comprehension of the course material, with
mean scores indicating a clear benefit to limiting smartphone access (M = 4.16, SD = 0.56 for the
experimental group vs. M = 3.86, SD = 0.56 for the control group). Furthermore, these students
experienced lower levels of anxiety (M = 1.48, SD = 0.67) compared to their peers in the control
group (M = 1.84, SD = 0.97). The experimental group also reported higher levels of mindfulness
during class (M = 4.19, SD = 0.73) than the control group (M = 3.71, SD = 0.89). This study's
findings highlight the positive impact of minimizing smartphone distractions on both academic
engagement and psychological well-being among college students, suggesting that policies to
restrict smartphone use in educational settings could enhance learning outcomes and support
students' mental health.

Source
Huey, M., & Giguere, D. (2022). The impact of smartphone use on Course Comprehension and
Psychological Well-Being in the College classroom. Innovative Higher Education, 48(3),
527–537. [Link]
105
Source B
Introduction
In today's world, where smartphones are almost always within arm's reach, there's growing
curiosity about how these devices might affect our ability to learn and remember information. This
study zeroes in on college students to see if having a smartphone close by changes how well they can
recall information. It also looks at whether students who feel more attached to their phones have a
harder time with memory tasks. By comparing students with and without their phones during a
memory test, the researchers aim to uncover if the presence of these digital companions helps or
hinders academic performance.
Participants
Researchers gathered 119 college students from a university in a major Asian city for this study.
They needed participants who had a smartphone and no hearing or vision problems. The goal of the
researchers was to include at least 76 students to ensure the study's findings were reliable, drawing
on mathematical formulas and past research for their benchmarks. The team found that a large
chunk of the students, about 44%, mainly used their phones for social media. Following that, 31%
used their phones for calls and texts, while 18% used them for entertainment like games or movies.
On average, these students were on their phones for more than 8 hours a day. However, the amount
of phone use didn't really change whether they were asked to keep their phones out of sight or close
by during the study. Yet, it was observed that female students reported using their phones more,
around 9 hours daily, in contrast to male students, who averaged about 7 hours.
Methods
In this study, researchers set out to examine how the presence of a smartphone influences college
students' memory recall and their self-reported levels of smartphone addiction. To do this, they
invited undergraduate students to participate in a memory task, which involved recalling specific
types of information presented on a computer. The students were split into two groups: one group
had their smartphones placed next to them (high-phone salience), while the other group's
smartphones were kept out of sight (low-phone salience).
Additionally, participants completed the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS) to measure their level
of dependency on their device. They were also asked about their thoughts related to their phones
during the memory task, to understand if thinking about their phone impacted their performance.
The researchers were particularly interested in whether students without direct access to their
smartphones would perform better on the memory task than those with their phones present. They
also explored whether students' attachment to their smartphones, as measured by the SAS and their
reported thoughts about their phone during the task, would correlate with their memory
performance.
Results and Discussion
In the study, students without immediate access to their smartphones (low-phone salience)
demonstrated significantly higher memory recall accuracy (M = 14.21, SD = 2.61) compared to
those with their smartphones present (high-phone salience; M = 13.08, SD = 2.53). This suggests
that the presence of a smartphone can indeed distract and impact learning negatively. Notably, the
study found that "phone conscious thought" had a significant negative correlation with memory
recall accuracy, indicating that frequent thoughts about the smartphone during a task could impair
performance. However, levels of self-reported smartphone addiction, measured by the Smartphone
Addiction Scale (SAS), did not significantly correlate with memory recall accuracy, indicating the
distraction effect is more related to the immediate presence of the phone rather than the addiction
level.
106

These results underline the importance of managing smartphone presence in learning

environments to enhance focus and memory performance. The difference in memory recall between
students with and without their smartphones highlights the cognitive load that smartphones can
introduce, even when not in active use. Given the pervasive role of smartphones in daily life, the
findings prompt a deeper examination of how to balance their benefits with the need for
concentrated attention in educational settings. Further research could provide more nuanced
insights into the mechanisms by which smartphones distract students and how these distractions
can be mitigated to improve academic outcomes.
Source
Tanil, C. T., & Yong, M. H. (2020). Mobile phones: The effect of its presence on learning and
memory. PLOS ONE, 15(8), e0219233. [Link]
107
Source C
Introduction
In an era where smartphones have become central to daily life and learning, the question of how
their use impacts academic performance is more relevant than ever. This study aims to dissect the
effects of smartphone usage on young adults' academic work, distinguishing between the potential
drawbacks of multitasking and the benefits of self-regulated learning behaviors. Through a detailed
analysis involving undergraduate students, researchers seek to clarify the relationship between
smartphone engagement during academic activities and its influence on students' grades and self-
regulatory capacities.
Participants
The study involved 525 undergraduate students from a large public university, with a significant
majority being female (75.4%). The participants, who were predominantly between 18 and 21 years
old, represented a diverse ethnic background including 49% Caucasian, 24% Latin, 19% Asian, 3%
African American, 1% Native American, with 3% identifying as other and 1% preferring not to
answer. This varied group, drawn from 14 different colleges and majors, participated in the fall of
2019 by completing surveys that explored the relationships between cell phone use during academic
activities, multitasking, self-regulated learning behaviors, and academic performance.
Methods
For the study on smartphone use and its impact on young adults' academic work, 525
undergraduate students from a large public university participated by completing an online survey
during the fall of 2019. The survey aimed to explore the positive and negative aspects of cell phone
use (CPU) in relation to academic performance, focusing on multitasking during academic activities
(CPU_Multitasking) and cell phone use for self-regulated learning behaviors (CPU_SRLBehavior).
The method employed nonparametric correlations and hierarchical regression analyses to
understand the relationships between CPU variables and academic performance. The participants,
who were predominantly female (75.4%) and aged between 18 and 29, represented a diverse ethnic
background. The sample reflected the university’s demographics, including students from various
colleges and majors, to ensure a comprehensive analysis of CPU's potential impacts on academic
success.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CPU_SRLBehavior = Cell Phone Use Self-Regulated Behavior: This measures the use of cell phones
for enhancing learning through self-regulated behaviors, such as accessing educational content or
organizing study materials.
CPU_Multitasking = Cell Phone Use Multitasking: This refers to how often students check their cell
phones for non-academic reasons during class or study time, potentially distracting them from
learning.
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Results and Discussion
The study revealed that students engaged in cell phone multitasking during academic activities
(CPU_Multitasking) reported lower academic performance, with a mean frequency of cell phone
checks during a 60-minute class, lab, or study session being 3.52 (SD = 4.18). Despite the negative
correlation between CPU_Multitasking and GPA, hierarchical regression analysis found that
CPU_Multitasking was not a significant predictor of academic performance, suggesting the
relationship between multitasking and GPA might be influenced by other factors.
For self-regulated learning behaviors (CPU_SRLBehavior), which include using cell phones for
tasks like setting alarms or accessing educational materials, the study found no significant
correlation with academic performance. The average usage rate for self-regulated learning
behaviors was 2.84 (SD = 0.56), indicating a moderate level of cell phone use for such purposes
among students. This suggests that while students are utilizing their phones for organized learning
activities, these behaviors do not directly impact their academic success. The findings highlight the
nuanced role of cell phone use in educational settings, pointing to the potential for distraction with
multitasking but not necessarily a clear benefit for academic performance from self-regulated
learning activities.
Source
Joshi, S. C., Woodward, J., & Woltering, S. (2022). Cell phone use distracts young adults from
academic work with limited benefit to self-regulatory behavior. Current
Psychology. [Link]
109

Evidence-Based Question (EBQ) Response

Directions: This question has three parts: Part A, Part B, and Part C. Use the three sources provided
to answer all parts of the question.

Using the sources provided, develop and justify an argument about the impact of listening to music on
memory retention and learning effectiveness in high school students.
A. Propose a specific and defensible claim based on psychological science that responds to the
question.
B. (i) Support your claim using at least one piece of specific and relevant evidence from one
of the sources.
(ii) Explain how the evidence from Part B (i) supports your claim using a psychological
perspective, theory, concept, or research finding learned in AP Psychology.
C. (i) Support your claim using an additional piece of specific and relevant evidence from a
different source than the one that was used in Part B (i)
(ii) Explain how the evidence from Part C (i) supports your claim using a different
psychological perspective, theory, concept, or research finding learned in AP Psychology
than the one that was used in Part B (ii).

Use Next Page for Extra Space

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Unit II – Answer Key

Directions: Hold on! Zoomed straight to the answers, have we? Let’s hit pause and
rewind. Before diving into the reveal, take a detour back to the questions. It’s like a
mental gym session for your brain—no shortcuts allowed! Let’s not have Pavlov
ringing any bells over skipped efforts. Flex those cognitive muscles first, then circle
back. Off you go... back to the brain-busters!

Part I – Multiple Choice

1. C: The independent variable in an experiment is the variable that is manipulated to observe its
effect on the dependent variable, which in this case is the amount of sleep, as it's being
controlled to see its impact on problem-solving skills.
2. B: According to the levels-of-processing theory, deeper processing (such as semantic encoding,
which involves giving meaning to the word by using it in a sentence) leads to better long-term
memory retention compared to shallow processing methods.
3. B: A correlation coefficient of -0.45 indicates a moderate negative correlation, meaning as the
amount of time playing video games increases, the scores on memory recall tests tend to
decrease, but this does not imply causation.
4. B: The method of loci involves associating items to be remembered with specific locations in a
well-known place or route, enhancing memory recall through spatial and visual memory, which
aligns with the practice of using mnemonic devices for memory enhancement.
5. C: In an experiment studying the serial position effect (the tendency to recall the first and last
items in a list more easily than the middle items), the dependent variable is the outcome
measured by the researcher, which in this case is the number of words participants are able to
recall, indicating the effect of word position on memory performance.

Part II – Free Response (Possible Responses)

To earn a point, students must…
1. (A): Provide a claim backed by a psychological concept such as: “Cell phone use during
academic activities disrupts attentional resources and impairs executive functioning, leading to
decreased academic performance. This is because multitasking with cell phones introduces
cognitive load that interferes with the processes of encoding and retrieval, crucial for
effective learning and self-regulated behaviors.”
2. (B)(i): Provide evidence from the study such as: "According to Source C, it was observed that
undergraduate students frequently diverted their attention between academic tasks and their
cell phones, engaging in this behavior three to four times within a single 60-minute session.”
3. (B)(ii): Explain how your response in (B)(i) can be supported by a psychological perspective,
theory, concept, or research finding: “This behavior reflects a form of multitasking that
significantly increases cognitive load, negatively impacting the students' executive
functioning abilities to focus and effectively process academic content."
4. (C)(i): Provide evidence from the study such as: "According to Source A, research on the
attentional blink phenomenon demonstrates how rapidly shifting attention between tasks—
similar to frequent cell phone checking—can temporarily impair the brain's ability to notice
and process subsequent information. This phenomenon underscores the cognitive limitations
inherent in multitasking environments, highlighting the detrimental effect on learning and
memory consolidation."
5. (C)(ii): Provide evidence from the study such as: “The evidence from Source A supports the
claim by illustrating that constant interruptions from cell phone use can impair the memory
consolidation process. Memory consolidation, crucial for transforming new information into
long-term memory, requires focused attention and uninterrupted study periods, which are
compromised by frequent cell phone multitasking.”
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Unit III
Development and Learning
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Unit III: Development and Learning

IN THIS SECTION
SUMMARY: Development and learning in AP Psychology delves deeply into the dynamic and
multifaceted nature of human growth and the acquisition of knowledge and behaviors across the
lifespan. This unit systematically explores the progression of physical, cognitive, social, and emotional
development from infancy to adulthood, highlighting how individuals evolve and adapt in response to
their changing environments. It encompasses a detailed examination of developmental theories,
including the cognitive stages proposed by Piaget, the psychosocial stages identified by Erikson, and
Kohlberg's stages of moral development, providing a broad perspective on the journey of human
development. In addition to developmental stages, the unit addresses critical aspects of early
emotional bonds through the lens of attachment theory, assessing how these early relationships
influence future social connections. The discussion extends to parenting styles and their
consequential effects on child development, emphasizing the role of environmental and cultural
factors in shaping developmental outcomes. By examining the contributions of key figures such as
Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura, and Vygotsky, students are introduced to the foundational principles of
behaviorism, cognitive learning theories, and social learning theory.
KEY CONCEPTS:
o Understand the enduring themes in developmental psychology.
o Examine the major milestones in physical development and their impact on behavior.
o Explore theories of cognitive development and how cognitive abilities change over time.
o Investigate the development of social relationships and emotional regulation.
o Understand how language develops in humans, including key stages.
o Examine classical and operant conditioning, as well as social learning theory.
o Utilize various research designs to study changes in behavior over time.

UNIT AT A GLANCE
Themes and
Physical Cognitive Communication
Methods in Gender & Sexual
Development Development and Language
Developmental Orientation
Across the Lifespan Across the Lifespan Development
Psychology

Social-Emotional Social, Cognitive,

Classical Operant
Development and Neurological
Conditioning Conditioning
Across the Lifespan Factors in Learning
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Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology

Examine how enduring themes and the application of cross-sectional and longitudinal research
designs in developmental psychology contribute to a nuanced understanding of behavior and
mental processes across the lifespan (Topic 3.1).

Key Themes in Developmental Research

Nature vs Nurture Stability vs Change Continuity vs Stages

Research Methods in Developmental Psychology

Research Design Information

Longitudinal Research

Cross-Sectional Research
118

Physical Development Across the Lifespan

Explain how physical development across various stages—from before birth, through infancy and
childhood, into adolescence, and during adulthood—influences behavior and mental processes
(Topic 3.2).

Influences on Prenatal Development

Prenatal Development: refers to the process of growth and development within the womb
from conception to birth.
Influence Description

Teratogen

Maternal Illness

Hormonal Factors

Environmental Factors

Physical Development in Infancy & Childhood

Sequence of milestones is more important than timing
Areas of Development Description

Fine-Motor Coordination

Gross-Motor Coordination

Rooting Sucking

Reflexes
119

The Visual Cliff Apparatus

Purpose:

Results:

The Critical/Sensitive Period Hypothesis

Define:
120

Imprinting
Define:

Example:

That Awkward Stage in Life

Concept Description

Puberty

Adolescent
Growth Spurt

Primary Sex
Characteristics

Secondary Sex
Characteristics

Menarche

Spermarche
121

Getting Old…
Define:

Menopause

Identify FIVE Declines in Behavior That Occur in Adulthood

Gender & Sexual Orientation

Describe how sex and gender influence socialization and other aspects of development (Topic 3.3).
Concept Definition

Gender

Sex

Gender Schema

Gender-Role
Stereotypes
122

Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan

Explain how theories of cognitive development apply to behavior and mental processes.
(Topic 3.4).

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Schemas

Assimilation

Accommodation

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Description
Major Characteristics:

Sensorimotor Object Permanence:

Major Characteristics:

Cognitive Tasks Children Can’t Perform:

Preoperational
123
Stage Description
Major Characteristics:

Concrete
Operational Cognitive Tasks Children Can’t Perform:

Major Characteristics:

Formal
Operational

Lev Vygotsky & the Sociocultural Theory

The Zone of Proximal Development:

Scaffolding:
124

Changes in Cognitive Capacity as We Age

Crystallized Intelligence vs Fluid Intelligence
Crystallized Intelligence Fluid Intelligence

Cognitive Disorders – Dementia

Communication & Language Development

Explain how key components of language and communication apply to behavior and mental
processes as well as language development (Topic 3.5).

Rules of Language
Language: A complex system of communication that involves using symbols, sounds, and rules
to convey and understand thoughts, emotions, and information.
Rule Description

Phonemes

Morphemes

Semantics

Grammar

Syntax

Generative
Language
125

Stages of language
Stage Description

Cooing “Eeeee!”

Babbling “Dada!”

One-Word Stage “Bottle!”

Telegraphic “More
Speech Food!”

*** 24+ month, language starts to develop into complete sentences. ***
Overgeneralization
Define:

Example:

Social-Emotional Development Across the Lifespan

Explain how social development relates to behavior and mental processes (Topic 3.6).

Ecological Systems Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner
System Description

Microsystem

Mesosystem

Exosystem

Macrosystem

Chronosystem
126

Parenting Styles
**Draw a star in the box of the most effective parenting style, according to psychologist**
Style Description

Authoritarian

Authoritative

Permissive-Indifferent

Permissive-Indulgent

Attachment Styles
Temperament: The biologically based, innate traits that influence an individual's behavioral
styles, emotional responses, and ways of interacting with the environment.
Style Description

Secure Attachment

Avoidant

Insecure Attachment Anxious

Disorganized
127

Separation Anxiety
Define:

Harry Harlow & Attachment

The Importance of Contact
Purpose:

Findings:

Peer Relationships Across the Lifetime

Concept Description
In Childhood

Parallel Play

In Adolescents

Imaginary
Audience

Personal Fable
128

Emerging Adulthood
Culture deeply shapes our journey into adulthood, setting unique expectations and
pathways for achieving milestones that mark the transition from youth. It influences
how we view adulthood itself, coloring our perceptions of responsibility, independence,
and maturity in ways that vary widely across the world.

Social Clock

Example
USA Japan

Values social harmony and collective well-being,

A strong emphasis on individualism and
leading to a societal expectation for young adults
personal achievement, with milestones like
to quickly transition from education into stable
career establishment and financial
employment, with a subtle but present pressure
independence often prioritized before marriage
to marry and start a family by the mid-20s,
and starting a family, usually in the late 20s to
reflecting a more collective approach to
early 30s.
achieving adulthood milestones.

Adulthood Socialization
Adult Relationships & Family Formation Influence of Childhood Attachment Style
Believe it or not, the way we bonded with our
As adults, we form relationships that go beyond caregivers when we were little impacts how we
just hanging out. These bonds can lead to connect with others as grown-ups. If we felt
creating our own families or groups that feel like secure and loved early on, we're more likely to
family, where everyone supports and cares for trust and form close relationships in adulthood.
each other. It's about finding your tribe, where But if we faced more challenges feeling secure as
you belong and feel loved. kids, it might take a bit more work to open up
and trust others now.
Continuity of Attachment Pattern Role in Social Support Networks
The friends and family we choose as adults
Our early attachment styles set the stage, but
become our personal support network, helping
they're not the whole play. Life gives us chances
us through the tough times and celebrating the
to learn and grow in how we connect with
good ones. This network isn't just nice to have;
others, meaning we can overcome past hurdles
it's crucial for our emotional well-being, proving
and build stronger, healthier relationships as we
just how much we need meaningful connections
go through life.
in our lives.
129

Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Psychosocial Development:

Psychosocial Conflict:

Stage Age Description of Task

Trust vs Infancy
Mistrust (0-1 Year)

Autonomy vs
Toddlerhood
Shame &
(1-2 Years)
Doubt

Initiative vs Preschooler
Guilt (3-5 Years)

Industry vs Elementary
Inferiority (6-Puberty)

Identity vs Role Adolescence

Confusion (Teens-20’s)

Intimacy vs Young Adult

Isolation (20’s-40’s)

Generativity vs Middle Adult

Stagnation (40’s-60’s)

Ego Integrity Late Adult

vs Despair (60’s & Up)
130

Aversive Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Define

Sociocultural
Variations

Long-Term
Outcomes

Resilience &
Recovery

Adolescents Identity Development

Achievement Diffusion

James Marcia’s Identity Statuses

Foreclosure Moratorium
131

Influences on Identity Development

Identify SIX major factors that influence our identity development
1 2 3

4 5 6

Select one of the influences on identity development that you have identified and explain how your
own identity has been influenced by this factor.
Response

Classical Conditioning
Explain how classical conditioning applies to behavior and mental processes (Topic 3.7).

The Behavioral Perspective

In the evolution of psychological theories, the behavioral perspective emerged as a
game-changer by zeroing in on observable behaviors rather than the mysterious,
unseen realm of mental processes. Early behaviorists argued that since you can't
directly see or measure thoughts and emotions, psychology should focus on what can
be observed: how people act and react. This approach led to a deep dive into
understanding how our environment shapes our actions, sidelining the mind's
internal workings as too subjective for scientific study. This perspective laid the
groundwork for developing theories about learning through conditioning, where the
spotlight was on clear, observable changes in behavior.
132

Classical Conditioning
Define the Process of Classical Conditioning:

Define Acquisition:

Components Description

Unconditioned Stimulus
(UCS)

Unconditioned Response
(UCR)

Conditioned Stimulus
(CS)

Conditioned Response
(CR)

Neutral vs Natural Stimulus

Neutral Stimulus Natural Stimulus

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Principle Description

Extinction

Spontaneous
Recovery
Pavlov’s Dogs
133
Principle Description

Stimulus
Generalization

Stimulus
Discrimination
The Little Albert Experiment

Classical Conditioning
Practice Round
Directions: Use what you have learned about Classical Conditioning to answer questions related
to the scenario below.

The Scenario
Let's say you have a math teacher whose shoes squeak loudly every 6me he walks around the
classroom while explaining algebra. Over 6me, you start to feel anxious whenever you hear
those squeaky shoes because you associate them with difficult math problems and the stress of
solving them on the spot. ABer a few weeks, you find yourself feeling a twinge of anxiety every
6me you hear any squeaky sound, not just your math teacher's shoes. It could be someone's
sneakers squeaking in the hallway or a squeaky door opening. You start joking with your friends
that you're going to start a support group for anyone who flinches at the sound of squeaky shoes
or doors. "Squeaky Shoes Syndrome: It's Real, and It's Spectacular," you quip, as you all laugh
about how school has condi6oned you to have Pavlovian responses to the most random things.

Identify components of classical conditioning mentioned in the provided scenario

Component Response
Unconditioned Stimulus
(UCS)

Unconditioned Response
(UCR)

Conditioned Stimulus
(CS)

Conditioned Response
(CR)
Circle the classical conditioning principle that was present in the scenario
Extinction Recovery

Generalization Discrimination
134

Higher-Order Conditioning

Define

Think back to the classical conditioning scenario question about your math
teacher’s squeaky shoes. Now, suppose the math teacher always turns on a
specific bright overhead light in the classroom before starting to walk around with
his squeaky shoes to present the math problems. After several associations, the
Example
overhead light (which becomes a new CS) by itself starts to trigger your anxiety
(CR) even before you hear the squeaky shoes or see the math problems because it
has been paired with the original CS (the squeaky shoes sound), which had
become associated with the anxiety of solving difficult math problems.

Emotional Responses & Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning isn't just about pairing neutral stimuli with automatic responses; it also
applies to our emotions. This is why we can end up feeling happy, scared, or anxious due to certain
triggers we've been conditioned to respond to.

Counterconditioning

Mary Cover Jones

Taste Aversions
Define Apply

Taste Aversion

One-Trial
Conditioning

Biological
Preparedness

Predisposition
135

Habituation
Occurs when organisms grow accustomed to and exhibit a diminished response to a repeated or
enduring stimulus.
Additional Information
Habituation is our brain's way of helping us tune out the "background noise" of life. When
we're repeatedly exposed to the same stimulus, like the sound of a ticking clock, we
gradually pay less attention to it. This process means our responses diminish over time,
allowing us to conserve energy and focus on changes in our environment that might be more
significant. Habituation demonstrates our adaptability and capacity to filter out the
mundane to stay alert to new information.

Operant Conditioning
Explain how operant conditioning applies to behavior and mental processes (Topic 3.8).

Edward Thorndike & the Law of Effect

The Law of Effect:

Psychologist Profile: B.F. Skinner

Let's dive into the world of B.F. Skinner, the man who could arguably have turned pigeons into the
original "smart" missiles. Skinner, a leading figure in the development of operant conditioning, believed
that behavior is determined by its consequences, rewards, and punishments. This idea led him to create
the Skinner box, where he could study how animals, including pigeons, learned to press levers and peck
discs to receive food rewards.
But here's where it gets even cooler: during World War II, Skinner
embarked on a secret project to develop pigeon-guided missiles.
Yes, you read that right. He trained pigeons to peck at screens
within missiles, guiding them to their targets. Although the
military never deployed these feathered navigators, Skinner's work
laid the groundwork for modern behaviorism and demonstrated
the power of operant conditioning in shaping behavior. So next
time you see a pigeon, remember that it could have been a winged
warrior in another life, thanks to Skinner's innovative
experiments.
136

Components of Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning: A learning process where the likelihood of a behavior is increased or
decreased through rewards or punishments following the behavior.
Reinforcement:

Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement

Punishment:

Positive Punishment Negative Punishment

Generalization & Discrimination in Operant Conditioning

Generalization: Discrimination:

Types of Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer Secondary Reinforcer
137

Shaping
Define:

Successive Approximations:

Example
Imagine training your dog to fetch the newspaper from the driveway. You start by rewarding the
dog for heading towards the door when you say "newspaper." Gradually, you only reward the dog
when it steps outside. Next, you reward it for moving towards the newspaper. Eventually, you
reinforce the behavior only when the dog picks up the newspaper, and finally, you reward the dog
when it brings the newspaper back to you. Through this process, you've shaped the dog's behavior
from merely walking towards the door to fetching the newspaper, each step building upon the last.
Then, one day, as your dog heads out to fetch the newspaper, the mailman arrives. Instantly, your
dog forgets about the newspaper and dashes off to chase the mailman, ignoring all commands to
come back.
Instinctive Drift
Define:

Explain how instinctive drift is occurring in the provided scenario:

Superstitious Behavior
Actions that an individual believes influence certain outcomes, due to coincidental timing of
rewards or punishments, even though there is no actual causal relationship between the behavior
and the outcome.

Example: A basketball player who believes wearing a specific pair of socks leads to better
performance because they happened to play well while wearing them once, and this behavior was
accidentally reinforced.
138

Learned Helplessness
Define:

Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement Partial Reinforcement

Schedules
Fixed-Ratio Variable-Ratio

Fixed-Interval Variable-Interval
139

Social, Cognitive, and Neurological Factors in Learning

Explain how social and cognitive factors, including the influence of observation, imitation, and mental
processes, contribute to learning and affect behavior and mental processes, illustrating the
interconnected roles of environmental interaction and cognitive functions in the acquisition of new
knowledge and skills. (Topic 3.9).

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

The Bobo the Doll Experiment – A Study on Vicarious Conditioning
Vicarious Conditioning: Learning that occurs when someone observes the actions and
consequences of another person, and then changes their own behavior based on what they saw. This
can involve imitating the behavior if the outcomes were positive or avoiding it if they were negative.
Hypothesis:

Experimental
Method Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV)

Results:

Modeling:

Results

Mirror Neurons:

Summarize:

Component of the Social Cognitive Theory

Social Step 1:
Cognitive
Theory Step 2:

Step 3:

Step 4:
140

Forms of Cognitive Learning

Concept Description
Wolfgang Kohler
Wolfgang Köhler's work with Sultan the chimpanzee showcased insight
learning, a process where Sultan creatively solved challenges, such as
accessing distant bananas using sticks or stacking boxes. Köhler observed
that Sultan would contemplate the problem before arriving at a sudden
solution, demonstrating not just trial-and-error learning but an intelligent
understanding of the situation. These findings challenged the behaviorist
emphasis on stimulus-response learning, highlighting instead the role of
cognitive processes. Köhler's experiments emphasized the importance of
seeing the problem as a whole and suggested animals could engage in
complex problem-solving similar to humans.
Insight Learning ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Insight Learning:

Edward Tolman
Latent Learning:

Cognitive Map:
Latent Learning
141

Achievement Unlocked: Unit III!

Directions: Well done on completing Unit III of your AP Psychology adventure! You've
explored the intricate landscape of developmental psychology, delving into how we grow and
change from infancy through adulthood. As you mark this milestone, it's vital to reinforce what you've
learned. Engage with the Unit III progress check, dive into multiple choice questions, and practice the
FRQs to cement your understanding. These steps are key to mastering the material and excelling on
the exam. Your dedication is the cornerstone of your success in AP Psychology. Keep pushing forward,
and remember, a bit of humor can make learning even more memorable. So, before you move on,
enjoy this amusing psychology limerick, showing the intellectual battle between behavioral and
cognitive psychologist!

Psychology’s Showdown – The Behaviorist vs the Cognitive Psychologists

In the realm where the mind and behavior clash, With neurons and schemas, they entered the fray,
Cognitive Psychs with their theories quite brash, “Without inner workings, how do you explain the way
Said, “It’s the mind’s frame, We think, learn, and know?
Not just stimulus and aim!” Your Skinner box show
While Behaviorists countered with a Skinnerian bash! Misses the mind’s true ballet!”

“Observe and record, that’s the true path,” they claimed, So the battle raged on, in jest and in lore,
“Your thoughts and your feelings are simply untamed. Between those who observed and those who explored more.
We measure, we see, Yet, as time would reveal,
What’s real, not what might be!” Both views hold some appeal,
But Cognitivists laughed, their insights aflame. In psychology’s ever-evolving core.

Unit III Progress Check

Development & Learning
I can…
o Explain how enduring themes inform developmental psychology.
o Describe ways cross-sectional and longitudinal research design methods used in
developmental psychology inform understanding about behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how physical development before birth applies to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how physical development in infancy and childhood apply to behavior and mental
processes.
o Explain how physical development in adolescence applies to behavior and mental
processes.
o Explain how physical development in adulthood applies to behavior and mental processes.
o Describe how se and gender influence socialization and other aspects of development.
o Explain how theories of cognitive development apply to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how key components of language and communication apply to behavior and
mental processers.
o Explain how language develops in humans.
o Explain how social development relates to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how classical conditioning applies to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how operant conditioning applies to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how social learning applies to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how cognitive factors in learning apply to behavior and mental processes.
142

Unit III Multiple-Choice Practice

Directions: Using the knowledge you have gained from the Science Practices as well as Unit III –
Development & Learning, in order to answer the following multiple-choice questions. Take your time
and remember to read through each question carefully.

Use the following scenario to answer questions 1-5.

In a psychology class, the professor decides to conduct an experiment to demonstrate the effects of
different reinforcement schedules on learning. Five volunteers are chosen to complete a simple task:
pressing a button when a light turns green. Each volunteer is assigned a different reinforcement
schedule: fixed-ratio (FR), variable-ratio (VR), fixed-interval (FI), variable-interval (VI), and a
control group with no reinforcement. The experiment aims to observe the speed and consistency of
the button-pressing task over a series of trials.
Collected Data
Volunteer Reinforcement Average Response Time Responses in 30
Schedule (Seconds) Minutes
A Fixed-Ratio (FR) 2 90
B Variable-Ratio (VR) 3 120
C Fixed-Interval (FI) 5 40
D Variable-Interval (VI) 4 70
E Control (No Reinforcement) 6 30

1. Which volunteer was on a schedule that provided rewards after a set number of responses?
a. Volunteer A
b. Volunteer B
c. Volunteer C
d. Volunteer D

2. Which volunteer demonstrated the slowest average response time?

a. Volunteer A
b. Volunteer B
c. Volunteer C
d. Volunteer E

3. Based on the data, who showed the most consistent performance in response time?
a. Volunteer A
b. Volunteer B
c. Volunteer C
d. Volunteer D

4. In terms of learning and behavior, which reinforcement schedule is best known to produce a
high and steady response rate, making it resistant to extinction?
a. Fixed-Ratio (FR)
b. Variable-Ratio (VR)
c. Fixed-Interval (FI)
d. Variable-Interval (VI)

5. The control group in this experiment is important because it helps to:

a. Demonstrate the effect of continuous reinforcement.
b. Compare how different schedules impact learning.
c. Show the natural response rate without reinforcement.
d. Establish a baseline for the fastest possible response time.
143

Unit III Free-Response Practice

Practice Article Analysis Question
Directions: Carefully read and analyze the provided research and questions, applying key concepts
from the current unit. Use specific evidence and scientific practices discussed in class to construct
your responses. Ensure your answers are concise, clear, and directly related to the unit's material.
Don’t forget to use the FRQ tips from the review guide shown at the beginning of the review guide to
help you ace these FRQs!
Introduction

As society grapples with the effects of digital media on youth, the debate on violent video games and
their potential link to adolescent aggression intensifies. This study examines how exposure to
violent video games may contribute to aggressive behavior in adolescents, focusing on the
moderating roles of normative beliefs about aggression and the family environment. By exploring
these relationships, researchers aim to untangle the complex web of factors that might amplify or
mitigate the influence of gaming violence on young individuals.
Participants

The study on the relationship between violent video games and adolescent aggression involved 648
Chinese middle school students, comprising 339 boys and 309 girls. The participants were mostly
from urban areas (419 students) with a smaller portion coming from rural regions (229 students).
The group included both junior high school students (277) and senior high school students (371),
with ages ranging from 12 to 19 years old and an average age of 14.73 years (SD = 1.60). This diverse
cohort provided a broad perspective on the influences of gaming violence across different
adolescent populations in China.
Methods
Participants completed a series of self-report questionnaires designed to capture their video game
usage, aggressive behaviors, normative beliefs about aggression, and the quality of their family
environment. This methodology aimed to dissect the nuanced ways in which video game exposure
might correlate with aggression levels among adolescents, while considering how these
relationships are shaped by individuals’ beliefs about aggression and their familial contexts. By
examining these variables collectively, the research sought to provide insights into the mediated
and moderated effects that underlie the connection between digital media consumption and youth
behavior.
- Video Game Questionnaire (VGQ): Asks participants to list their favorite video games
and rate their frequency of play, violent content, and imagery to assess exposure to violent
video games.
- Aggression Questionnaire (AQ): Measures the extent of physical, verbal, anger, and
hostility through a 5-point scale, aiming to quantify different dimensions of aggressive
behavior.
- Family Environment Scale (FES): Evaluates the participant's family atmosphere across
dimensions like cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict, giving insight into the family's
influence on behavior.
- Normative Beliefs About Aggression Scale (NOBAGS): Assesses individuals'
acceptance of aggressive behavior, indicating how societal and personal norms might
influence aggression.
144
Results & Discussions
The study unveiled a positive link between adolescents' exposure to violent video games and their
aggressive behavior, affirming the hypothesis that such exposure could escalate aggression. This
connection was further nuanced by the mediation role of normative beliefs about aggression,
suggesting that how adolescents think about aggression could shape the impact of video game
violence on their behavior. Additionally, the family environment emerged as a critical factor,
moderating the influence of video games on aggression by either mitigating or exacerbating its
effects based on the quality of the family setting. For those in a positive family environment, the
direct impact of video games on aggression was predominant; conversely, in less supportive family
contexts, both direct and indirect influences (mediated by normative beliefs about aggression) were
observed.
These findings underscore the complex interplay between media exposure, individual cognition,
and environmental factors in shaping adolescent behavior. They highlight the importance of
considering broader social and familial contexts when assessing the potential impacts of violent
video games on youth aggression. The study calls for a nuanced understanding of how individual
and environmental factors together can influence the extent to which exposure to violent media
affects adolescent behavior, suggesting directions for both policy and parenting strategies aimed at
mitigating the negative effects of such exposure.

Source
Shao, R., & Wang, Y. (2019). The Relation of Violent video games to adolescent Aggression: An
Examination of Moderated Mediation effect. Frontiers in
Psychology, 10. [Link]
145

Article Analysis Question (AAQ) Response

Directions: Your response to the question should be provided in six parts: A, B, C, D, E, and F. Write
the response to each part of the question in complete sentences. Use appropriate psychological
terminology in your response.

Using the source provided, respond to all parts of the question.

(A) Describe how the study measures aggression in participants.
(B) Explain the role of the family environment as a moderating factor in the relationship between
exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression.
(C) Identify the type of correlation relationship between the degree of exposure to violent video
games and adolescent aggression. Explain your answer using evidence from the study.
(D)Compare The influence of normative beliefs about aggression and family environment on
adolescent aggression as observed in this study. Which factor appears to have a more
significant impact? Justify your answer using data from the study.
(E) Predict the long-term effects on a society if exposure to violent video games continues to rise,
based on the study’s findings. Consider both individual and environmental factors in your
prediction.
(F) Evaluate the ethical considerations of conducting research that involves exposing participants
to violent video game content. Discuss how the researchers might have addressed these ethical
concerns.

Use Next Page for Extra Space

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147

Unit III – Answer Key

Directions: Wait a minute! Made a beeline for the answers, did you? Let's tap the
brakes and backtrack. Before we unveil the solutions, let’s embark on a little journey
back to the questions. Consider it a cognitive obstacle course—no jumping ahead! We
don’t need Bobo the Clown gesturing us to stop for moving too fast. Sharpen your mind’s prowess
first, then return here. Ready, set, rewind... back to those thought-provokers!

Part I – Multiple Choice

1. A: Volunteer A’s schedule involved a reward after a set number of responses, characteristic of
fixed-ratio schedules, which are known for encouraging a high rate of response because the
reinforcement is predictable after a certain number of actions.
2. D: Volunteer E, in the control group without reinforcement, demonstrated the slowest average
response time. This illustrates how reinforcement, or the lack thereof, can significantly affect
response times in learning tasks.
3. A: Volunteer A demonstrated the most consistent performance, likely due to the predictable
nature of the fixed-ratio schedule, where she knew exactly how many responses were needed
for reinforcement, leading to a steady rate of responding.
4. B: Variable-ratio schedules are known for producing a high and steady response rate without
the predictable pauses that other schedules might cause. This is because the reinforcement is
unpredictable, which keeps the response rate consistently high.
5. C: The control group is crucial for comparing natural response rates to those influenced by
reinforcement schedules. It provides a baseline of behavior without the influence of systematic
reinforcement.

Part II – Free Response

To earn a point, students must…
(A) State that the study measures aggression using the Aggression Questionnaire (AQ), which
evaluates physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility on a 5-point scale. This
approach aligns with the behavioral perspective in psychology, emphasizing observable
behaviors.
(B) Explain how family environment moderates the relationship between violent video game
exposure and aggression by either amplifying or mitigating the effect. A supportive family
environment can reduce the influence of video games on aggression, illustrating the
importance of environmental factors in developmental psychology.
(C) Iden6fy that the rela6onship is posi6ve, meaning as exposure to violent video games increases,
levels of adolescent aggression also tend to increase. This is supported by the study's findings
that show significant posi6ve correla6ons between these two variables.
(D)Mention how normative beliefs about aggression have a more significant impact on adolescent
aggression than family environment because they directly mediate the relationship between
video game exposure and aggression. This comparison highlights the cognitive aspects of
learning and behavior, as beliefs and attitudes can drive behaviors.
(E) Predict how long-term societal effects of increased exposure to violent video games could
include higher levels of aggression and normalization of violent behavior among adolescents.
This prediction is grounded in the social learning theory, which posits that behaviors can be
learned through observation and imitation of media.
(F) Evaluate ethical considerations include potential harm to participants from exposure to violent
content and the influence on their behavior and beliefs. The researchers addressed these
concerns by obtaining informed consent and ensuring the study had ethical approval. This
evaluation ties back to the ethical guidelines for conducting psychological research,
emphasizing participant welfare.
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Unit IV
Social Psychology and Personality
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Unit IV: Social Psychology and Personality

IN THIS SECTION
SUMMARY: Social Psychology and Personality in AP Psychology intricately examines the dynamic
interplay between individual personalities and the broader social environment, shedding light on how
people influence and are influenced by their social contexts. This unit delves into the mechanisms of
social influence, such as conformity, obedience, and persuasion, providing insight into why
individuals often alter their behaviors, thoughts, and feelings in response to social pressures.
Additionally, it explores the formation and impact of attitudes and stereotypes on perception and
behavior, along with the complex dynamics that characterize group interactions and influence
collective behaviors. Simultaneously, Unit 4 ventures into the realm of personality psychology,
presenting a balanced overview of various theories that seek to explain the development and
expression of personality. Students are introduced to seminal theories ranging from Freud's
psychoanalytic perspective to more contemporary trait and social-cognitive theories, each offering
unique insights into what shapes an individual's personality. This unit also covers the methodologies
used for personality assessment and evaluates the roles of genetics and environment in personality
development.
KEY CONCEPTS:
o Understand how people explain behavior through dispositional and situational attributions.
o Explore how attitudes are formed and changed through cognitive dissonance.
o Examine how social pressures, norms, and conformity shape behavior.
o Understand the psychological effects of being part of a group.
o Investigate why people help others.
o Review major personality theories.
o Explore how individuals perceive themselves, the development of self-concept and self-esteem.

UNIT AT A GLANCE
Psychodynamic
Attribution Theory Attitude
Psychology of and Humanistic
and Person Formation &
Social Situations Theories of
Perception Attitude Change
Personality

Social-Cognitive
and Trait-Theories Motivation Emotion
of Personality
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153

Attribution Theory and Person Perception

Explain how attribution theory applies to behavior and mental processes (Topic 4.1).

Attribution
Define:

Dispositional Attributions Situational Attributions

Explanatory Style
Define:

Optimism Pessimism

Attribution Bias
The tendency to inaccurately attribute the causes of someone's behavior to their character while
underestimating situational factors.
Bias Description

Fundamental
Attribution Error

Actor-Observer Bias

Self-Serving Bias
154

The Locus of Control

Refers to an individual's belief about the extent to which their actions can influence the events in
their lives.
Internal Locus of Control External Locus of Control

Person Perception & The Mere Exposure Effect

Person Perception:

Mere-Exposure Effect:

Example
Should I Buy It? Just Do It!
Think about your favorite brands. Ever notice how just seeing their logos makes you feel a certain way?
That's not by accident—it's by design, leveraging something called the "mere exposure effect." This
psychological trick is why brands like Nike have become not just recognizable, but beloved.
Every time you see the Nike swoosh—on a shirt, in an ad, or on someone's shoes—your brain gets a little
ping of familiarity. It's like running into a friend in a crowd; you're naturally drawn to what you
know. This constant exposure does more than just make you recognize the logo; it makes you like it
more.
Nike, as our example, nails this by being everywhere you look and attaching itself to positive moments,
from epic sports victories to style icons rocking their gear. This repetition plus positive association is a
one-two punch that turns casual recognition into genuine affection.
So, next time you feel a pull towards that Nike swoosh (or any brand logo), remember it's the power of
familiarity at work. Brands are playing a gentle game of tug-of-war for your affection, and with every
exposure, they're pulling you closer.
155

The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Social Comparison
Define:

Upward Social Comparison Downward Social Comparison

Example
Directions: Read both examples below, based on what you read, determine whether is an example
of upward or downward social comparisons.

Jessica, an aspiring novelist, frequently checks the

Alex, a recent college graduate, oDen feels anxious
social media profiles of well-established authors. She
about his job search. To boost his spirits, he thinks
no?ces their large followings, the cri?cal acclaim for
about his former classmates who have yet to secure
their books, and their seemingly glamorous book
any interviews, whereas he has had a few, even
tour photos. This comparison makes her feel a mix of
though they didn't result in job offers. This
admira?on and inadequacy. She wonders if her work
comparison reassures him that he's at least making
will ever achieve such recogni?on and success. While
some progress and is beHer off than some of his
this mo?vates her to improve her wri?ng and strive
peers. While it temporarily liDs his mood and self-
for success, it also occasionally leads to feelings of
esteem, it also makes him complacent about his
doubt and discouragement about her current
situa?on, reducing the urgency he feels to apply
achievements and the challenges of the publishing
more widely or improve his interviewing skills.
industry.
156

Relative Deprivation
Define:

Example:

Attitude Formation and Attitude Change

Explain the interplay of stereotypes, implicit attitudes, belief perseverance, and cognitive
dissonance in shaping and changing prejudice and discrimination, highlighting how these
psychological factors contribute to the development and alteration of biased behaviors and
attitudes. (Topic 4.2).

Stereotype
Define:

Term Definition

Prejudice

Discrimination

Implicit Bias
Define:

Term Definition

Implicit Bias
157
Term Definition

Just-World
Phenomenon

Define: Out-Group:

Out-Group
Homogeneity
Bias

Define: In-Group:

In Group Bias

Ethnocentrism

Belief Perseverance
Define:

Why might individuals who experience belief perseverance also engage in confirmation
bias (see Science Practice 1).
158

Leon Festinger & Cognitive Dissonance

Introduction: In Leon Festinger's famous $1/$20 Experiment, participants
performed dull tasks and were asked to lie about the tasks being enjoyable for
either $1 or $20. Those paid just $1 found the tasks more enjoyable, as they had
no external justification for lying, leading them to change their attitudes to
resolve cognitive dissonance, unlike those paid $20, who had an external
justification for their actions.

Cognitive Dissonance:

Explain how Cognitive Dissonance is being experienced in the scenario below:

Imagine a student named Alex who values academic success and knows that excessive 6me on social
media can interfere with study 6me. Despite this, Alex finds himself scrolling through Instagram and
TikTok for hours, even while in class.

Response:

_____________________________________________________________________

Psychology of Social Situations

Explain how social situations, group dynamics, and prosocial behavior collectively influence
individual behavior and mental processes (Topic 4.3).

Social Norms
Definition Example(s)
159

Social Influence Theory

Define:

Normative Social Influence Informational Social Influence

Persuasion
Define:

The Elaboration Likelihood Model

Define:

The Central Route to Persuasion The Peripheral Route to Persuasion

The Halo Effect:

Persuasion Techniques
Foot-in-the-Door Door-in-the-Face
160

Solomon Asch & Conformity

Introduction: Solomon Asch's conformity experiments, conducted in the
1950s, are seminal studies in social psychology that investigated the extent
to which social pressure from a majority group could influence a person to
conform. In his most famous experiment, Asch showed participants a series
of lines on cards and asked them to match the length of one line with one of
three comparison lines. Unbeknownst to the actual participant, the other
"participants" were confederates of the experimenter who deliberately gave
incorrect answers on certain trials. Despite the correct answer being
obvious, Asch found that a significant number of participants conformed to
the majority's incorrect choice on several occasions. The study highlighted
the powerful influence of social pressure on conformity and demonstrated
how individuals might go against their own accurate judgment to conform
with the group consensus, emphasizing the impact of social influence on
behavior.

Define Conformity:

Social Influence in Asch’s Experiment

How might Solomon Asch’s conformity experiment have led to normative or informational social
influences impacting behavior or mental processes?
Normative Informational
161

Stanley Milgram & Obedience

Introduction: The Milgram experiment, a groundbreaking study
conducted by psychologist Stanley Milgram in the early 1960s, aimed
to explore obedience to authority. Participants believed they were
part of a learning experiment involving punishing errors with
electric shocks to a "learner," who was actually an actor. Despite the
learner's (actor's) feigned distress and pleas to stop, many
participants continued to administer shocks when instructed by an
authoritative experimenter. This study revealed that a significant
number of individuals would obey authority figures to the extent of
inflicting harm on others, highlighting the powerful influence of
authority on human behavior and raising important ethical
questions about the limits of obedience and the conditions under
which individuals defy authority figures.

Define Obedience:

Group Impact on Individual Behavior

Individualism Collectivism

Multiculturalism

Social Psychology Concepts Relating to Group Impact on Individual Behavior

Theory/Concept Definition

Group Polarization
162
Theory/Concept Definition

Groupthink

Diffusion of
Responsibility

Social Loafing

Deindividuation

Social Facilitation

False Consensus Effect

Superordinate Goals

Social Traps

The Robbers Cave experiment, conducted by Muzafer Sherif in the 1950s, is a classic study in social
psychology exploring intergroup conflict and coopera>on. In this experiment, two groups of boys at a
summer camp (the Eagles and the RaFlers) were piFed against each other in compe>>ve ac>vi>es, which
led to hos>lity and conflict. However, when presented with problems that could only be solved by working
together, such as restoring the camp's water supply (a task beyond the capability of any single group), the
previously compe>ng groups began to cooperate. This introduc>on of superordinate goals, or objec>ves
that are important to both groups but require their coopera>ve efforts to achieve, effec>vely reduced
intergroup hos>lity and promoted unity. The Robbers Cave experiment demonstrates the power of
superordinate goals in overcoming prejudice and fostering posi>ve intergroup rela>ons.
163

Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologist

Job Responsibilities

Employment
Selection &
Recruitment

Work-Life Balance

Worker Burnout

Prosocial Behavior
Prosocial behavior refers to voluntary actions intended to benefit others, including acts of
kindness, sharing, and helping without expecting a reward.
Concept Description

Altruism

Social Debt

Social Reciprocity Norm Social Responsibility Norm

The Bystander Effect

Define:

Situational Variables Attentional Variables

164

Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories of Personality

Explain how the psychodynamic and humanistic theories define and assess personality.
(Topic 4.4).
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality is a
foundational framework in psychology, emphasizing the
influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. Freud
proposed that personality is composed of three elements: the
id, ego, and superego, which interact to shape individual
behavior and psychological traits. The id represents innate
biological instincts and urges operating on the pleasure
principle; it seeks immediate gratification. The ego, governed
by the reality principle, mediates between the unrealistic
demands of the id and the external real world. It makes
decisions and acts as a regulator. The superego, embodying
moral standards and societal rules, strives for perfection and
judges actions with a moral perspective, often inducing guilt
for wrongdoings.

Freud believed that much of human behavior is influenced by unconscious drives and childhood
experiences, particularly through psychosexual development stages. Although modern psychology
views some of Freud's ideas as controversial or outdated, his work laid the groundwork for
understanding the complex interplay between conscious and unconscious processes in shaping
personality and behavior.

Personality
Define:

The Psychodynamic Theory of Personality

Define:

Levels of Consciousness
Conscious Preconscious Unconscious
165

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Define:

Defense Mechanism Description

Denial

Displacement

Projection

Rationalization

Regression

Repression

Sublimation

Assessing Personality
The Psychodynamic Approach
Define Projective Test:

Rorschach Inkblot Test Thematic Apperception Test

166

Humanistic Psychology
On Personality
Introduction: Humanistic psychology, a movement that emerged in the mid-20th century, offers
a refreshing perspective on personality by emphasizing individual potential, self-growth, and the
intrinsic desire for self-actualization. Central to this approach are the concepts of unconditional
positive regard and the self-actualizing tendency, which posit that individuals are innately driven to
fulfill their potential and require acceptance and understanding from others to thrive. Contrasting
with deterministic views of psychology, humanistic psychology views personality as an expression
of the conscious feelings, choices, and experiences of the individual. It advocates for a more holistic
understanding of human nature, focusing on creativity, free will, and the positive qualities that
define the human experience. Through its optimistic lens, humanistic psychology provides valuable
insights into the complexity of human behavior and the profound capacity for change and growth
within each person.
Important Terms
Unconditional Positive Regard Self-Actualizing Tendency

Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of Personality

Explain the social-cognitive theory of personality and trait theories of personality define and assess
personality (Topic 4.5).

Back to Bandura
The Social-Cognitive Approach to Personality Development
Reciprocal Determinism
Define:
167
Self-Concept
Define:

Self-Efficacy Self-Esteem

Trait Theories of Personality

Important Concepts Description

Trait Theory

Trait

The Big Five Theory

Theory states that personality can be broadly categorized into five dimensions which serve as the
foundational traits underlying individual differences in behavior, emotion, and thought.
Big Five Traits Description

Agreeableness

Openness to Experience

Extraversion

Conscientiousness

Neuroticism
(Emotional Stability)
Mnemonic Device for Remembering the Big 5 Traits

OCEAN or CANOE
168

Self-Report Personality Inventory

Objective Personality Tests

Define

Factor Analysis

Standardization

Reliability &
Validity

Examples

Minnesota Multiphasic California Psychological

The Big Five Trait Theory
Personality Inventory Inventory

Motivation
Explain how theories about motivation apply to behavior and mental processes (Topic 4.6).
Define Motivation:

Theories of Motivation
Theory Description
Define:

Drive-Reduction
Homeostasis:
169
Theory Description
Define:

Yerkes-Dodson Law:

Sensation-Seeking
Arousal
Experience Seeking

Thrill/Adventure
Seeking

Disinhibition

Boredom
Susceptibility

Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation

Self-Determination

Define:

Incentive
170
Theory Description
Define:

Instincts

Lewin’s Motivational Conflict Theory

Individuals experience psychological stress and discomfort when faced with two or more
competing motivations, desires, or impulses, leading to internal conflict and necessitating
resolution to restore psychological equilibrium.
Approach-Approach Approach-Avoidance Avoidance-Avoidance

Biological Motivation
Eating
Explain how the following biological factors influence our motivation to eat:
o Ghrelin
o Leptin
o Hypothalamus
o Pituitary Gland

How do the following environmental factors influence our motivation to eat:

o Presence of Food
o Time of Day
o Social Gatherings
171

Emotion
Explain how theories of emotion apply to behavior and mental processes, as well as how social
norms and experience influence the expression of emotions (Topic 4.7).

Theory of Emotion
(AKA Affect)
Define:

Physiological Experience Cognitive Experience

Cognitive Labelling

Brief History of Research on Emotion

The 20th-century debate on emotion centered around the relationship between physiological responses
and cognitive processes in the experience of emotions. Early psychologists were divided on whether
physiological reactions, such as increased heart rate or sweating, precede cognitive appraisal, the
process of identifying and labeling the emotion, or occur simultaneously with it. Some theories
proposed that an emotional experience begins with a physiological reaction to a stimulus, which is then
interpreted cognitively, leading to the emotional feeling. Others argued for the inseparability of
physiological and cognitive components, suggesting that emotions arise from these processes happening
concurrently. Further, the role of cognitive labeling in identifying and experiencing emotions was
emphasized, introducing the idea that recognizing and naming our physiological states is essential for
the emotional experience. This debate laid the groundwork for understanding the complex interplay
between the body and mind in forming emotions, a topic that continues to evolve with ongoing
research.
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Define:
172

The Broaden and Build Theory of Emotion

Define:

Broadening Effect Building Effect

According to the Broaden and Build Theory, what are the benefits of negative emotions?

The Universal Emotions

Define:

What does the research say about universal

emotions?
173
Display Rules Elicitors for Emotion

Example(s) Example(s)
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175

Achievement Unlocked: Unit IV!

Directions: Congratulations on completing Unit IV of your AP Psychology journey! This unit
took you through the fascinating realm of social psychology and personality, shedding light on
how individuals interact with each other and how unique personalities are formed and expressed. As
you celebrate this achievement, remember that the journey to mastery involves review and practice.
Engage with the Unit IV progress check, tackle multiple choice questions, and refine your
skills with the FRQs to solidify your grasp of the concepts. Your perseverance is crucial to conquering
the challenges of AP Psychology. Keep up the momentum, and to add a creative twist to your study
session, here's a few psych themed riddles to test that mind of yours!

Social Psychology & Personality

Riddles

I am not seen but oAen felt, I influence without a single word, and I guide behavior though I'm not
a law. I vary from culture to culture, some6mes leading to confusion or clarity. What am I?

I live in the mind, yet I can build or destroy communi6es. I shape your views of others without a
single mee6ng. Prejudge I may, but aware you can be. What am I?

Invisible threads connect us in space, shaping emo6ons, decisions, and face. I pull without
touching; I bind without chains. In groups or alone, my influence remains. What am I?

Answers: Social Norm // Stereotype // Social Influence

Unit IV Progress Check

Social Psychology & Personality
I can…
o Explain how attribution theory applies to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how locus of control (internal and external) applies to behavior and mental
processes.
o Explain how person perception applies to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how stereotypes and implicit attitudes contribute to the behaviors and mental
processes of prejudice and discrimination.
o Explain how belief perseverance and cognitive dissonance apply to attitude formation and
change.
o Explain how the social situation affects behaviors and mental processes.
o Explain how the psychodynamic theory of personality defines and assesses personality.
o Explain how the humanistic theory of personality defines and assesses personality.
o Explain how the socio-cognitive theory of personality defines and assesses personality.
o Explain how trait theories of personality define and assess personality.
o Explain how theories about motivation apply to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how eating and belongingness motivate behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how theories of emotion apply to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how social norms and experiences influence the expression of emotions.
176

Unit IV Multiple-Choice Practice

Directions: Using the knowledge you have gained from the Science Practices as well as Unit IV –
Social Psychology & Personality, in order to answer the following multiple-choice questions. Take
your time and remember to read through each question carefully.

1. During a group project, Jack notices he’s putting in more effort than others. This scenario
exemplifies:
a. Social Facilitation
b. Social Loafing
c. Group Polarization
d. Groupthink

2. Which principle from social psychology best explains why individuals may perform better on
simple tasks in the presence of others?
a. Cognitive Dissonance
b. Social Facilitation
c. Group Polarization
d. Deindividuation

3. A psychologist studying conformity shows participants a line of a certain length and asks them
to choose the matching line from a group of three, with two obviously wrong answers. The
psychologist notes that 75% of participants conform to the incorrect choice when in a group
setting. This finding best supports which of the following theories?
a. Attribution Theory
b. Cognitive Dissonance
c. Asch’s Conformity Theory
d. Milgram’s Obedience Theory

4. In an experiment to test the facial-feedback hypothesis, researchers asked participants to hold

a pencil in their mouth in one of two ways: one that engages muscles used in smiling or another
that does not. They then rated their mood. This study design primarily aims to investigate how:
a. Physiological responses influence cognitive assessments of emotion.
b. Cognitive dissonance affects decision-making.
c. External stimuli can directly alter emotional states.
d. Social norms influence emotional expression.

5. According to the broaden-and-build theory, positive emotions differ from negative emotions in
that they:
a. Increases physiological arousal more than negative emotions.
b. Are more likely to be expressed publicly due to social norms.
c. Lead to a narrowing of cognitive processing and behavioral responses.
d. Explain attention and cognitive processing, facilitating new ideas and actions.
177

Unit IV Free-Response Practice

Practice Evidence Based Question
Directions: This question will have three parts: Part A, Part B, and Part C. Use the three sources
provided to answer all parts of the question. For Part B and Part C, you must cite the source that you
used to answer the question. You can do this in two different ways:
- Parenthetical Citation
o Example: “…(Source A)
- Embedded Citation
o Example: “According to Source A…”
Write the response to each part of the question in complete sentences. Use appropriate psychological
terminology.

Question: Using the sources provided, develop and justify an argument about how social
media influences self-esteem and social comparison among teenagers.

Source A
Introduction
As digital interactions via social media platforms become increasingly prevalent, especially among
young adults, understanding the impact on social well-being is critical. This study investigates the
relationship between social media use (SMU) and perceived social isolation (PSI) among young
adults in the U.S., exploring whether high engagement on platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and
Instagram correlates with feelings of social isolation. By examining a nationally representative
sample of young adults aged 19-32, researchers aim to shed light on the complex dynamics between
digital socialization and perceived social connectivity.
Participants
The study engaged a nationally representative sample of 1,787 U.S. adults aged 19 to 32 years,
recruited in October and November of 2014. This diverse cohort was carefully selected to mirror the
demographic makeup of the broader U.S. population, encompassing a wide range of socio-
demographic backgrounds. The gender distribution of participants was balanced, with a slight
majority being female (50.3%). Racially, the group was predominantly white (57.5%), with
significant representation from African American (13.0%), Hispanic (20.6%), and
biracial/multiracial or other categories (8.9%). Reflecting various stages of adult life and
socioeconomic statuses, participants reported a range of educational achievements and household
incomes, living in different household compositions and engaging in varied relationship statuses.
Method
The survey, which was web-based, was aimed at examining the associations between social media
use (SMU) and perceived social isolation (PSI). Social media use was assessed by asking
participants to estimate the time spent on social media for personal use on an average day and to
report the frequency of their use of 11 popular social media platforms, including Facebook, Twitter,
Google+, YouTube, LinkedIn, Instagram, Pinterest, Tumblr, Vine, Snapchat, and Reddit. PSI was
measured using the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System scale. To
analyze the data, ordered logistic regression was employed to assess the associations between SMU
and PSI, controlling for various covariates such as age, sex, race/ethnicity, relationship status,
living situation, household income, and education level.
Social Media Use (SMU): Participants were asked questions about the amount of time they
spent on social media as well as which platforms they were using.
178
Perceived Social Isolation (PSI): Participants asked, “In the past seven days, how often have
you felt: left out, that people barely know you, isolated from others, that people are around you but
now with you?”
Results and Discussion
The study on social media use (SMU) and perceived social isolation (PSI) among young adults in
the U.S. revealed striking associations between high levels of SMU and increased feelings of social
isolation. Participants in the highest quartile of social media usage time had twice the odds of
experiencing greater social isolation compared to those in the lowest quartile. Similarly, individuals
in the highest quartile for frequency of social media use had more than three times the odds of
feeling more socially isolated than those who used social media less frequently. These associations
remained significant even after adjusting for a variety of sociodemographic factors, indicating a
robust link between extensive social media engagement and perceived social isolation. The study's
findings suggest a paradoxical scenario where increased usage of platforms designed for social
interaction may lead to feelings of being more socially isolated. These results underscore the
importance of exploring the nature of social media interactions and their impact on users' social
health and well-being.
Source
Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Sidani, J. E., Whaite, E. O., Lin, L. Y., Rosen, D., Colditz, J. B., Radovic,
A., & Miller, E. (2017). Social media use and perceived social isolation among young adults in
the U.S. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 53(1), 1–
8. [Link]
179
Source B
Introduction
In the age of flourishing social media platforms, the study explores the intricate relationship
between Instagram usage and the emergence of orthorexia nervosa symptoms, a condition
characterized by an obsession with consuming only "healthy" foods. By analyzing the behaviors and
responses of 680 social media users who actively follow health food accounts, this research delves
into how Instagram, as a visually driven platform, might influence eating habits and contribute to
the development of orthorexia nervosa, highlighting the broader impact of social media on mental
health and dietary choices.
Orthorexia Nervosa (ON): A condition characterized by an excessive preoccupation with eating
food that one considers healthy, often leading to dietary restrictions and social isolation.
Participants
The study focused on the relationship between Instagram use and orthorexia nervosa (ON),
recruiting 713 participants through social media channels and a health blog. However, the analysis
concentrated on 680 female participants, excluding males and those with incomplete data due to
the small sample size of men. The participants ranged in age from 18 to 75 years, with an average
age of approximately 25 years and a healthy average BMI. The sample was geographically diverse,
with a significant proportion residing in the UK (44.6%) and the US (26.7%), among others from 40
countries.

Method
In the study examining the link between Instagram use and symptoms of orthorexia nervosa,
participants were recruited through non-paid advertisements on Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, a
health-focused blog, and a health bloggers community newsletter. The final sample focused on 680
females, ranging in age from 18 to 75, with an average BMI indicating a healthy weight. The survey,
developed using Qualtrics, collected data on several key areas:
Social Media Use: Participants indicated which social media channels they used from a list that
included Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, Google+, Tumblr, and LinkedIn. They reported
how often they accessed these channels and the amount of time spent on them on a typical day.
Dietary Choices: The survey asked about consumption of 19 different types of food, ranging from
red meat to nightshades, and what dietary labels (e.g., vegan, omnivore) participants identified
with.
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Orthorexia Nervosa Measure: The ORTO-15 questionnaire was used to assess symptoms of
orthorexia nervosa. This is a multiple-choice tool where responses range on a 4-point Likert scale,
with lower scores indicating higher levels of orthorexia symptoms.
Demographics: Questions covered age, gender, ethnicity, country of residence, height, and
weight, from which BMI was calculated.
Analysis of the survey data involved calculating ORTO-15 scores, converting social media use into
approximate minutes per week, and using Spearman's rank order and Pearson product-moment
correlations to explore relationships between orthorexia nervosa symptoms and various factors,
including social media use.
Results and Discussion
The inferential results of the study indicated a notable relationship between Instagram use and
increased symptoms of orthorexia nervosa (ON). Specifically, a negative correlation was found
between the ORTO-15 scores, which measure ON symptoms, and the amount of time spent on
Instagram, with a correlation coefficient of r = -0.10, signifying that higher Instagram usage was
associated with greater tendencies towards ON. The mean ORTO-15 score among participants was
34.33 (SD = 4.04), and with the utilization of two cutoff scores to identify ON symptoms (<40 and
<35), the prevalence of ON was alarmingly high at 49% when using the stricter cutoff of <35. This
prevalence is significantly higher than less than 1% observed in the general population, highlighting
the unique impact of Instagram on ON symptoms among the study's participants. No other social
media platform showed such a clear effect, although Twitter displayed a small positive correlation
with ON symptoms (r = 0.12), suggesting a nuanced and platform-specific influence on eating
disorder symptoms.

Source
Turner, P. G., & Lefevre, C. E. (2017). Instagram use is linked to increased symptoms of orthorexia
nervosa. Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity, 22(2),
277–284. [Link]
181

Source C
Introduction
In the evolving landscape of online interaction, this study explores the impact of Facebook on
college students' social capital, focusing on how the platform facilitates the formation and
maintenance of various forms of social connections. By surveying undergraduate students,
researchers aim to understand if Facebook's network-building capabilities enhance social capital
among peers, potentially aiding in the maintenance of existing relationships and the creation of new
ones within the academic community.
Participants
The study on the benefits of Facebook friends and their impact on social capital involved 800
undergraduate students from an undisclosed large state university in the Southeastern United
States. Out of the 800 students who were sent an invitation to participate in the survey, only 286 of
these students participated in the research. The sample was predominantly female, constituting
60% of participants, with a varied age distribution where the majority (70%) were aged 18 to 22
years, reflecting the typical undergraduate age range. The ethnic composition was diverse, including
White (65%), Black (21%), Asian (8%), Hispanic (4%), and others (2%), which provided a broad
spectrum of perspectives on how Facebook influences social connections. This demographic mix
allowed for an examination of Facebook's role in fostering social capital across different student
groups, aiming to capture a comprehensive understanding of the platform's social benefits within a
collegiate context.
Method
In this study, researchers conducted a survey among 286 undergraduate students at a large state
university in the Southeastern United States to examine the relationship between Facebook usage
and the formation and maintenance of social capital. The study sought to explore not only bonding
and bridging social capital but also introduced a third dimension, maintained social capital, which
assesses one's ability to stay connected with members of a previously inhabited community. By
employing regression analyses on survey responses, the study aimed to discern the impact of
Facebook on social connections, with a particular focus on how the platform might support students
in navigating their social environments both within and beyond the university setting.
The researchers utilized a comprehensive survey that included a variety of measures to assess
different aspects of social capital and Facebook usage:
Facebook Intensity: This measure captured the depth of participants' Facebook engagement,
including the number of friends, time spent on Facebook, emotional connection to the platform,
and integration of Facebook into daily activities.
*Social Capital: The survey included items designed to measure three distinct types of social
capital: bonding (close relationships that offer emotional support), bridging (more casual
connections that offer new ideas and perspectives), and maintained social capital (the ability to
maintain connections with a geographically dispersed network). Each type of social capital was
assessed through questions that explored participants' relationships and the perceived benefits
gained from those relationships.
Facebook Usage Patterns: Participants were asked about their specific activities on Facebook,
such as updating statuses, commenting on friends' posts, and messaging friends directly. These
questions aimed to understand how various features of Facebook contribute to the formation and
maintenance of social capital.

*Social Capital: The networks, relationships, and norms that help individuals and communities
share resources and support each other, enhancing collective well-being and efficiency.
182
Results and Discussion
The study examining Facebook's role in building social capital among college students revealed
significant findings related to the formation and maintenance of social capital. Regression analyses
highlighted a strong association between Facebook usage and increased levels of bridging social
capital, with Facebook intensity (comprising time spent on the platform, number of friends, and
emotional connection to the site) showing a positive correlation (*scaled beta = .34, p < .0001). This
suggests that intensive Facebook use can help students form broader, more inclusive networks that
extend beyond their immediate social circles. Furthermore, the study found a positive relationship
between Facebook use and bonding social capital, though to a lesser extent (scaled beta = .37, p <
.001), indicating that Facebook also supports the strengthening of close, emotionally supportive
relationships.

*Scaled Beta: A score that shows how strongly one thing affects another in a study, making it
easier to compare different things on the same scale. 0 = weak relationship, 1 = strong
relationship.
Source
Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook “Friends:” social capital
and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, 12(4), 1143–1168. [Link]
183

Evidence-Based Question (EBQ) Response

Directions: This question has three parts: Part A, Part B, and Part C. Use the three sources provided
to answer all parts of the question.

Using the sources provided, develop and justify an argument about how social media
influences self-esteem and social comparison among teenagers.
A. Propose a specific and defensible claim based on psychological science that responds to the
question.
B. (i) Support your claim using at least one piece of specific and relevant evidence from one
of the sources.
(ii) Explain how the evidence from Part B (i) supports your claim using a psychological
perspective, theory, concept, or research finding learned in AP Psychology.
C. (i) Support your claim using an additional piece of specific and relevant evidence from a
different source than the one that was used in Part B (i)
(ii) Explain how the evidence from Part C (i) supports your claim using a different
psychological perspective, theory, concept, or research finding learned in AP Psychology
than the one that was used in Part B (ii).

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Unit IV – Answer Key

Directions: Hold up, rapid thinker! It appears you’ve sprinted towards the answers
with the speed of a social psychologist chasing groundbreaking insights. But let's
gently tap the brakes and navigate back through the maze of questions. Picture this
as an intellectual obstacle course designed to stretch your understanding and
sharpen your insights—no breezing past the challenges! We wouldn't want to stir up
any cognitive dissonance by skipping straight to the solutions, would we? Prepare to
engage fully with the puzzles at hand, then, with all synapses firing, you can return here.
Off you trot... back to those intriguing enigmas!

Part I – Multiple Choice

1. B: Social loafing refers to the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working
collectively in a group than when working individually.
2. B: Social facilitation is the concept that explains improved performance on simple or well-
learned tasks in the presence of others.
3. C: The question references Solomon Asch’s theory explaining conformity.
4. A: The facial feedback hypothesis examines the link between physiological responses (smile-
related muscle activation) and emotional experiences.
5. D: According to the broaden-and-build theory, emotional states influence cognitive processes.

Part II – Free Response (Possible Responses)

To earn a point, students must…
1. (A): Provide a claim backed by a psychological concept such as: "Social media, particularly
visual platforms like Instagram, fuels social comparison and impacts teenagers' self-esteem
through the interplay of social comparison theory and reciprocal determinism. These
concepts elucidate how teenagers' self-worth is influenced by comparisons with others and how
their behaviors and the social media environment continuously interact, perpetuating cycles of
negative self-perception and heightened comparison."
2. (B)(i): Provide evidence from the study such as: "According to Source A, Instagram usage
revealed a significant relationship between heavy use of the platform and increased symptoms
of orthorexia nervosa, demonstrating how social media platforms can create environments that
foster unhealthy comparisons, particularly regarding body image and lifestyle."
3. (B)(ii): Explain how your response in (B)(i) can be supported by a psychological perspective,
theory, concept, or research finding: "This finding serves as a real-world application of social
comparison theory, showing how the curated, idealized images on Instagram prompt users,
especially teenagers, to measure their lives against unrealistic standards, often leading to lower
self-esteem when they perceive a discrepancy between their own reality and the images
viewed."
4. (C)(i): Provide evidence from the study such as: "According to Source A, Facebook's role in
social capital formation among college students suggests that while social media can expand
one’s network, it paradoxically may also heighten feelings of isolation for some users,
particularly impacting those with preexisting lower self-esteem."
5. (C)(ii): Provide evidence from the study such as: "This example illustrates reciprocal
determinism, as the cycle of interaction between teenagers’ engagement with social media
(behavior), the influence of the social media environment (environment), and their existing
self-esteem (personal factors) creates a dynamic feedback loop. Teenagers' low self-esteem can
drive them to seek validation through social media, which in turn may exacerbate feelings of
inadequacy due to unfavorable comparisons, further impacting their self-esteem and behavior
on these platforms. This cycle demonstrates how social media can be both a product and a
producer of low self-esteem and social comparison among teenagers."
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Unit V
Mental and Physical Health
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Unit V: Mental and Physical Health

IN THIS SECTION
SUMMARY: Mental & Physical Health in AP Psychology delves into the essential relationship
between psychological well-being and physical health, underscoring the critical role that mental
health plays in an individual's overall wellness. This unit offers a nuanced exploration of stress, its
triggers, and its wide-ranging effects on the body and mind, highlighting the physiological and
psychological mechanisms that come into play under stress. Students learn about various coping
strategies employed to mitigate stress, distinguishing between adaptive and maladaptive approaches
and their implications for health. Furthermore, the unit provides a detailed look at mental health
disorders, presenting a comprehensive overview of classifications, symptoms, and the latest in
diagnostic criteria. It emphasizes a holistic understanding of mental illness through the
biopsychosocial model, which considers the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors.
Treatment modalities, ranging from traditional psychotherapies to cutting-edge biomedical
interventions, are examined, illustrating the diverse approaches to achieving mental wellness. The
curriculum also touches on the importance of societal and cultural perspectives in shaping our
understanding of mental health and illness, recognizing the impact of stigma and the need for
advocacy and awareness.
KEY CONCEPTS:
o Explore how psychological factors influence physical health and illness.
o Understand the physiological and psychological responses to stress.
o Examine the principles of positive psychology.
o Identify and classify psychological disorders, understanding their symptom and causes.
o Review various therapeutic approaches, including psychotherapy and biomedical therapy.
o Apply the biopsychosocial model to understand how these factors influence health.

UNIT AT A GLANCE
Explaining and
Introduction to
Positive Classifying
Health
Psychology Psychological
Psychology
Disorders

Selection of
Treatment of
Categories of
Psychological
Psychological
Disorders
Disorders
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Introduction to Health Psychology

Explore the role of health psychology in understanding the interplay between behavior, mental
processes, and physical health, focusing on how stress, reactions to stress, and coping mechanisms
impact overall well-being. (Topic 5.1).
Define Health Psychology:

Stress
Define:

Eustress Distress

Traumatic Stress Daily Hassle

Aversive Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

192

Hans Selye’s
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Define:

Alarm Stage Resistance Stage Exhaustion Stage

The Tend-and-Befriend Theory

Define

Biological
Underpinnings

Gender
Differences in
Stress Response
193

Coping with Stress

Define Coping:

Problem-Focused Coping Emotion-Focused Coping

Example(s) Example(s)

Remember!
Understanding these coping mechanisms is crucial in health psychology, as they highlight the
dynamic ways in which individuals interact with their environment to maintain mental and
emo6onal well-being. The choice between problem-focused and emo6on-focused coping oBen
depends on the individual’s evalua6on of the stressor and their belief in their ability to influence
the outcome. By employing these strategies, individuals can navigate the challenges of stress,
influencing their psychological health and behavior in meaningful ways.
194

Positive Psychology
Explain how positive psychology and positive subjective experiences explain the study of behavior
and mental processes. (Topic 5.2).
Define Positive Psychology:

Subjective Well-Being
Define:

Positive Subjective-Experience
An individual's personal perception of an event or situation that elicits positive emotions,
contributing to their overall well-being and happiness.

Example: Gratitude
Gratitude as a positive subjective experience involves an individual's personal feeling of thankfulness
and appreciation for something received, whether tangible or intangible, which is internally felt and
can significantly influence one's perception of happiness and well-being. It's subjective because it
depends on the individual's internal state and personal interpretation of their experiences.

Positive Objective-Experience
An observable event or situation that universally elicits positive responses or outcomes,
contributing to an individual's well-being and satisfaction from an external perspective.

Example: Happiness
Happiness as a positive objective experience refers to observable expressions or outcomes of happiness
that can be universally recognized or measured, such as smiling, laughter, or other indicators of joy.
These expressions or outcomes are considered objective because they can be observed by others and are
not solely dependent on the individual's internal feelings or interpretations.

Key Differences
The key difference lies in the internal versus external focus: gratitude is an internal feeling that may
not always be visible to others, rooted in personal reflection and acknowledgment, while happiness, in
the context of positive objective experiences, manifests in external expressions that are visible and can
be recognized by others.
195

Character Strengths of Positive Psychology

The positive traits and qualities inherent to an individual that drive their thoughts, behaviors, and
actions, contributing to their overall well-being and fulfillment. These strengths, which include
virtues like wisdom, courage, and kindness, are considered fundamental to achieving a life of
meaning and purpose.
Directions: Match the virtue with its description
Virtue Description

Wisdom: ______________ A. Focuses on civic strengths that uphold community well-being

through equitable actions, teamwork, and principled leadership.
B. Involves cognitive abilities that promote thoughtful insight,
Courage: ______________
innovation, and a deep understanding and application of
knowledge.
Humanity: ___________ C. Connects individuals to the broader universe, inspiring a sense of
purpose, appreciation for beauty, and a pursuit of meaning beyond
the self.
Justice: ________________ D. Comprises interpersonal qualities that enhance empathy, nurturing
relationships, and showing kindness and generosity towards others.
E. Encompasses emotional strengths that empower facing adversity,
Temperance: __________ advocating for beliefs, and engaging life with enthusiasm and
determination.
F. Consists of qualities that encourage moderation, self-control, and
Transcendence: _______ prudent decision-making in personal and social contexts.

Posttraumatic Growth
A Positive Subjective Experience
Define Posttraumatic Growth:

-----------------------------------------------------EXAMPLE----------------------------------------------------
Mia, a high school junior, loved creating art in her spare time. However, her world shifted when she
faced a serious health scare. The months that followed were tough, filled with doctor visits and
uncertainty. Yet, Mia used her art to express her feelings, painting her way through the fear and
isolation.
As she recovered, Mia noticed a change in herself. She began to treasure the small moments, like the
way the morning light hit her canvases. She felt closer to her family and friends, cherishing their
support more than ever. Inspired by her experience, Mia organized an art club at school to share the
therapeutic power of painting with her peers, turning her challenge into a source of strength and
connection.
This journey of overcoming and growth transformed Mia. She emerged more resilient and with a
deeper appreciation for life and the people around her. Her story became one of inspiration among
her classmates, showcasing the positive change that can come from life’s trials.
196

Explaining and Classifying Psychological Disorders

Explore how various approaches, psychological perspectives, and interaction models contribute to
defining and classifying behaviors and mental processes as psychological disorders. (Topic 5.3).

Psychological Disorder
A pattern of behavioral or psychological symptoms that impact multiple areas of life, presenting
distress or impairment, and deviate from cultural norms, not resulting from acceptable social
responses to particular events.
Level of Dysfunction Perception of Distress Deviation of Social Norms

The Positive & Negative Consequences of a Diagnosis

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
When we talk about diagnosing and classifying psychological disorders, we're diving into a world that's
as intricate as it is vital. Imagine finally getting a map in a vast, unknown territory; that's what a
proper diagnosis can be like. It opens doors to the right support, treatments, and a community that
understands exactly what you're going through. It's like finding your tribe and getting the tools you
need to navigate life more smoothly.

However, this journey isn't without its pitfalls. The very label that can bring relief and understanding
can also weigh you down with stigma and stereotypes. Picture walking around with a giant, neon sign
flashing your diagnosis; it's not exactly conducive to feeling normal or accepted. In a world rich with
diverse cultures and beliefs, what's considered a disorder in one place might be shrugged off in
another, leading to a tangled web of misdiagnosis or even a complete lack of diagnosis for some. And
let's not overlook the elephant in the room: racism, sexism, ageism, and all sorts of discrimination that
can twist the diagnosis process, making it harder for some to get the help they need.

So, while the map of diagnosis is crucial, it's essential to navigate this terrain with eyes wide open,
recognizing both the power and the limitations of labels. It's about striking a balance—valuing the
guidance and support a diagnosis can bring, while also challenging the stigmas and biases, ensuring
everyone gets a fair shot at understanding themselves and leading a fulfilling life, no matter their
psychological challenges.
197

Diagnosing Psychological Disorders

The American Psychiatric Association The World Health Organization
The Diagnostic & Statistical Manual (DSM) of The International Classification of Mental
Mental Disorders Disorders (ICD)

Comparing & Contrasting Diagnostic Criteria

o Created by the World Health Organization,
o Developed by the American Psychiatric
it covers a broad range of health
Association, it specifically focuses on
conditions, including both physical and
mental health disorders.
mental disorders.
o Predominantly used in the United States
o Has global usage for health diagnoses,
and influences research, clinical practice,
including in the United States for physical
and health policy primarily in mental
health conditions and is the standard for
health fields.
health management and clinical purposes
o Offers more detailed criteria specifically worldwide.
for mental disorders, including
o While including mental health disorders, it
descriptions, symptoms, and diagnostic
is broader and less detailed in criteria
guidelines tailored to mental health.
specific to mental health compared to the
o Has faced criticism for being less attuned DSM.
to cultural differences; however, newer
o Aims for universal applicability, including a
editions have made efforts to address
more global perspective, which is critical for
cultural aspects of mental health.
its use in diverse international contexts.

What’s the Difference?

How do the DSM and ICD differ in their approach to diagnosing mental disorders, and
what are the implications of these differences for global mental health practices?
198

The Modern Perspectives & Psychological Disorders

Perspective Explanation of Psychological Disorders
Behavioral

Cognitive

Psychodynamic

Humanistic

Biological

Evolutionary

Sociocultural
199

The Eclectic Approach

Define:

Why is it beneficial for a therapist who is diagnosing mental health issues to take an eclectic
approach when coming up with their diagnosis?

The Biopsychosocial Model

States that mental health disorders are the result of a complex interplay between biological
factors, psychological dynamics, and social/environmental influences, offering a holistic
approach to understanding and treating mental illness.
Biological Factors Psychological Factors Environmental Factors

The Diathesis-Stress Model

States that psychological disorders arise from the interaction between individuals' pre-existing
vulnerabilities (diathesis) and environmental stressors, emphasizing that both genetic
predisposition and life experiences contribute to the development of mental illnesses.
Diathesis Stress

Interaction Between Diathesis and Stress

200

Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders

Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected neurodevelopmental, schizophrenic
spectrum, depressive, bipolar, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, dissociative, trauma and stressor,
feeding and eating, and personality disorders. (Topic 5.4).

Neurodevelopmental Disorders
A category of conditions that appear early in development, often before a child enters grade
school, and are characterized by developmental deficits that produce impairments of
personal, social, academic, or occupational functioning, including disorders such as autism
spectrum disorder, ADHD, and learning disorders.
Associated Disorders Description of Disorder

Attention-Deficit /
Hyperactivity Disorder
(AD/HD)

Autism Spectrum
Disorder
(ASD)

Possible Causes of Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Cause Description

Environmental

Physiological

Genetic
201

Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorder

Disorders characterized by issues in one or more of these five areas: delusions, hallucinations,
disorganized, thinking or speech, disorganized motor behavior, and negative symptoms.

Acute vs Chronic
Acute schizophrenia, often manifested as a brief episode, is characterized by sudden onset of severe
symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations, which can often be effectively managed or alleviated
with treatment. In contrast, chronic schizophrenia presents as a long-term condition, marked by
persistent symptoms that may include negative effects like emotional flatness and withdrawal, and it
requires ongoing management to mitigate the impact on daily functioning and quality of life.

Positive Symptoms
Positive symptoms in schizophrenia refer to the presence of psychotic behaviors not seen in
healthy individuals, including hallucinations, delusions, thought disorders, and movement
disorders, essentially adding abnormal experiences to the person's perception or behavior.
Positive Symptom Description

Delusions

Hallucinations

Disorganized
Thinking / Speech

Catatonic Excitement:
Disorganized Motor
Behavior

Negative Symptoms
Negative symptoms in schizophrenia refer to the reduction or absence of normal behaviors and
functions, including diminished emotional expression, lack of motivation or interest in daily
activities, reduced speaking, and social withdrawal, essentially taking away elements of a
person's normal functioning.
Negative Symptom Description

Flat Affect

Catatonic Stupor:
Disorganized Motor
Behavior
202

Possible Causes of Schizophrenia

Prenatal Virus Dopamine Hypothesis

Depressive Disorders
Depressive disorders are characterized by persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest in
activities, significantly impairing daily functioning and overall well-being.
Major Depressive Disorder Persistent Depressive Disorder

Possible Causes of Depressive Disorders

Cause Description

Biological

Genetic

Social

Cultural

Behavioral

Cognitive
203

Bipolar Disorders
Bipolar disorders are a category of mood disorders characterized by dramatic shifts in a person's
mood, energy, and ability to function, including episodes of mania and depression.
Manic vs Depressive Episodes
Manic Episode Depressive Episode

Bipolar I vs Bipolar II
Bipolar I Bipolar II

Possible Causes of Bipolar Disorders

Cause Description

Biological

Genetic

Social

Cultural

Behavioral

Cognitive
204

Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorders encompass a group of mental health conditions marked by excessive fear,
anxiety, and related behavioral disturbances that interfere with daily activities and quality of life.
What is Anxiety?
Anxiety is a normal and often healthy emotion characterized by feelings of tension, worried thoughts,
and physical changes like increased blood pressure. However, when anxiety feelings become excessive,
persistent, and interfere with daily activities, they can evolve into an anxiety disorder, impacting an
individual's ability to function effectively.
Disorder Description

Specific Phobia
Examples
Arachnophobia – Fear of Spiders Acrophobia – Fear of heights

Agoraphobia

Panic Disorder

Social Anxiety
Disorder

Generalized Anxiety
Disorder
(GAD)

Possible Causes of Anxiety Disorders

Cause Description

Learned
Associations

Maladaptive
Thinking

Biological / Genetic
Sources
205

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders are characterized by the presence of persistent,
unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions) that the individual feels
driven to perform, significantly impacting daily functioning and quality of life.
Obsessions Compulsions

Common Obsessions Common Compulsions

1. Fear of germs/contamination. 1. Excessive handwashing or cleaning.
2. Intense worry about harming oneself. 2. Repeatedly checking things, such as locks.
3. Preoccupation with order or symmetry. 3. Arranging items in precise ways.
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Define:

Hoarding Disorder
Define:

Possible Causes of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

Causes Description

Learned
Associations

Maladaptive
Thinking

Biological / Genetic
Sources
206

Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative disorders involve a disruption and/or discontinuity in the normal integration of
consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and
behavior, leading to significant impairments in daily functioning.
Dissociative Amnesia
Symptoms:

With Fugue:

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

Symptoms:

What Causes Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)?

An "alter" refers to one of the distinct identities or personalities present within the same individual.
Each alter can have its own name, age, gender, history, and characteristics, including preferences and
mannerisms that are different from the core personality. Alters appear as a psychological response to
severe trauma, typically experienced in early childhood. The mind creates these alters as a coping
mechanism to protect the individual from the full emotional impact of the trauma. By
compartmentalizing painful memories or emotions into separate identities, the person can distance
themselves from the trauma, allowing them to function in situations where the primary identity might
not cope. Essentially, alters serve as a survival strategy to navigate and endure overwhelming stress or
harm, showcasing the mind's remarkable ability to adapt to extreme circumstances.
The Role of Trauma and Stress in Dissociative Disorders
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Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders

Trauma and stressor-related disorders are a category of mental health conditions characterized
by significant emotional distress or behavioral problems that arise in response to a traumatic or
stressful event, such as PTSD or acute stress disorder.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
(PTSD)

Cause
(Trauma or Stress)

Intrusive Thoughts

Avoidance

Symptoms
Negative Changes in
Thinking / Mood

Changes in
Physical /Emotional
Reaction

Risk Factors
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Feeding and Eating Disorders

Feeding and eating disorders are characterized by abnormal or disturbed eating habits that
negatively impact an individual's physical health, psychological well-being, and daily
functioning.
Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa

Possible Causes of Feeding and Eating Disorders

Cause Description

Biological / Genetic

Social

Cultural

Behavioral

Cognitive
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Personality Disorders
Personality disorders are a category of mental health conditions marked by enduring patterns of
inner experience and behavior that deviate significantly from the expectations of an individual's
culture, leading to distress or impairment in personal, social, or occupational functioning.
Cluster A Cluster B Cluster C

Personality Disorder Description

Cluster A

Paranoid

Schizoid

Schizotypal

Cluster B

Antisocial

Histrionic

Narcissistic
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Personality Disorder Description

Borderline

Cluster C

Avoidant

Dependent

Obsessive-Compulsive

Potential Causes of Personality Disorders

Cause Description

Biological / Genetic

Social

Cultural

Behavioral

Cognitive
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Treatment of Psychological Disorders

Describe research and trends in the treatment of psychological disorders and mental health
therapy. (Topic 5.5).

Psychotherapy vs Psychotropic Medications

Psychotherapy Biological Therapy

Deinstitutionalization
Deinstitutionalization, a significant movement that began in the mid-20th century, aimed at
transitioning the care of individuals with mental health disorders from large, centralized institutions
to community-based settings. This shift was motivated by several factors, including the development of
effective psychiatric medications, increasing criticism of the conditions within mental hospitals, and a
growing emphasis on human rights and the potential for individuals to live fulfilling lives within their
communities. The movement was further bolstered by legislation and policies that sought to fund
community mental health centers and reduce reliance on institutional care.
R

While deinstitutionalization has had positive outcomes, such as promoting autonomy and integration
of individuals with mental health issues into society, it has also faced challenges. Positively, it
encouraged the development of outpatient services, day treatment programs, and the use of
medications that enable people to manage symptoms while living in their communities. However, the
movement also led to gaps in the mental health care system, including inadequate funding for
community services, a shortage of community-based resources, and issues with ensuring consistent and
comprehensive care for those who need it. This has, at times, resulted in increased homelessness and
incarceration rates among individuals with severe mental health issues, highlighting the need for a
well-supported and accessible community mental health infrastructure.

Refresher from Science Practice 2 // Ethics in Psychology

In clinical or therapeutic situations, psychologists are required to adhere to key ethical principles set by
the American Psychological Association (APA). These principles are designed to ensure that all
psychological practices are conducted with the utmost respect for the individual and with their best
interest in mind. Key principles include:
Nonmaleficence Fidelity
Do No Harm Confidentiality & Professional Relationship
Integrity Respect for People’s Rights & Dignity
Uphold Honesty in Practice of Psychology Rights to Privacy, Consent & Self-Determination
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Psychodynamic Therapy
Psychodynamic therapy is a form of depth psychology that focuses on unconscious processes as
they are manifested in an individual's present behavior, with the goals of revealing these
unconscious dynamics and helping individuals understand and resolve them through exploration
of past experiences, emotions, and patterns.
Free Association Dream Interpretation

Psychodynamic Therapy – Example

Elena, a senior in high school, felt increasingly troubled by recurring dreams and unexplained moments
of sadness that seemed to have no clear cause. Concerned, she sought help and was introduced to a
therapist who practiced psychodynamic therapy. Intrigued by the process, Elena decided to dive in,
hoping to uncover the root of her distress.
During her sessions, Elena was encouraged to speak freely about whatever thoughts came to mind, a
process known as free association. This method allowed her to explore the depths of her subconscious,
revealing connections and emotions she hadn't been consciously aware of. Additionally, her therapist
asked Elena to describe her dreams, using dream interpretation as a tool to access underlying conflicts
and feelings. Through this exploration, Elena discovered that her dreams and sadness were linked to
anxiety about her future and unresolved feelings from a past friendship that ended abruptly. This
insight provided Elena with a new understanding of her emotions, guiding her towards healing and
personal growth as she prepared for the transition to college.

Cognitive Therapy
Cognitive therapy is a form of psychotherapy that focuses on identifying and changing negative
and distorted thought patterns to improve emotional well-being and behavior.
Aspects of Therapy Description

Maladaptive Thinking

Cognitive Restructuring
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Aspects of Therapy Description

Fear Hierarchies

Cognitive Triad

Applied Behavior Analysis

(Behavior Therapy)
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a therapeutic approach that uses principles of learning and
behavior modification to encourage positive behaviors and reduce unwanted ones in individuals
with various conditions, particularly developmental disorders.
Types of Therapy Description
Description:

Exposure Therapies
Systematic Desensitization:

Aversion Therapies
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Types of Therapy Description

Token Economies

Biofeedback
A technique that teaches individuals how to control bodily functions, such as heart rate or muscle
tension, by using sensors that provide real-time feedback, helping to improve physical and mental
health conditions.

Review – Unit I
How might the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system play a role in the process
of biofeedback?

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

A widely used psychotherapeutic approach that addresses maladaptive thought patterns and
behaviors through a combination of cognitive and behavioral techniques to improve emotional
regulation and develop personal coping strategies.
Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy
Dialectical Behavior Therapy
(REBT)
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Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy – Example

Liam, a high school sophomore, constantly battled the thought, "I must be perfect in everything I do,
or I'm a complete failure," leading to overwhelming stress and avoidance of challenges. During his
sessions with a cognitive behavioral therapist, they identified this belief as a primary source of Liam's
anxiety. Using Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), the therapist guided Liam to challenge and
dispute this irrational belief by examining the evidence against being perfect in everything and
exploring the unrealistic nature of such expectations. They worked together to develop a more balanced
and rational belief: "It's okay to strive for excellence, but making mistakes is part of learning and
growing." Through practice and reinforcement of this new perspective in and out of therapy, Liam
learned to approach tasks with less fear of failure, reducing his anxiety and opening himself up to new
experiences and opportunities for growth.

Humanistic Therapy
A client-centered approach that emphasizes individual potential for growth and self-
actualization, focusing on the client's subjective experience to foster self-awareness and personal
development.
Active Listening Unconditional Positive Regard

Humanistic Therapy – Example

Jordan, feeling lost and disconnected during their final year of high school, sought help and found
themselves in the welcoming space of a humanistic therapist's office. Here, Jordan was met with a level
of attentiveness that felt new and profound. The therapist practiced active listening, giving Jordan
the space to speak openly about their fears and aspirations without interruption, affirming Jordan's
experiences and feelings through reflective responses. This environment of unconditional positive
regard, where Jordan felt entirely accepted and valued without judgment, fostered a sense of safety
and trust. Over time, this nurturing setting allowed Jordan to explore deeply held beliefs about
themselves and their future, leading to a journey of self-acceptance and a newfound confidence in
making decisions about life after graduation. The therapist's unwavering support and empathy were
key in helping Jordan navigate this pivotal time with resilience and optimism.
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Group vs Individual Therapy

Group therapy offers a unique therapeutic experience distinct from individual therapy, primarily
through its setting and dynamics. Unlike individual therapy, where a single client interacts with a
therapist, group therapy brings together multiple individuals under the guidance of one or more
therapists. This format fosters a supportive community where members can share experiences, offer
insights, and provide mutual support, creating a sense of belonging and understanding often not
available in individual sessions. Group therapy allows participants to learn from others' experiences,
witness the progress of peers, and practice interpersonal skills within a safe space. While individual
therapy offers personalized attention and confidentiality, group therapy introduces the added
benefits of peer learning and support, making it particularly effective for addressing issues related to
social skills, self-esteem, and interpersonal relationships.

Treating Pain & Anxiety with Hypnosis

Hypnosis is a psychological therapeutic technique that involves guiding an individual into a trance-like
state of heightened focus and concentration. This state, often likened to being absorbed in a good
book or meditation, enables individuals to turn their attention completely inward, accessing deeper
thoughts and feelings under the guidance of a trained therapist. The process is characterized by
increased suggestibility, relaxation, and vivid imagination, allowing for therapeutic interventions that
might not be as effective in a fully conscious state.
Research has consistently demonstrated the efficacy of hypnosis in managing both acute and chronic
pain, as well as anxiety. Studies show that individuals who undergo hypnosis can experience significant
reductions in pain associated with various conditions, including fibromyalgia, arthritis, and even
during surgical procedures. Similarly, hypnosis has been found to be beneficial in treating anxiety,
particularly that which is related to medical procedures, phobias, and stress-related disorders. The
mechanism is believed to involve the mind's ability to influence physical reactions and the body's stress
response system, providing a natural and effective way of managing discomfort and anxiety without
the need for medication.
However, the applications of hypnosis are not without limitations. While hypnosis can be a powerful
tool in managing pain and anxiety, its use in retrieving accurate memories or for age regression is not
supported by scientific research. The highly suggestible state induced by hypnosis can lead to the
creation of false memories or altered recollections, making it an unreliable method for memory
retrieval. Moreover, the concept of age regression, where individuals believe they can relive experiences
from their past as if they were happening in the present, lacks empirical support and is viewed with
skepticism by the scientific community. It's important for both practitioners and clients to
understand these limitations to avoid potential harm and to ensure that hypnosis is used effectively
and ethically within its proven areas of application.
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Biological Therapy
Treatments that address psychological disorders through physiological interventions, such as
medication, brain stimulation techniques, and surgery, to alter brain chemistry and function.
Psychoactive
Uses Side Effects
Medication

Antidepressants

Antianxiety

Lithium

Antipsychotics
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Psychosurgery
Surgical procedures on the brain to treat psychological disorders, historically used as a last resort
when other treatments have failed to provide relief.
History of Psychosurgery
The Lobotomy
In the shadowy corridors of psychiatric treatment history, the lobotomy looms as a stark testament to
medicine's experimental past. Inspired by Portuguese neurologist António Egas Moniz, who introduced
the world to the lobotomy in the 1930s as a cure for severe mental illnesses, American physician Walter
Freeman took the procedure to new heights—or depths, depending on perspective. Moniz's technique,
which earned him a Nobel Prize, involved drilling holes in the skull to access the brain and sever
connections in the prefrontal cortex, aiming to alleviate symptoms of mental disorders.
Freeman, however, sought a quicker, more accessible
approach. He developed the transorbital lobotomy,
infamously known as the "ice pick" lobotomy, inspired by the
tools of everyday life rather than medical precision. This
procedure required no drilling of the skull but instead
involved inserting a sharp instrument, similar to an ice pick,
through the back of the eye sockets and wiggling it to sever
connections in the brain. Performed in offices, asylums, and
even in his infamous "Lobotomobile," Freeman's method was
used on thousands, including children, often with
devastating results—ranging from profound personality
changes to severe cognitive impairment.
The tale of the lobotomy, particularly Freeman's adaptation, is a chilling chapter in medical history,
reflecting a period when the zeal to treat mental illness overshadowed the ethical considerations and
humanity of those suffering. It serves as a cautionary tale of the dangers of unchecked medical
experimentation and the profound impact of psychiatric interventions on the human mind and spirit.

Modern Methods of Psychosurgery

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Electroconvulsive Therapy
(TMS) (ECT)
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Achievement Unlocked: Unit V!

Directions: Congratulations on conquering Unit V and completing your journey through AP
Psychology! This final unit has guided you through the intricate world of mental and physical
health, uncovering the dynamics of psychological disorders, their impact, and the diverse
therapeutic approaches for treatment. As you transition from absorbing new material to
reviewing and integrating knowledge across all units, remember to revisit progress checks, tackle
practice questions, and refine your free-response answers to ensure a solid grasp of the concepts. Your
dedication has not only prepared you for the AP exam but also enriched your understanding of the
human mind and behavior. Celebrate this significant milestone with a fitting haiku!
Review guide complete,
Relief washes over, peace—
Mind's journey at ease.

Unit V Progress Check

Social Psychology & Personality
I can…
o Explain how health psychology addresses issues of physical health and wellness as they
apply to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how stress applies to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how reactions to stress apply to behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how the ways that people cope with stress applies to behavior and mental
processes.
o Explain how positive psychology approaches the study of behavior and mental processes.
o Explain how positive subjective experiences apply to behavior and mental processes.
o Describe the approaches used to define behaviors and mental processes as psychological
disorders.
o Explain how psychological perspectives define disorders.
o Explain how interaction models define psychological disorders.
o Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected neurodevelopmental disorders.
o Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected schizophrenic spectrum disorders.
o Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected depressive disorders.
o Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected bipolar disorders.
o Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected anxiety disorders.
o Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected obsessive-compulsive and related
disorders.
o Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected dissociative disorders.
o Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected trauma and stressor-related
disorders.
o Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected feeding and eating disorders.
o Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected personality disorders.
o Describe the research and trends in the treatment of psychological disorders.
o Describe the ethical principles in the treatment of psychological disorders.
o Describe techniques used with psychological therapies.
o Explain how group therapy is different from individual therapy.
o Describe effective uses of hypnosis.
o Describe interventions derived from the biological perspective.
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Unit V Multiple-Choice Practice

Directions: Using the knowledge you have gained from the Science Practices as well as Unit V –
Mental and Physical Health, in order to answer the following multiple-choice questions. Take your
time and remember to read through each question carefully.
1. A new therapeutic approach combines cognitive restructuring with behavioral exercises to
reduce symptoms of anxiety. This approach aligns best with which of the following therapy
models?
a. Psychodynamic Therapy
b. Humanistic Therapy
c. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
d. Biomedical Therapy

2. An individual diagnosed with bipolar disorder is treated with a medication that stabilizes mood
swings. This treatment strategy primarily targets which aspect of the biopsychosocial model?
a. Biological
b. Psychological
c. Social
d. Environmental

3. Considering the diathesis-stress model, which scenario best illustrates the development of a
psychological disorder?
a. An individual with no family history of depression develops depressive symptoms after
experiencing chronic job stress.
b. A person with a genetic predisposition for anxiety does not develop an anxiety disorder
despite facing significant life stressors.
c. Someone with a genetic vulnerability to schizophrenia begins showing symptoms
following a traumatic event.
d. A child exhibits symptoms of ADHD with no identifiable environmental triggers or
family history of the disorder.

4. In a study assessing the impact of support groups on the recovery process of individuals with
substance use disorder, the researchers measure the participants' relapse rates over a year.
This study is best classified as:
a. A Longitudinal Study
b. A Cross-Sectional Study
c. An Experimental Study
d. A Correlational Study

5. A graph in a research study shows a downward trend in depressive symptoms (Y-axis) over
time (X-axis) among participants undergoing light therapy during the winter months. The best
interpretation of these results is:
a. Light therapy has no effect on depressive symptoms.
b. Light therapy may reduce depressive symptoms in individuals with Seasonal Affective
Disorder.
c. Depressive symptoms naturally decrease over time, independent of light therapy.
d. The increase in light exposure during the winter months is unrelated to depressive
symptoms.
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Unit V Free-Response Practice

Practice Article Analysis Question
Directions: Carefully read and analyze the provided research and questions, applying key concepts
from the current unit. Use specific evidence and scientific practices discussed in class to construct
your responses. Ensure your answers are concise, clear, and directly related to the unit's material.
Don’t forget to use the FRQ tips from the review guide shown at the beginning of the review guide to
help you ace these FRQs!
Introduction
Amid growing concerns about the mental well-being of scientific and technological
professionals, this study delves into the potential benefits of physical exercise on their
mental health. It explores how engaging in regular physical activities might directly enhance
mental health and examines the roles of stress, resilience, and social support as mediators
in this process.
Participants
The study involved 1243 scientific and technological professionals from Henan Province, China,
selected through snowball sampling—a method where existing study participants recommend
future participants from among their acquaintances. This approach helped gather a diverse sample,
including 51% males and 49% females, with an average age of 39.68 years. Participants varied in
educational background, with many holding doctoral degrees, providing a broad perspective on the
impact of exercise on mental health within this professional group.

Methods
This study focused on the effects of physical exercise on the mental health of 1,243 scientific and
technological professionals in Henan Province, China. The participants, comprising a nearly equal
split between 634 males (51%) and 609 females (49%), ranged in age from 19 to 64 years, with an
average age of 39.68 years. The sample boasted a high level of education, with nearly half
possessing a doctoral degree (48.2%), and was gathered using convenience sampling through an
online survey platform from November to December 2021. By assessing exercise habits alongside
psychological scales measuring mental health, stress, resilience, and social support, the study aimed
to uncover the direct and mediated relationships between physical activity and mental well-being in
this specific professional demographic.
Mental health, stress, resilience, and social support were measured using established psychological
scales:
222
Mental Health: The General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12) identifies psychiatric disorders
by asking about personal feelings and functions, where higher scores suggest poorer mental health.
Stress: The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) gauges the extent of stress in one's life, with higher scores
indicating more perceived stress.
Resilience: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) measures one's ability to overcome
adversity, with higher scores showing greater resilience.
Social Support: The Social Support Rating Scale (SSRS) assesses perceived availability of social
support, where higher scores denote more support.
Results and Discussions
The study examining the impact of exercise on mental health among scientific and technological
professionals found that exercise directly benefits mental health, with significant positive effects
(scaled beta = 0.271, p < 0.001). Additionally, stress, resilience, and social support serve as
mediating factors in this relationship, indicating a multifaceted pathway through which exercise
contributes to mental well-being. Specifically, exercise was found to reduce stress (scaled beta = -
0.247, p < 0.001), increase resilience (scaled beta = 0.182, p < 0.001), and enhance perceived social
support (scaled beta = 0.174, p < 0.001), each of which in turn positively impacted mental health.
The findings underscore the complex interplay between physical activity and psychological health,
highlighting not only the direct benefits of exercise in enhancing mental health but also the crucial
roles played by reducing stress, building resilience, and enhancing social support. These results
suggest that encouraging regular physical activity among scientific and technological professionals
could serve as an effective strategy for improving mental health outcomes, offering insights into
developing holistic mental health interventions that consider both physical and psychosocial
factors.

*Scaled Beta: A score that shows how strongly one thing affects another in a study, making it
easier to compare different things on the same scale. 0 = weak relationship, 1 = strong
relationship.
Source
Wu, K., Wang, S., Ding, T., & Li, Y. (2023). The direct effect of exercise on the mental health of
scientific and technological professionals and the mediating effects of stress, resilience, and
social support. Frontiers in Public Health, 11. [Link]
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Article Analysis Question (AAQ) Response

Directions: Your response to the question should be provided in six parts: A, B, C, D, E, and F. Write
the response to each part of the question in complete sentences. Use appropriate psychological
terminology in your response.

Using the source provided, respond to all parts of the question.

To earn a point, students must…
(A) Describe the sampling method used in the study and its potential implications for the
generalizability of the findings.
(B) Explain how the Likert scale was utilized to measure stress levels in the study and what higher
scores on this scale might indicate.
(C) Identify one of the main dependent variables measured in the study and state how they were
operationally defined using Likert scales.
(D)Propose potential reasons why exercise duration was found to be positively correlated with
mental health, resilience, and social support in the study population.
(E) Support or refute the claim that exercise directly influences mental health and indirectly
influences it through mediation of stress, resilience, and social support, using the evidence
from the study.
(F) Use evidence from the discussion section to evaluate the limitations of the study design and
propose possible improvements or additional research directions to address these limitations.

Use Next Page for Extra Space

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225

Unit V – Answer Key

Directions: Pause for a moment! You've reached the end of Unit V, but let's not rush through to the
answers just yet. Imagine this as the cool-down phase after an intense workout—essential for
reflection and growth. Before revealing the solutions, like uncovering the final clue in a detective
story, take a moment to revisit those questions. Yes, the finish line of our Unit V exploration is within
sight, but true understanding comes from pondering and tackling those questions head-on. Give them
another go, flex your psychological muscles one more time, and then circle back here for the grand
reveal. The answers are ready and waiting, but they'll mean so much more after you've given those
questions your all. Ready for a quick rewind? Back to those mental challenges you go!

Part I – Multiple Choice

1. C: CBT is designed to address negative thought patterns and behaviors, aligning with the
question's focus on combining cognitive restructuring and behavioral exercises.
2. A: Medication treatment for bipolar disorder directly targets the biological aspects of the
condition, making it a biological intervention in the biopsychosocial model.
3. C: This scenario perfectly illustrates the diathesis-stress model, where a pre-existing
vulnerability coupled with a stressor triggers the disorder.
4. A: Observing participants over a year to measure relapse rates categorizes this as a
longitudinal study, tracking changes or developments over time.
5. B: The graph's downward trend in depressive symptoms during light therapy suggests its
potential effectiveness for Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) treatment.

Part II – Free Response

To earn a point, students must…
(A) Explain how the study employed snowball sampling to recruit participants, where existing
study participants recommended future participants from their acquaintances. Generalizability
limited to those located in Henan, China.
(B) Mention how the Likert scale was used to measure stress levels by asking participants to rate
the frequency of their stress symptoms on a 4-point scale. Higher scores suggest greater stress
experienced, providing insight to the relationship between exercise and mental health.
(C) Identify the main variables measured in the study included mental health, stress, resilience,
and social support, which were operationally defined using Likert scales. For example, the
Positive Mental Health Scale assessed mental health, with higher scores indicating better
mental well-being, while the DASS-21 stress subscale measured stress levels, with higher scores
indicating higher stress levels experienced by participants.
(D) Explain how exercise duration was found to be positively correlated with mental health,
resilience, and social support, possibly because regular exercise can help individuals cope with
stress, build resilience, and enhance their social connections. Engaging in physical activity may
provide individuals with a sense of accomplishment or even boost their self-esteem.
(E) Argue how the study's findings support the claim that exercise directly influences mental
health and indirectly influences it through the mediation of stress, resilience, and social
support. Higher levels of exercise were associated with improved mental health outcomes, both
directly and through its effects on reducing stress, enhancing resilience, and increasing social
support, as evidenced by the correlations and mediation analyses conducted.
(F) Mention how the study design had limitations, such as relying on self-reported data, a limited
sample size from a single province, and a cross-sectional design that precluded establishing
causal relationships. Future research could address these limitations by incorporating diverse
methodologies, including objective assessments and longitudinal designs, to provide deeper
insights into the relationship between exercise and mental health among scientific and
technological professionals.
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Hark and Hearken, Brave Scholar

Lo! Upon this day, thou hast achieved a feat most NOBLE and GRAND! With
parchment in hand and quill set aside, thou hast traversed the vast and
wondrous lands of the mind, a journey of both peril and enlightenment,
through the annals of AP psychology!
Of Trials & Triumphs
Thou began as a mere apprentice, wide-eyed and curious, stepping forth into the
great unknown. With every turn of page and stroke of pen, thou battled the
fearsome beasts of Forgetfulness and the sly tricksters of Procrastination. Yea,
even the dense forests of Cognitive Theories and the treacherous peaks of
Developmental Stages were no match for they wit and fortitude!
Of Allies & Artifacts
Along thy path, thou wert not alone. Guided by the ancient tomes of Knowledge
and the mystical QR codes that portal’d thee to the realms of wisdom, thou
found allies in mnemonic devices, those crafty spells for memory, and the
gallant steed of Practice Tests, which carried thee swiftly toward mastery!
A Bard’s Ode to Thy Journey
Hark! How the neurons did fire and synapses spark, as thou decoded the
mysteries of the Brain and its kin. With laughter, thou faced the absurdities of
Psychological Experiments, and with courage, thou dissected the complexities of
the Human Psyche.
The Quest’s End – Or Is It?
Now, as thou standeth upon the threshold of Completion, the scrolls of
knowledge securely tucked under thine arm, take heed: this quest, though
concluded, is but the prologue to thine own epic tale of learning!
A Royal Proclamation
By the power vested in me by the realm of Academia, I hereby dub thee,
_____________________________, Scholar of Psychology, Wielder of Knowledge,
and Seeker of Truth! Go forth with pride, for thou hast conquered a great beast
and emerged victorious!

Dr. Timothy F. Steadman Dr. Gideon P. Titan

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AP Psychology Practice Exam

Congratulations on reaching the practice exam portion of this review guide! This practice test is
designed to closely emulate the format and content distribution of the official College Board AP
Psychology exam. It will test your knowledge across all units and your ability to apply psychological
concepts, research methods, and data interpretation skills, just as you would on the actual AP exam.
Structure of the Practice Test:
Total Questions: 75 Multiple Choice + 2 Free-Response
Total Time: 160 Minutes (2 Hours and 40 Minutes)
Multiple-Choice Section:
Questions: 75 Questions
Allocated Time: 90 Minutes
Content Distribution:
o Each of the five units (Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognition, Development and Learning,
Social Psychology & Personality, Mental and Physical Health) is represented equally with 15
questions per unit (distribution with college board test may vary anywhere from 15-25% per
unit).
o Questions will reflect the distribution of science practices, focusing on Concept Application
(Science Practice 1), Research Methods and Design (Science Practice 2), and Data
Interpretation (Science Practice 3).
Instructions:
o Each question will have four possible answers; select the best answer for each.
o Questions are designed to test your knowledge and understanding of psychological principles,
theories, and empirical findings.
o Use the full 90 minutes to answer all the questions. Pace yourself to allow approximately 1.2
minutes per question.
Free-Response Section:
Questions: 2 Questions
Allocated Time: 70 Minutes (AAQ: 25 Minutes / EBQ: 45 Minutes)
Content Distribution:
o Question 1 – Article Analysis Question (AAQ): Analyze a summarize peer-reviewed
research article, identifying methodology, variables, and ethical considerations. You will have
25 minutes for this question, including a 10-minute reading period.
o Question 2 – Evidence-Based Question (EBQ): Construct an argument on a specific
topic using evidence from three summarized peer-reviewed articles and knowledge from the
course. You will have 45 minutes for this question, including a 15-minute reading period.
Instructions:
o Read each question carefully and plan your response.
o Write in clear, coherent sentences, and directly address each part of the question.
o Use psychological terminology accurately and provide concrete examples to support your
arguments.
o Allocate your time wisely, ensuring you have sufficient time to read, plan, and write your
responses.
Scoring:
After completing the practice test, use the answer key and scoring guidelines provided in this guide to
score your exam. This will give you an indication of your readiness for the actual AP Psychology exam
and areas where further review may be beneficial.
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AP Psychology Practice Exam

Directions: Follow the instructions from the previous page in order to properly complete the
practice exam. It is a smart idea to time yourself while taking the exam, following the time format the
college board uses. Good luck!
Part I: Multiple-Choice Questions
Select the response that BEST answers the question/prompt.
1. The neurotransmitter serotonin is implicated in the regulation of mood, appetite, and sleep.
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the consequence of a serotonin imbalance?
a. An individual exhibits increased aggression during competitive activities.
b. A person experiences heightened levels of anxiety and depression.
c. Someone has an enhanced ability to learn new languages.
d. An individual shows improved problem-solving skills under stress.

2. Considering the role of the amygdala in processing emotional responses, which scenario would
most likely engage the amygdala's functions?
a. Solving a complex algebra problem under timed conditions.
b. Planning a detailed itinerary for a vacation.
c. Reacting to a sudden, loud noise during a quiet study session.
d. Memorizing the periodic table of elements for a chemistry exam.

3. The principle of neuroplasticity suggests the brain's ability to form new neural connections.
Which scenario best exemplifies neuroplasticity in action?
a. An individual who has suffered a stroke relearns to walk and talk.
b. A student quickly memorizes a list of historical dates for a test.
c. An athlete increases muscle mass through intensive training.
d. Someone feels sleepy after eating a large meal.

4. The hypothalamus plays a key role in maintaining homeostasis. Which of the following
examples best illustrates this function?
a. Deciding to drink water after realizing you are thirsty.
b. Feeling scared during a horror movie.
c. Remembering your first day at a new job.
d. Learning to play a new piece on the piano.

5. Based on the understanding of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which
scenario would predominantly involve the parasympathetic nervous system?
a. Jumping at the sound of fireworks.
b. Digesting food after a meal.
c. Preparing to start a race at the sound of the buzzer.
d. Feeling your heart rate increase during an argument.

6. Given the frontal lobes are crucial for executive functions, which activity would most heavily
rely on the frontal lobes?
a. Recognizing a friend’s face in a crowd.
b. Listening to a piece of classical music.
c. Planning and executing a group project over several weeks.
d. Tasting and identifying different spices blindfolded.
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7. The action potential in neurons is best described as:
a. A gradual increase in electrical charge that travels down the axon.
b. An all-or-none response that results in the neuron firing.
c. The transfer of information from the dendrites to the axon terminals.
d. A steady state of negative charge inside the neuron.

8. Considering the role of neurotransmitters in synaptic transmission, what would be the effect of
a drug that mimics the action of GABA (a major inhibitory neurotransmitter)?
a. It would likely increase anxiety and restlessness.
b. It might enhance memory and learning capabilities.
c. It could potentially decrease anxiety and produce a calming effect.
d. It would significantly improve motor coordination and reaction time.

9. Brain imaging studies have revealed that the cerebellum is active during tasks that require:
a. Emotional regulation.
b. Spatial navigation.
c. Verbal reasoning.
d. Coordinated movement.

10. The principle of lateralization of brain function is most clearly evidenced by:
a. The different roles of the amygdala in emotional responses.
b. The specialization of the left hemisphere for language in most individuals.
c. The role of the frontal lobe in decision making.
d. The regulation of hunger and thirst by the hypothalamus.

Use the following scenario to answer questions 11-13:

Scenario: Researchers are studying the effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance.
Participants are divided into two groups: one group is allowed to sleep for 8 hours, and the other is
kept awake for 24 hours. Both groups are then asked to complete a series of puzzles.

11. In the described study, what is the independent variable?

a. The type of puzzles completed
b. The amount of sleep participants receive
c. The cognitive performance on the puzzles
d. The time of day the puzzles are completed

12. What is the best way to ensure that the groups are comparable at the start of the experiment?
a. Assign participants to groups based on their age.
b. Use a random assignment to groups.
c. Allow participants to choose their group.
d. Assign participants based on their previous puzzle-solving experience.

13. Which of the following would be an appropriate control in this study?

a. Ensuring all participants are tested in the same environment
b. Using different types of puzzles for each group
c. Allowing one group to drink caffeine before completing the puzzles
d. Testing cognitive performance before the experiment begins
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Use the following data to answer questions 14-15:
Scenario: Researchers conducted a study to explore the impact of regular aerobic exercise on
serotonin and dopamine levels in adults. Participants were divided into two groups: one group
engaged in 30 minutes of moderate aerobic exercise daily (Exercise Group), while the other group
did not participate in any structured exercise (Control Group). Serotonin and dopamine levels were
measured before the study commenced and after 8 weeks.
Pre-Study Post-Study Pre-Study Post-Study
Participant
Serotonin Serotonin Dopamine Dopamine
Group
Levels (ng/mL) Levels (ng/mL) Levels (ng/mL) Levels (ng/mL)
Exercise Group 150 180 75 90
Control Group 150 155 75 78
*Note: ng/mL = nanograms per milliliter, a measure of concentration in blood.

14. Based on the data provided, what effect does aerobic exercise have on serotonin and dopamine
levels in the Exercise Group compared to the Control Group?
a. Aerobic exercise decreases both serotonin and dopamine levels.
b. Aerobic exercise increases serotonin levels but has no effect on dopamine.
c. Aerobic exercise increases both serotonin and dopamine levels.
d. Aerobic exercise has no effect on either serotonin or dopamine levels.

15. Considering the changes in neurotransmitter levels, what potential psychological benefits
might the Exercise Group experience compared to the Control Group?
a. A) Decreased memory and learning capabilities.
b. B) Increased stress and anxiety levels.
c. C) Improved mood and cognitive function.
d. D) Reduced alertness and energy levels.

16. Which process best explains how information is transferred from short-term to long-term
memory?
a. Decay
b. Elaborative Rehearsal
c. Sensory Adaptation
d. Automatic Processing

17. The phenomenon of change blindness is most likely to occur under which condition?
a. When individuals pay detailed attention to a change in their environment.
b. When a person is briefly distracted during a critical point of information presentation.
c. When the change occurs in the peripheral vision of an individual.
d. When individuals expect changes to happen and actively look for them.

18. Semantic encoding in memory is enhanced by which of the following?

a. The depth of processing involved in learning new information.
b. Repeating information aloud multiple times.
c. Storing information for a short period.
d. Associating emotional content with information.

19. In the context of problem-solving, functional fixedness prevents individuals from:

a. Focusing on irrelevant details.
b. Seeing a familiar object in a novel way to solve a problem.
c. Dividing a problem into manageable parts.
d. Avoiding assumptions about the problem.
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20. The serial position effect explains how our ability to recall information is influenced by:
a. The complexity of the information.
b. The emotional content of the information.
c. The order in which information is presented.
d. The sensory channel through which information is received.

21. Which of the following scenarios best illustrates episodic memory?

a. Recalling the formula for the area of a circle.
b. Remembering your first day of high school.
c. Knowing how to ride a bicycle.
d. Recognizing the smell of freshly baked bread.

22. The concept of 'prospective memory' refers to:

a. Recalling past experiences.
b. Remembering to perform a planned action in the future.
c. The ability to remember names and faces.
d. Long-term memory for procedural tasks.

23. According to the dual-coding theory, why might adding images to flashcards help with
studying?
a. Visual and verbal information are processed in separate, dedicated channels.
b. The brain prefers visual information over verbal information.
c. Imagery can directly interfere with text-based learning.
d. Visual aids make study materials more interesting.

24. 'Echoic memory' refers to a component of sensory memory that deals with:
a. Visual stimuli.
b. Tactile stimuli.
c. Auditory stimuli.
d. Olfactory stimuli.

25. Which scenario best illustrates the use of heuristics in decision-making?

a. A student spends weeks researching all possible laptops to find the perfect one.
b. Choosing the first answer that seems right on a multiple-choice test without looking at
other options.
c. Memorizing the periodic table of elements by breaking it down into smaller groups.
d. Learning a new language by practicing it in a country where it is natively spoken.

Use the following scenario to answer questions 25-27:

Scenario: Researchers are conducting a study to explore the relationship between musical training
and intelligence scores. Participants, aged 10 to 12, are divided into two groups. One group receives
structured musical training (musical training group) for six months, while the other group receives
no musical training and instead participates in a general arts class (control group). Before and
after the six-month period, all participants complete a standardized intelligence test designed to
measure various aspects of intelligence, including verbal and mathematical reasoning.

26. In the described study, what is the independent variable?

a. The participants’ ages
b. The type of class (musical training vs. general arts)
c. The scores on the intelligence test
d. The duration of the study (six months)
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27. To minimize the effects of confounding variables, the researchers should ensure that:
a. All participants have prior experience with musical instruments.
b. The intelligence test measures only verbal reasoning.
c. Participants are randomly assigned to the musical training or control group.
d. The musical training group practices more than the control group.

28. Which of the following would be an appropriate control in this study?

a. Ensuring both groups have the same amount of class time each week.
b. Administering a different intelligence test at the beginning and end of the study.
c. Teaching the control group with a focus on mathematical reasoning only.
d. Allowing the musical training group to choose their instruments.

Use the following data to answer questions 29-30:

Scenario: Researchers conducted a 6-month study to evaluate the effectiveness of a cognitive
enhancement program on enhancing various aspects of intelligence in school-aged children. Two
groups of children, aged 10-12, participated: one group enrolled in the cognitive enhancement
program (Program Group), while the other group received no special program (Control Group).
Both groups were tested on verbal, mathematical, and spatial abilities before and after the study.
Pre-Test Post-Test Pre-Test Post-Test Pre-Test Post-Test
Group Verbal Verbal Math Math Spatial Spatial
Score Score Score Score Score Score
Program
85 95 80 90 78 88
Group
Control
86 87 81 82 79 80
Group
*Note: Scores are average scores out of 100.

29. Based on the data provided, what can be inferred about the cognitive enhancement program's
effectiveness?
a. It significantly improved verbal and spatial abilities, but not mathematical abilities.
b. It equally improved verbal, mathematical, and spatial abilities.
c. It had no significant effect on any of the intelligence areas measured.
d. It improved mathematical abilities the most, followed by verbal and spatial abilities.

30. Considering the changes in scores, which area of intelligence appears to benefit the most from
the cognitive enhancement program?
a. Verbal abilities
b. Mathematical abilities
c. Spatial abilities
d. All areas improved equally

31. The zone of proximal development is a concept that suggests learning is most effective when:
a. Tasks are slightly beyond a student’s current ability.
b. Students work independently without help.
c. Information is repeated in various formats.
d. Learning occurs in isolation from social contexts.
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32. Which example illustrates a failure in achieving conservation, according to cognitive
development theory?
a. A child believes that a taller glass holds more water than a wider one, even if the water
amount is the same.
b. An adolescent makes moral decisions based on peer approval.
c. An infant searches for a toy where it was first found, not where it was last seen.
d. A toddler shows distress when separated from a parent but quickly recovers.

33. Identity versus role confusion is a stage where the individual is expected to:
a. Build deep, meaningful relationships.
b. Develop a sense of trust in others.
c. Explore different roles and integrate them into a self-identity.
d. Establish a balance between initiative and guilt.

34. The ability to perform mental operations on abstract concepts rather than just concrete objects
indicates a child has reached the:
a. Sensorimotor stage.
b. Preoperational stage.
c. Concrete operational stage.
d. Formal operational stage.

35. A child's distress at a caregiver's departure and joy at their return is indicative of:
a. Insecure-avoidant attachment.
b. Secure attachment.
c. Insecure-resistant attachment.
d. Disorganized attachment.

36. Learning through observation and imitation, even without direct reinforcement, highlights the
principle of:
a. Classical conditioning.
b. Operant conditioning.
c. Social learning.
d. Habituation.

37. Moral reasoning that prioritizes societal rules and laws typically characterizes which stage of
moral development?
a. Pre-conventional
b. Conventional
c. Post-conventional
d. Pre-operational

38. Early emotional bonds formed through immediate contact after birth, emphasizing the
importance of physical closeness, are crucial in the theory of:
a. Cognitive maps.
b. Attachment.
c. Classical conditioning.
d. Moral reasoning.
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39. The importance of a caregiver's response to a child’s needs, forming the basis for emotional
development, is a central concept in:
a. Cognitive development theory.
b. Attachment theory.
c. Behavioral theory.
d. Social learning theory.

40. Which concept explains the benefit of gradually increasing assistance based on a learner's
needs?
a. Scaffolding.
b. Conservation.
c. Imprinting.
d. Habituation.

Use the following scenario to answer questions 41-43:

Scenario: Researchers are interested in studying the impact of peer interaction on social
development in middle childhood. They design an observational study in a school setting,
comparing children who participate in group activities with those who primarily engage in
individual tasks. The children's social behaviors, including cooperation, conflict resolution, and
communication skills, are assessed over a six-month period.

41. In the described study, what is the independent variable?

a. The type of activity (group vs. individual)
b. The children’s social behaviors
c. The duration of the observation period
d. The school setting

42. What would be an appropriate measure of the dependent variable in this study?
a. The number of friends each child has
b. The frequency of cooperative behaviors observed
c. The type of school the children attend
d. The children’s preferences for group or individual tasks

43. To ensure reliability in their observations, the researchers should:

a. Observe each child for the same amount of time
b. Only observe children known to be extroverted
c. Compare their findings with the children's academic records
d. Focus on observations made during the first week
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Use the following data to answer questions 44-45:
Scenario: A study examines the effectiveness of two different language development strategies on
vocabulary acquisition in preschool-aged children. Over a 6-month period, one group of children is
exposed to a strategy emphasizing repetitive language use (Strategy A), while another group
engages with a strategy focused on interactive storytelling (Strategy B). The children's vocabulary
sizes are measured at the beginning and end of the study period.
Strategy Pre-Study Post-Study Increase in
Vocabulary Count Vocabulary Count Vocabulary
Strategy A 200 250 50
Strategy B 200 300 100

44. Based on the data, which language development strategy was more effective in increasing
vocabulary size?
a. Strategy A
b. Strategy B
c. Both strategies were equally effective
d. The data is inconclusive

45. What can be inferred about the impact of interactive activities on language development from
this study?
a. Interactive activities have no significant impact on language development.
b. Repetitive language use is more beneficial than interactive activities.
c. Interactive storytelling significantly enhances vocabulary acquisition.
d. The effectiveness of interactive activities depends on the initial vocabulary size.

46. The fundamental attribution error refers to our tendency to:

a. Underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal
disposition when analyzing the behaviors of others.
b. Overestimate the influence of personality traits and underestimate the role of situational
factors in our own behavior.
c. Attribute our successes to situational factors and our failures to personal disposition.
d. Believe that we have more control over the situation than we actually do.

47. Cognitive dissonance theory is best demonstrated in which scenario?

a. A person who dislikes jazz music attends a jazz concert and starts to enjoy it.
b. An individual changes their opinion after receiving new information.
c. A smoker continues smoking despite knowing it's bad for health.
d. A student blames their poor exam performance on lack of sleep rather than lack of
study.

48. Which concept best explains the increased performance on simple tasks in the presence of
others?
a. Social loafing
b. Group polarization
c. Social facilitation
d. Deindividuation

49. The bystander effect is less likely to occur when:

a. There are many people witnessing an emergency.
b. The situation is ambiguous.
c. People are in a hurry.
d. The setting is a small town where people know each other.
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50. A high degree of in-group bias is most likely to result in:
a. Decreased group cohesion.
b. Increased likelihood of the bystander effect.
c. Prejudice against members of an out-group.
d. Enhanced personal relationships within the in-group.

51. Which theory of personality emphasizes the importance of unconscious processes and
childhood experiences?
a. Trait theory
b. Social-cognitive theory
c. Humanistic theory
d. Psychoanalytic theory

52. Self-efficacy is a concept most closely associated with:

a. The humanistic perspective of personality.
b. The social-cognitive perspective of personality.
c. The trait perspective of personality.
d. The psychoanalytic perspective of personality.

53. Which scenario best illustrates the concept of the mere exposure effect?
a. Developing a preference for a song after hearing it multiple times.
b. Feeling happier after spending time in the sunlight.
c. Choosing a familiar brand over a new one because of its reputation.
d. Preferring a meal that is part of one’s cultural background.

54. Groupthink is most likely to occur in a group that:

a. Encourages open debate and criticism.
b. Is highly cohesive with a directive leader.
c. Consists of members with diverse viewpoints.
d. Values independent decision-making.

55. Attribution theory is concerned with:

a. Our perceptions of others based on their social roles.
b. How we explain our own behavior and the behavior of others.
c. The development of personality traits over time.
d. The influence of personality on social behavior.

Use the following scenario to answer questions 55-57:

Scenario: A research team is interested in understanding the effects of social media on self-esteem.
They conduct a longitudinal study among high school students, dividing them into two groups.
Group A is asked to use social media for at least 3 hours a day, while Group B is asked to limit social
media use to less than 30 minutes a day. The students' self-esteem levels are measured at the start of
the study and after six months using a standardized self-esteem inventory.

56. In the described study, what is the independent variable?

a. A) The amount of time spent on social media
b. B) The students' self-esteem levels
c. C) The duration of the study
d. D) The age of the students
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57. What would be an appropriate measure of the dependent variable in this study?
a. A) The change in the number of social media followers
b. B) The number of social media platforms used
c. C) The scores on the self-esteem inventory before and after the study
d. D) The frequency of social interactions on social media

58. To control for potential confounding variables, the researchers should also consider:
a. A) The content type consumed on social media
b. B) The brand of devices used to access social media
c. C) The time of day when social media is used
d. D) The students' favorite social media platforms

Use the following data to answer questions 59-60:

Scenario: Researchers are examining how participation in guided group discussions affects
individuals’ attitudes towards environmental conservation. Participants are surveyed to assess
their attitudes before and after participating in a series of group discussions. The discussions are
designed to provide information on environmental issues and encourage open dialogue.
Participants are divided into two groups: Group A participates in discussions led by an
environmental expert, while Group B participates in discussions without a designated leader.
Group Pre-Discussion Post-Discussion Change in Attitude
Attitude Score Attitude-Score Score
A 60 85 +25
B 60 75 +15

59. Based on the data, which group showed a greater change in attitude towards environmental
conservation?
a. A) Group A, which participated in expert-led discussions.
b. B) Group B, which participated in discussions without a designated leader.
c. C) Both groups showed the same change in attitude.
d. D) The data does not indicate a change in attitude for either group.

60. What can be inferred about the role of leadership in guided group discussions based on the
study's findings?
a. A) Leadership has no significant impact on the effectiveness of group discussions.
b. B) Discussions without a designated leader are more effective in changing attitudes.
c. C) An expert leader enhances the effectiveness of group discussions in changing
attitudes.
d. D) The effectiveness of leadership depends on the group size.

61. The biopsychosocial model is an approach that attributes mental health disorders to:
a. Primarily genetic and biological factors.
b. Psychological factors alone.
c. An integration of biological, psychological, and social factors.
d. Social and environmental factors, excluding biological considerations.

62. In cognitive-behavioral therapy, the primary focus is on:

a. Resolving unconscious conflicts.
b. Modifying dysfunctional thoughts and behaviors.
c. Enhancing self-actualization.
d. Correcting imbalances in neurotransmitters.
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63. The diathesis-stress model proposes that psychopathology results from:
a. Environmental stressors alone.
b. A predisposition or vulnerability combined with environmental stressors.
c. Biological factors exclusively.
d. The absence of coping mechanisms.

64. Systematic desensitization is a therapeutic technique used to treat:

a. Depression.
b. Schizophrenia.
c. Phobias.
d. Bipolar disorder.

65. A hallmark of major depressive disorder is:

a. Intense fear of gaining weight.
b. Persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness.
c. Experiencing delusions and hallucinations.
d. Alternating periods of excessive activity and lethargy.

66. Psychological resilience refers to the ability to:

a. Experience no stress or trauma.
b. Recover quickly from psychological disorders.
c. Adapt successfully in the face of adversity or trauma.
d. Prevent psychological disorders from developing.

67. Antidepressant medications typically function by:

a. Suppressing emotional responses.
b. Adjusting neurotransmitter levels in the brain.
c. Encouraging the expression of repressed emotions.
d. Increasing blood flow to the brain.

68. Social support can significantly impact mental health by providing:

a. An escape from facing real-world problems.
b. Financial assistance only.
c. Emotional comfort and a sense of belonging.
d. A cure for mental health disorders.

69. In stress research, the concept of coping strategies refers to:

a. Avoiding stressful situations at all costs.
b. The methods individuals use to manage and reduce stress.
c. Medications used to reduce symptoms of stress.
d. Physical exercises to eliminate stress.

70. The perspective that examines how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the
actual, imagined, or implied presence of others is known as:
a. Behavioral psychology.
b. Cognitive psychology.
c. Social psychology.
d. Personality psychology.
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Use the following scenario to answer questions 71-73:
Scenario: A team of psychologists is interested in exploring the relationship between physical
exercise and its effects on anxiety levels. They conduct an experiment with two groups of college
students: Group A engages in a 30-minute moderate-intensity aerobic exercise session three times a
week, while Group B is asked not to change their regular activities, serving as the control group.
Anxiety levels for both groups are measured using a standardized anxiety inventory before the start
of the experiment and after 12 weeks.

71. In the described experiment, what is the independent variable?

a. The anxiety levels measured before and after the experiment.
b. The frequency of the exercise sessions.
c. The engagement in moderate-intensity aerobic exercise.
d. The duration of the experiment (12 weeks).

72. Which of the following best measures the dependent variable in this study?
a. The number of participants in each group.
b. The change in anxiety inventory scores from pre- to post-experiment.
c. The type of aerobic exercises performed by Group A.
d. Participants’ self-reported satisfaction with their physical fitness.

73. To ensure the reliability of the results, the researchers should:

a. Include a larger number of exercise sessions per week for Group A.
b. Only select participants who have previously been diagnosed with an anxiety disorder.
c. Use a standardized and validated tool to measure anxiety levels.
d. Ask participants in Group B to avoid all forms of physical activity.

Use the following data to answer questions 74-75:

Scenario: Researchers conduct a 6-month study to evaluate the impact of mindfulness meditation
on depression levels. Participants diagnosed with mild to moderate depression are randomly
assigned to one of two groups. Group A participates in a guided mindfulness meditation program,
while Group B engages in no meditation and continues with their usual activities. Depression levels
are assessed at the beginning and end of the study using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), a
widely used tool for measuring the severity of depression.
Group Pre-Study BDI Post-Study BDI Change in BDI
Score Score Score
A 24 14 -10
B 23 22 -1

74. Which group demonstrated a greater reduction in depression levels according to the BDI
scores?
a. Group A, which participated in the mindfulness meditation program.
b. Group B, which did not participate in the mindfulness meditation program.
c. Both groups showed the same reduction in depression levels.
d. The data does not indicate a reduction in depression levels for either group.

75. What can be inferred about the relationship between mindfulness meditation and depression
from the study's findings?
a. Mindfulness meditation has no significant impact on depression.
b. Mindfulness meditation may increase depression levels.
c. Mindfulness meditation is likely to reduce depression levels.
d. Only medication can effectively reduce depression levels.
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Part II: Free-Response Questions
Carefully read over the provided peer reviewed studies to complete the Free Response Questions.
QUESTION 1: ARTICLE ANALYSIS QUESTION (AAQ)
Directions: Your response to the question should be provided in six parts: A, B, C, D, E, and F. Write
the response to each part of the question in complete sentences. Use appropriate psychological
terminology in your response.

Introduction
As healthcare systems worldwide shifted to telehealth in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the
effectiveness of remote mental health care compared to traditional in-person services became a
critical question. This study assesses the clinical outcomes of intensive mental health treatment
delivered via telehealth during the pandemic against those of in-person care prior to the pandemic,
focusing on depressive symptoms and quality of life in adults. Through a comparative analysis of
patient outcomes within a national behavioral health treatment system, it aims to determine
whether telehealth can serve as an equivalent alternative to in-person mental health services.
Participants
The study analyzed the clinical outcomes of 2,384 adult patients undergoing mental health
treatment either through telehealth during the COVID-19 pandemic or in-person prior to the
pandemic, with 1,192 patients in each group. The participants, aged between 18 and 65, were evenly
matched across both groups to balance covariates such as age, sex, race, diagnosis, and level of care.
This meticulous matching ensured that comparisons between in-person and telehealth outcomes
could be reliably made, focusing on depressive symptoms and quality of life without confounding
demographic differences influencing the results.
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Method
Participants were 2,384 adult patients who completed either Partial Hospitalization Program (PHP)
or Intensive Outpatient Program (IOP) at Rogers Behavioral Health. The sample was equally
divided into two groups: 1,192 patients received in-person care from May 2013 to December 2019,
and 1,192 patients received telehealth services from July 2020 to March 2021. Groups were
meticulously matched on key covariates—age, sex, race, diagnosis, and level of care—using the
*MatchIt package in R, ensuring comparable groups for analysis. This matching aimed to balance
demographic and clinical characteristics between the in-person and telehealth groups, allowing for
a focused comparison on the outcomes of depressive symptoms and quality of life, as measured by
the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology-Self Report (QIDS-SR) and the Quality of Life
Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire - Short Form (Q-LES-Q).
Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology Self-Report (QIDS-SR): This is a 16-
item self-report measure that asks respondents to rate various aspects of depression
symptomatology, such as sleep, mood, weight, concentration, guilt, suicidal ideation, interest,
fatigue, and psychomotor changes, on a scale of 0–3, where 0 indicates low symptoms and 3
indicates high symptoms. The total score can range from 0 to 27, with higher scores indicating more
severe depression symptoms.
Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire - Short Form (Q-LES-Q):
This 16-item self-report measure assesses the level of enjoyment and satisfaction in various
domains of life, including general health, well-being, and daily functioning, on a scale of 1–5, where
1 means "very poor" and 5 means "very good." The total scores are reported as percentages, ranging
from 0 to 100%, with higher percentages indicating greater enjoyment and satisfaction.
*MatchIT package in R: A smart software tool that helps researchers make fair comparisons
between two groups of people in a study, especially when they can't randomly choose who goes
into which group. It picks people from each group who are similar in important ways, so the
scientists can be more confident that any differences they see are really due to what they're
testing, not other random stuff.
Results and Discussion
Results indicated no significant differences in depressive symptom reduction between in-person
and telehealth groups. However, patients in the partial hospitalization level of care stayed longer
when treatment was remote. Both treatment modes showed significant increases in self-reported
quality of life, suggesting telehealth as a viable alternative to in-person care for intensive mental
health treatment.
The discussion of the study acknowledges the potential of telehealth in providing effective mental
health care, emphasizing its comparable outcomes to in-person treatment in reducing depressive
symptoms and improving quality of life. However, the study also highlights limitations, including
its observational design, which may not fully account for all variables influencing treatment
outcomes, and the lack of data on patient satisfaction with telehealth services. Additionally, the
generalizability of results is limited to a specific treatment setting and population, underscoring the
need for further research across diverse clinical settings and patient demographics. The study
points to the necessity of exploring long-term outcomes of telehealth and its impact on different
aspects of mental health care, including accessibility, patient engagement, and satisfaction.
Source
Bulkes, N. Z., Davis, K., Kay, B., & Riemann, B. C. (2022). Comparing efficacy of telehealth to in-
person mental health care in intensive-treatment-seeking adults. Journal of psychiatric
research, 145, 347–352. [Link]
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Using the source provided, respond to all parts of the question.
To earn a point, students must…
(A) Identify the hypothesis researchers are testing in comparing telehealth to in-person mental
health care.
(B) Explain how participants were assigned to the telehealth or in-person treatment groups to
ensure a fair comparison between the two modalities.
(C) State the independent and dependent variables used in this study to assess the effectiveness
of the treatment methods.
(D) Describe a standardized tool that could be used to measure changes in anxiety and the
effectiveness of treatments for depression within this study's context.
(E) Use evidence from the scenario to support the conclusion that telehealth can be as effective
as in-person treatment for anxiety and depression, assuming the study found no significant
differences in outcomes between the two groups.
(F) Propose implications for future mental health care delivery based on the study's findings,
considering factors like accessibility, cost, and patient preference.

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QUESTION 2: EVIDENCE-BASED QUESTION (EBQ)
Directions: This question will have three parts: Part A, Part B, and Part C. Use the three sources
provided to answer all parts of the question. For Part B and Part C, you must cite the source that you
used to answer the question. You can do this in two different ways:
- Parenthetical Citation
o Example: “…(Source A)
- Embedded Citation
o Example: “According to Source A…”
Write the response to each part of the question in complete sentences. Use appropriate psychological
terminology.

Question: Using the sources provided, develop and justify an argument about how different
parenting styles affect a child's cognitive and social development. Consider factors such as autonomy,
academic achievement, and social competence in your response.

Source A
Introduction
In this study, researchers explored the relationship between parenting styles and social skills in
young adults, focusing on the mediating role of positive and negative emotions. Parenting styles—
authoritative, democratic, permissive, and neglectful—were examined for their impact on
individuals' social interactions and emotional responses.
Participants
The study on the effects of parental styles on social skills, which included 456 participants (151 men
and 305 women), with an average age of 22.01 years, aimed to explore the influence of parental
styles (authoritative, democratic, permissive, and neglectful) on young adults' social skills and
emotions. It found variations in parenting styles by gender, with permissive styles more common
for women and authoritative styles more for men. The study highlighted that democratic and
permissive parenting styles are associated with higher scores in affects and social skills, challenging
the traditional view that a democratic style is superior for child socialization. This representative
sample from Zaragoza offers insight into the complex relationship between parenting, affects, and
social skills in young adulthood.
Methods
The study utilized several instruments to gather data: the multifactor children adaptation self-
assessment test (*TAMAI) to evaluate parental styles, the **PANAS scale for assessing positive and
negative affects, and the ***ICQ-15 questionnaire to measure social skills across five dimensions.
The researchers explained what they were looking into and promised to keep everyone's answers
private. Participants, who were university students, had 45 minutes to fill out surveys about how
they were raised, their feelings, and how well they get along with others, along with a form agreeing
to take part. This happened in April and May of 2021. They used a computer program called SPSS
26.0 to look at the information, comparing different groups to see any big differences and digging
into how parenting styles might affect someone's social skills and emotions. Everything was done
following rules that make sure studies are carried out in a fair and safe way.

*TAMAI: Assesses how young people perceive their parents’ behaviors, helping to categorize
parenting styles into categories like authoritative or permissive.
**PANAS Scale: Measures the range of an individual’s positive and negative emotions at any
given moment or over a period.
***ICQ-15: Evaluates social skills, focusing on how well individuals navigate social interactions.
248

Results and Discussion

The study on parenting styles and their impact on young adults' social skills and emotions found
that the most common parenting style was democratic, with differences observed by gender:
permissive styles were more often applied to women and authoritative styles to men. It was noted
that women reported higher negative affect scores, while men scored higher in emotional support.
Democratic and permissive parenting styles were associated with higher scores in affects and social
skills, challenging the traditional preference for democratic styles in child socialization. The
research suggested that affects mediate the relationship between parenting styles and social skills,
underscoring the interconnectedness of these factors in personal development. The study calls for
further research to explore these complex relationships and their implications for educational
programs focusing on parenting styles.

Source
Salavera, C., Usán, P., & Quilez-Robres, A. (2022). Exploring the Effect of Parental Styles on Social
Skills: The Mediating Role of Affects. International journal of environmental research and
public health, 19(6), 3295. [Link]
249
Source B
Introduction
This study explores the connection between emotional competence, attachment styles, and
parenting styles among children and their parents. The research aims to determine if there's a link
between a child and their parent's emotional competence and their respective attachment and
parenting styles, extending existing knowledge on parent-child dynamics regarding these
psychological aspects.
Participants
The study's participants included 50 families, comprising fathers (aged 33–59, average age 45.3
years), mothers (aged 32–53, average age 42.1 years), and their children aged 9 to 11 years (average
age 10.4 years, 51.9% girls). A majority of the children were in secondary school (68.5%), with the
remainder in primary school (31.5%). Most families lived together, with only 4.7% of parents living
alone, and participation was limited to those with very good German language skills, resulting in
nearly all children and the majority of parents (94.4% each) being native German speakers. The
parents' education levels varied, with 58.6% holding university degrees (BA or MA), 27.8% having
occupational training, 13% having other qualifications, and 1.8% having no educational degree or
occupational training. Recruitment was through advertisements placed in primary and secondary
schools, as well as in public places like sport and dance clubs, hospitals, and toy stores in Siegen,
Marburg, and nearby areas.
Methods
Emotional competence was measured using the *Emotional Competence Questionnaire (EKF),
assessing aspects like emotional expression and regulation. Attachment styles in parents and
children were assessed using the **Adult Attachment Scale (AAS) and the ***Bochumer
Bindungstest (BoBiTe), respectively. Parenting styles were evaluated through the ****Parental
Authority Questionnaire (PAQ), distinguishing between authoritative, authoritarian, and
permissive styles. Participants were recruited through advertisements in schools and public places,
and all participants had very good German language skills, with the majority being native speakers
and having higher education degrees. The study adhered to ethical standards and was approved by
the German Psychological Society's Ethical Board. Data collection involved face-to-face assessments
conducted by two researchers in separate rooms for children and parents, with questionnaires
covering attachment style, parenting style, and emotional competence, the latter completed only by
parents. If children had difficulties understanding an item, researchers provided clarifications.
Assessments lasted about 1 to 1.5 hours, with families receiving monetary compensation and a
cinema voucher for participation.

*The Emotional Competence Questionnaire (EKF) assesses aspects of emotional competence such
as expression and regulation through a 20-item Likert-type scale.
**The Adult Attachment Scale (AAS) measures attachment in adults across three dimensions:
reliance on others, anxiety about losing a partner, and closeness to the partner.
***The Bochumer Bindungstest (BoBiTe) evaluates attachment styles in children aged 8 to 13
through a semi-projective method based on their responses to pictorial stimuli.
****The Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) categorizes parenting styles into authoritative,
authoritarian, and permissive based on a 30-item Likert-type scale.
Results and Discussion
Findings supported the hypothesis that attachment is connected to emotional competence in
parents, though this relationship was not significantly observed in children. Additionally,
authoritative and permissive parenting styles were significantly associated with parents' emotional
competence. For children, emotional competence was linked to an authoritative parenting style.
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The study provides preliminary evidence suggesting that attachment styles and parenting practices
are integral to developing emotional competence, with differences noted between parents and
children. For parents, both authoritative and permissive approaches to parenting showed
significant relationships with their emotional competence, implying the role of parenting style in
emotional development. However, for children, it was specifically the authoritative parenting style
that was associated with their emotional competence, highlighting the potential benefits of this
parenting approach in fostering emotional skills in children. These findings contribute to the
understanding of family dynamics and emotional development, suggesting pathways through which
emotional competence can be supported within the family context.
Source
Mortazavizadeh, Z., Göllner, L., & Forstmeier, S. (2022). Emotional competence, attachment, and
parenting styles in children and parents. Psicologia, reflexao e critica : revista semestral do
Departamento de Psicologia da UFRGS, 35(1), 6. [Link]
00208-0

Source C
251
Introduction
This study aimed to explore the relationship between different parenting styles and the academic
achievement and career paths of students at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. Researchers
sought to understand how authoritarian, firm, and permissive parenting styles influence students'
educational success and their choices regarding career paths. The investigation was motivated by
the hypothesis that parenting styles significantly impact students' academic performance and career
decisions, hoping to provide insights into the role parents play in their child’s future.
Participants
This correlation study at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences involved 310 students, with a gender
distribution of 194 males (62.6%) and 116 females (37.4%). The participants' ages varied, with the
majority (46.1%) aged 21 to 25 years, followed by students under 20 years (29%), those from 26 to
30 years (18.1%), and students over 30 years of age (6.8%). Educational levels among the subjects
showed that more than half (61%) were studying at the B.S. level, 21.3% at the A.S. level, and 17.7%
at the M.S. level or higher.
Methods
In this study data were collected using *Baumrind's Parenting Style and **Moqimi's Career Path
questionnaires, alongside students' academic transcripts, to investigate the relationship between
parenting styles, academic achievement, and career paths. To analyze the relationship between
these variables, Pearson's correlation coefficient was employed, revealing significant relationships
between certain parenting styles and educational success, as well as between firm parenting style
and students' career paths. The study utilized stratified random sampling to select 310 students
from among 1,600, ensuring a diverse and representative sample. The questionnaires' reliability
was verified through ***Cronbach's Alpha, confirming the consistency of the measures used to
gather data for the study.

*Baumrind’s Parenting Style Questionnaire: Categorizes parenting approaches into distinct

styles, such as authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive.
**Moqimi’s Career Path Questionnaire: Assesses individual’s perceptions and decisions regarding
their career paths, helping to understand the influence of various factors on career choices.
***Cronbach’s Alpha: A statistical measure used to determine reliability or internal consistency of
a set of scale or test items, indicating how well the items measure the same concept.
Results and Discussion
The study explored the influence of parenting styles on academic achievement and career path
among students at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. It found a significant positive correlation
between authoritarian parenting style and educational success (p=0.03), indicating that a more
structured and directive parenting approach may contribute to higher academic achievements.
Moreover, a firm parenting style was significantly related to students' career path (p=0.001),
suggesting that a balanced approach, incorporating both structure and support, positively impacts
students' career orientations.
The study highlights the significant role of parenting styles in shaping children's career choices.
Active involvement in career counseling programs during secondary school aids in organizing a
child's cognitive understanding of potential career paths. Moreover, fostering a close relationship
between parents and children is crucial in identifying talents and guiding career decisions.
Source
Zahed Zahedani, Z., Rezaee, R., Yazdani, Z., Bagheri, S., & Nabeiei, P. (2016). The influence of
parenting style on academic achievement and career path. Journal of advances in medical
education & professionalism, 4(3), 130–134.
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Using the sources provided, develop and justify an argument about how different parenting styles
affect a child's cognitive and social development. Consider factors such as autonomy, academic
achievement, and social competence in your response.
A. Propose a specific and defensible claim based on psychological science that responds to the
question.
B. (i) Support your claim using at least one piece of specific and relevant evidence from one
of the sources.
(ii) Explain how the evidence from Part B (i) supports your claim using a psychological
perspective, theory, concept, or research finding learned in AP Psychology.
C. (i) Support your claim using an additional piece of specific and relevant evidence from a
different source than the one that was used in Part B (i)
(ii) Explain how the evidence from Part C (i) supports your claim using a different
psychological perspective, theory, concept, or research finding learned in AP Psychology
than the one that was used in Part B (ii).

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Answer Key
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Practice Exam Answer Key

Directions: Now that you've completed the practice test, take a moment to check your answers with
the provided key. If you encounter questions that were challenging, revisit the relevant sections in
your materials to deepen your understanding. This review is a pivotal step towards mastering the
content and enhancing your readiness for the AP Psychology exam. Remember, each question you
revisit is an opportunity to solidify your knowledge and improve your test-taking skills.
Part I: Multiple-Choice Questions
1. B: Serotonin imbalance is often linked to mood disorders, such as anxiety and depression, due
to its role in regulating mood.
2. C: The amygdala is involved in emotional responses, especially fear, making it highly active in
sudden alarming situations.
3. A: Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections,
crucial for recovery after brain injury.
4. A: The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis, including the regulation of thirst and the
balance of bodily fluids.
5. B: The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for rest and digest functions, such as
digesting food.
6. C: Planning and executing complex, goal-oriented tasks involve the frontal lobes' executive
functions.
7. B: An action potential is an all-or-none electrical impulse that travels down a neuron's axon,
triggering neurotransmitter release.
8. C: A drug that mimics GABA would likely have a calming effect by increasing inhibitory signals
in the brain.
9. D: The cerebellum is essential for coordinated movement and balance, being active during
physical tasks requiring coordination.
10. B: The specialization of the left hemisphere for language is a prime example of lateralization,
where certain functions are more dominant in one hemisphere.
11. B: The independent variable in the study is the amount of sleep participants receive, as it's the
condition being manipulated by researchers to observe its effects on cognitive performance.
12. B: Random assignment is the best method to ensure that groups are comparable at the start of
the experiment, minimizing pre-existing differences between participants.
13. A: Ensuring all participants are tested in the same environment controls for external variables
that might influence cognitive performance, allowing for a clearer assessment of the sleep
deprivation effects.
14. C: The data shows an increase in both serotonin and dopamine levels in the Exercise Group
after 8 weeks of regular aerobic exercise, suggesting a positive effect of exercise on these
neurotransmitters.
15. C: Given the roles of serotonin and dopamine in regulating mood and cognitive functions, the
increase in these neurotransmitters in the Exercise Group suggests potential psychological
benefits, such as improved mood and cognitive function
16. B: Elaborative rehearsal involves linking new information to existing knowledge, a crucial
process for transferring information into long-term memory.
17. B: Change blindness typically occurs when a person's attention is momentarily diverted,
highlighting limitations in attention and perception.
18. A: The depth of processing theory suggests that deeper levels of analysis, such as semantic
encoding, enhance memory formation.
19. B: Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the
way it is traditionally used, hindering problem-solving.
20. C: The serial position effect demonstrates that people tend to remember items at the beginning
and end of a list better than those in the middle.
258
21. B: Episodic memory involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences.
22. B: Prospective memory involves remembering to perform an action at a future time, such as
remembering to take medication.
23. A: Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve shows that the greatest decline in memory recall occurs soon
after learning, indicating that information is lost at a rapid rate if not reviewed or used.
24. C: Echoic memory is a type of sensory memory that holds auditory information for a short
period.
25. B: Heuristics are mental shortcuts that help with problem-solving or decision-making
processes; in this scenario, choosing the first seemingly correct answer on a test is an example
of using the "availability heuristic," where one relies on immediate examples that come to
mind.
26. B: The independent variable is what the researchers manipulate, which in this scenario is the
type of class (musical training vs. general arts).
27. C: Random assignment to groups helps ensure that any pre-existing differences among
participants are evenly distributed, minimizing the impact of confounding variables.
28. A: Having equal class time for both groups ensures that any differences in intelligence scores
are more likely due to the type of class rather than the amount of instructional time, serving as
a control for time spent in class.
29. B: The data shows an improvement in all three tested areas (verbal, mathematical, and spatial
abilities) for the Program Group, indicating the program's overall effectiveness.
30. D: The improvement in scores is consistent across verbal, mathematical, and spatial abilities (a
10-point increase in each area for the Program Group), suggesting all areas benefited equally
from the program.
31. A: Learning within the zone of proximal development involves activities that a learner can do
with guidance, promoting cognitive growth.
32. A: Failure in achieving conservation, where a child cannot understand that properties remain
the same despite changes in form, showcases concrete operational stage challenges.
33. C: The stage of identity versus role confusion focuses on adolescents exploring various roles to
develop a unified self-identity.
34. D: The formal operational stage allows for abstract thinking beyond concrete objects, enabling
hypothetical and deductive reasoning.
35. B: Secure attachment is marked by distress at separation and happiness at reunion, indicating
trust and security in the caregiver-child relationship.
36. C: Social learning emphasizes acquiring behaviors through the observation of others,
underscoring the role of modeling in learning.
37. B: The conventional stage of moral development centers on adherence to societal rules and the
importance of law and order.
38. B: Attachment theory highlights the critical role of early emotional bonds and physical
closeness in developmental psychology.
39. B: Attachment theory also underlines the significance of responsive caregiving in forming
secure emotional development foundations.
40. A: Scaffolding refers to the tailored support provided to learners, adjusting the level of help as
competence increases.
41. A: The independent variable is the type of activity, as it's what the researchers are
manipulating to observe its impact on social development.
42. B: The frequency of cooperative behaviors observed serves as a direct measure of the children's
social development, aligning with the study's focus.
43. A: Observing each child for the same amount of time ensures consistency in data collection,
enhancing the study's reliability.
44. B: Strategy B (interactive storytelling) led to a greater increase in vocabulary, suggesting
higher effectiveness in promoting language development.
259
45. C: The significant increase in vocabulary for the group exposed to interactive storytelling
indicates its beneficial impact on language development.
46. A: The fundamental attribution error involves overemphasizing personal traits and
underemphasizing situational factors when explaining others' behavior.
47. C: Cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual's behavior is inconsistent with their beliefs
or attitudes, as seen in the smoker’s scenario.
48. C: Social facilitation refers to the enhanced performance on simple tasks in the presence of
others due to increased arousal.
49. D: The bystander effect is less likely in close-knit communities where individuals are more
likely to take responsibility and act.
50. C: In-group bias can lead to prejudice against out-group members, reinforcing stereotypes and
discrimination.
51. D: Psychoanalytic theory, founded by Freud, focuses on unconscious processes and the impact
of early childhood experiences on personality.
52. B: The social-cognitive perspective emphasizes the role of beliefs and attitudes, such as self-
efficacy, in shaping personality.
53. A: The mere exposure effect describes developing a preference for stimuli simply because they
are familiar, such as hearing a song repeatedly.
54. B: Groupthink occurs in highly cohesive groups, especially under directive leadership, leading
to poor decision-making due to the suppression of dissent.
55. B: Attribution theory deals with how people explain the causes of their own and others' actions
and behaviors, focusing on the distinction between internal and external attributions.
56. A: The independent variable is the amount of time spent on social media, as it's the factor
being manipulated to observe its effects.
57. C: The scores on the self-esteem inventory before and after the study period directly measure
the impact on students' self-esteem levels, making it the dependent variable
58. A: Considering the content type consumed on social media helps control for external factors
that could influence self-esteem differently, apart from just the time spent on social media.
59. A: Group A showed a greater increase in attitude score (+25) compared to Group B (+15),
suggesting that expert-led discussions were more effective in changing attitudes.
60. C: The data suggests that group discussions led by an expert are more effective in fostering
attitude change, indicating the importance of knowledgeable leadership in guiding discussions.
61. C: Reflects the biopsychosocial model, considering multiple factors in mental health.
62. B: Highlights CBT's focus on altering thought and behavior patterns.
63. B: Emphasizes the interaction between predisposition and stress in developing disorders.
64. C: Identifies the therapeutic use of systematic desensitization for phobias.
65. B: Describes the primary symptoms of major depressive disorder.
66. C: Defines resilience as the capacity to bounce back from negative experiences.
67. B: Explains how antidepressants typically aim to balance chemical imbalances in the brain.
68. C: Outlines the emotional and social benefits of having support networks.
69. B: Focuses on coping strategies as means for individuals to handle stress.
70. C: Points to social psychology's interest in how social environments influence individuals.
71. C: The engagement in moderate-intensity aerobic exercise is the factor manipulated by the
researchers, making it the independent variable.
72. B: The change in scores from the anxiety inventory represents the outcome the researchers are
interested in, making it the dependent variable.
73. C: Using a standardized and validated tool to measure anxiety ensures that the results are
reliable and can be compared meaningfully across participants.
74. A: Group A showed a greater reduction in depression levels, indicating the effectiveness of
mindfulness meditation in reducing symptoms of depression.
75. C: The significant decrease in BDI scores for the meditation group suggests that mindfulness
meditation is effective in reducing depression levels.
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Part II: Free-Response Questions
Article-Analysis Question (AAQ) – Possible Responses
To earn a point, students must…
(A) The hypothesis likely suggests that there is no significant difference in the effectiveness of
telehealth compared to in-person care in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression.
(B) Participants might have been assigned through random allocation or based on their
preferences and logistical constraints, highlighting the study's design to compare treatment
outcomes fairly.
(C) The independent variable is the treatment modality (telehealth vs. in-person), and the
dependent variables are the quantifiable changes in anxiety and depression levels.
(D)The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) are examples of
standardized tools that could accurately measure the treatment outcomes for anxiety and
depression, respectively.
(E) If improvements were observed equally in both groups, evidence suggests that telehealth is a
viable alternative to in-person care, maintaining treatment efficacy.
(F) Potential implications include increased accessibility to mental health care, especially for
remote or underserved populations, and the importance of integrating technology into
healthcare systems.

Evidence-Based Question (EBQ) – Possible Responses

To earn a point, students must…
1. (A): Explain how different parenting styles significantly influence a child's cognitive and social
development, with authoritative parenting promoting autonomy, academic achievement, and
social competence most effectively.
2. (B)(i): Mention how the study exploring the effect of parental styles on social skills (Source A),
evidence shows that authoritative and permissive parenting styles positively impact social skills
and emotional supports. This suggests that a parenting approach that balances warmth,
support, and reasonable control facilitates the development of a child's social competencies
and emotional intelligence.
3. (B)(ii): Explain a psychological concept such as Baumrind's theory of parenting styles support
this claim by demonstrating how authoritative parenting, characterized by high responsiveness
and demandingness, fosters autonomy, encourages higher academic performance, and
enhances social skills. This style nurtures open communication, self-regulation, and
cooperative behaviors, contributing to well-rounded cognitive and social development.
4. (C)(i): Explain how the correlation study conducted at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences
(Source C) found a significant relationship between authoritative parenting and educational
success. This study supports the claim by linking firm parenting styles to higher academic
achievement and clearer career paths, indicating that authoritative parenting not only fosters
social competence but also positively influences cognitive development and academic success.
5. (C)(ii): Mention how the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) posits that autonomy, competence,
and relatedness are essential for motivation and personal growth. This theory aligns with the
findings from Source C, illustrating how authoritative parenting, by supporting autonomy
(through encouragement and guided choices) and competence (via high expectations and
academic support), significantly contributes to the cognitive and social development of
children.
261

What Now?!
Step 1: Check Your Answers
Start with the multiple-choice section. Use the
answer key to mark which ones you got right and
wrong.

Step 2: Review the FRQs

Move on to the Free Response Questions (FRQs).
Remember, the answers provided in the rubric are examples of correct
responses, but they're not the only possible correct answers. If your answer is
grounded in psychological concepts and accurately addresses the question, give
yourself credit!

Step 3: Analyze Your Mistakes

For every question you missed, take note of the topic it covers. This is crucial
for identifying patterns in the areas where you might need more review.

Step 4: Hit the Books (or Videos)

Now that you know which topics tripped you up, go back to your notes or the
review videos covering those specific areas. Spend some extra time reinforcing
these concepts.

Step 5: Reflection
Reflect on the process. Consider what strategies worked well for you and what
you might need to adjust moving forward. Remember, practice makes perfect,
and every mistake is an opportunity to learn.

Remember:
It's all part of the learning process. The goal isn't just to get a high score on
this practice test, but to deepen your understanding of psychology and
improve your test-taking skills for the real deal.

Happy Studying!
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Still Psyched?!
Check Out These Interesting Psychological Studies!
Stanford Prison Experiment (1971):*
Philip Zimbardo's infamous simulation turned college students into guards and prisoners
in a mock jail, revealing how social roles can influence behavior to shocking extents.
Milgram Obedience Study (1963):*
Stanley Milgram tested how far people would go in obeying authority, even if it meant
harming others. The results, showing a surprising willingness to inflict pain, sparked
debates on ethics and human nature.
The Marshmallow Test (1972):
Walter Mischel's study on delayed gratification challenged children to resist a treat for
the promise of a bigger reward later, linking self-control to better life outcomes.
Asch Conformity Experiments (1951):*
Solomon Asch demonstrated the power of group pressure on individual decision-making,
revealing how people would deny their own senses to conform with the majority.
Pavlov's Dogs (1890s):*
Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning research showed how a neutral stimulus, paired with
another that elicits a response, can lead to a newly learned response, foundational to
behaviorism.
Bobo Doll Experiment (1961):*
Albert Bandura's study on aggression demonstrated that children mimic violent behaviors
observed in adults, highlighting the influence of observational learning.
The Invisible Gorilla (1999):
Christopher Chabris and Daniel Simons' experiment on selective attention asked viewers to
count basketball passes and miss a person in a gorilla suit walking through, showing how
our focus can blind us to obvious events.
The Bystander Effect (1968):
Inspired by the murder of Kitty Genovese, John Darley and Bibb Latané explored why
witnesses often fail to help in emergencies, revealing the diffusion of responsibility in
groups.
Harlow's Monkey Experiments (1950s):*
Harry Harlow's studies with rhesus monkeys challenged ideas on attachment, showing the
necessity of comfort and care over mere nourishment.
264

The Monster Study (1939):

Wendell Johnson's speech therapy experiment, dubbed "The Monster Study" for its
unethical treatment of orphans, explored the impact of positive and negative speech
therapy on children, illustrating the profound effect of verbal feedback on self-esteem.
The False Consensus Effect (1977):
Lee Ross discovered that people tend to overestimate how much others share their beliefs
and behaviors, a bias revealing our egocentric nature in social perception.
Little Albert Experiment (1920):*
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned a small child to fear white rats,
demonstrating how emotional responses can be conditioned, raising questions on the
ethics of using human subjects in psychological experiments.
The Pygmalion Effect (1968):
Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson's study on teacher expectations showed that higher
expectations could actually boost student performance, emphasizing the self-fulfilling
prophecy in education.
Capgras Delusion Case Studies:
These studies delve into a bizarre disorder where people believe loved ones have been
replaced by impostors, shedding light on the complexities of recognition and attachment
in the human brain.
Project MK Ultra (1953-1973):
This CIA project tested drugs and procedures for mind control, including LSD experiments
on unwitting subjects, showcasing the dark side of psychological research and the
importance of ethical standards.

*Study Mentioned in Review Guide

265

The Top TEN

List of Influential Psychologist
Dive into the mindscape of psychology's elite with our shortlist of the ten most influential
psychologists! Picture a gathering where Freud analyzes dreams over dinner, Skinner trades
behavior tips with Watson, and Piaget muses on cognitive development. This is your express ticket
to the groundbreaking ideas that shaped our understanding of the human psyche—fasten your
seatbelts for a fun, enlightening ride through psychology's hall of fame!
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Psychologist Contributions to Psychology
Sigmund Freud
The architect of psychoanalysis, Freud introduced the world to the idea of
the unconscious mind, where our deepest desires and fears reside. He
believed dreams were the royal road to understanding the unconscious.
Interes(ng Fact: Freud's office was famously adorned with a collecEon of
ancient arEfacts, reflecEng his love for archaeology and belief in its
symbolic connecEon to the psyche.
B.F. Skinner
A Etan of behaviorism, Skinner showed how consequences shape behavior
through reinforcement and punishment, profoundly influencing educaEon,
parenEng, and therapy.
Interes(ng Fact: Skinner invented the "Skinner Box," a controlled
environment to study animal behavior, and even designed a "baby tender"
for safer infant care, which his daughter used.
Jean Piaget
Piaget's stages of cogniEve development revoluEonized our understanding
of children's intellectual growth, showing that kids aren't just less
competent thinkers than adults—they think differently.
Interes(ng Fact: Piaget's observaEons of his own children significantly
informed his theories, blurring the lines between personal and professional
research.
William James
OSen called the "Father of American Psychology," James's work laid the
groundwork for many areas of psychology, including emoEons and memory.
Interes(ng Fact: James struggled with various ailments and personal crises
throughout his life, which fueled his fascinaEon with the human mind and
resilience.
266

Psychologist Contributions to Psychology

Carl Rogers Rogers championed client-centered therapy, emphasizing empathy,
uncondiEonal posiEve regard, and the client's innate potenEal for self-
healing and personal growth.
Interes(ng Fact: Rogers was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987
for his efforts in applying psychological principles to resolve conflicts and
promote peace.
Albert Bandura
Bandura's social learning theory emphasized the power of observaEon and
imitaEon in learning, introducing the concept of self-efficacy.
Interes(ng Fact: His Bobo doll experiment, demonstraEng how children
mimic aggression, became one of the most famous studies in psychology.

John B. Watson Watson, the father of behaviorism, argued that psychology should focus on
observable behavior, famously claiming he could shape infants into any
profession.
Interes(ng Fact: Despite his contribuEons to psychology, Watson leS
academia to work in adverEsing, applying psychological principles to
markeEng.
Lev Vygotsky
Vygotsky introduced the noEon that social interacEon is fundamental to
cogniEve development, challenging the idea that learning is purely an
individual endeavor.
Interes(ng Fact: Vygotsky's work was largely unknown to the Western
world unEl decades aSer his death due to Cold War-era translaEon and
publicaEon bans.
Wilhelm Wundt
Establishing the first psychology laboratory, Wundt is credited with making
psychology a disEnct scienEfic discipline through his introspecEon method.
Interes(ng Fact: Wundt was also a philosopher and linguist, and his work
aimed to bridge the gap between the natural sciences and the humaniEes.

Erik Erikson
Erikson expanded psychoanalyEc theory with his model of psychosocial
development, outlining how idenEty evolves across eight stages of life.
Interes(ng Fact: Unlike many of his contemporaries, Erikson’s formal
educaEon did not include a degree in medicine or psychology; his insights
were grounded in a rich array of cultural, arEsEc, and clinical experiences.
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Psychologist of the Modern Era

Meet the vanguard of psychology's future: a group of trailblazing psychologists whose current
research is molding the contours of the field today. Actively investigating within their
laboratories and institutions, these scholars are expanding our understanding of the human
mind and behavior with groundbreaking studies. From the neural pathways of emotion to the
intricacies of decision-making, and the power of grit and memory, their work continues to
challenge and inspire, proving that the journey into psychology's uncharted territories is as
thrilling as ever.

Psychologist Focus of Modern Research

Elizabeth Loftus
LoSus is renowned for her work on the malleability of human memory. She
studies false memories, how they can be influenced by misinformaEon, and
their implicaEons for eyewitness tesEmony and the legal system.

Daniel Kahneman
A Nobel laureate in Economic Sciences, Kahneman's work spans judgment,
decision-making, and behavioral economics. He explores cogniEve biases
that affect our decisions and the dichotomy between intuiEve and analyEcal
thinking.

Susan Fiske
Fiske's research is centered on social cogniEon, stereotypes, prejudice, and
discriminaEon. She invesEgates how individuals form impressions of others
and the impact of these processes on social inequality and intergroup
relaEons.

Richard Davidson
Davidson studies emoEon and affecEve neuroscience. His work examines
the neural bases of emoEon and emoEonal style and how mindfulness and
contemplaEve pracEces can influence brain funcEon to promote well-being.

Angela Duckworth
Duckworth focuses on grit and self-control, exploring how these traits
influence success and achievement. She examines the role of perseverance
and passion for long-term goals in educaEonal and professional outcomes.
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Psychology as a Career
Jobs Centered Around Psychology
Forensic Psychologist:
Apply psychological principles within the legal and criminal justice system to assess
individuals' mental states, assist in investigations, and provide expert testimony in
court.
Sports Psychologist:
Work with athletes to enhance performance through mental conditioning, overcome
psychological hurdles associated with competition, and improve team dynamics.
Consumer Psychologist:
Study consumer behavior to help companies understand how people make purchasing
decisions, improving marketing strategies and product design.
Neuropsychologist:
Specialize in understanding the brain-behavior relationship, assessing and treating
patients with brain injuries or neurological conditions through cognitive tests and
rehabilitation strategies.
Military Psychologist:
Serve in the armed forces or as civilians to support military personnel, addressing
mental health issues, improving training programs, and aiding in recovery from
trauma.
Wildlife Psychologist:
Focus on animal behavior, studying psychological processes across different species
or working on conservation projects to understand how animals interact with their
environments and each other.
Clinical Health Psychologist:
Work in healthcare settings to help individuals cope with illness, promote healthy
behaviors, manage pain, and navigate the psychological aspects of physical health
conditions.
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Industrial-Organizational Psychologist:
Apply psychological principles to workplace environments, improving hiring practices,
employee productivity, and organizational culture.
Educational Psychologist:
Work within school systems or academic research to address students' learning and
behavioral problems, developing programs that enhance educational outcomes.
Aviation Psychologist:
Specialize in the psychological assessment of airline pilots and crew, focusing on
stress management, human error prevention, and safety procedures.
Environmental Psychologist:
Study the relationship between individuals and their physical surroundings, focusing
on how environments influence behavior and well-being, and how to design spaces
that improve quality of life.
Human Factors Psychologist:
Work on the design of products, systems, or processes to improve usability and
performance by understanding human behaviors and limitations.
Political Psychologist:
Explore the psychological aspects of political behavior, studying how individuals'
beliefs, emotions, and environments influence political decisions and attitudes.
Rehabilitation Psychologist:
Help individuals cope with disabilities and chronic illness, focusing on improving
quality of life, promoting independence, and facilitating adaptation to change.
Geropsychologist:
Specialize in the psychological care of older adults, addressing issues such as
dementia, aging-related mental health conditions, and life transitions.
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Benefits of Studying Psychology

Curious about the human mind but have your sights set on a different career path? Fret not!
Diving into psychology and enrolling in related courses can still enrich your journey, regardless of
your ultimate professional destination. Whether you're aiming for the boardroom, the classroom,
the tech lab, or the art studio, understanding the nuances of human behavior, cognition, and
emotion can offer invaluable insights and skills that transcend traditional boundaries. Let's
explore how the principles of psychology can illuminate various aspects of your life and work,
enhancing your communication, empathy, decision-making, and much more!
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Unlock the Secrets of Communication: Imagine mastering the art of persuasion or knowing just
what to say during a negotiation. Psychology equips you with the keys to effective
communication, opening doors in every interaction, from board meetings to social gatherings.

Become a Mind Reader (Sort of): While you won't be literally reading minds, studying
psychology offers insights into what makes people tick. This can be a superpower in management,
sales, or any role requiring you to anticipate and meet others' needs and desires.

Decision-Making Wizardry: Psychology teaches you to navigate the maze of human decision-
making, allowing you to make informed choices and understand the decisions of customers,
clients, and colleagues.

Stress-Busting Skills: Learn the art of managing your stress and helping others with theirs, a
boon in high-pressure environments. A little psychology can turn you into the zen master of your
workplace.

Ace Conflict Resolution: With a background in psychology, you can smoothly navigate conflicts,
understanding all sides and finding solutions that work for everyone. It’s like being a
professional peacekeeper.

Supercharge Your Creativity: Understanding psychological theories of creativity can inspire

innovation, whether you're designing the next big app or crafting marketing strategies that
resonate on a deep level.

Lead Like a Pro: Leadership isn't just about giving orders; it's about inspiring and understanding
your team. Psychology can shape you into a leader who motivates, supports, and drives their team
to greatness.

Navigate the Digital World: In our increasingly digital lives, understanding the psychological
effects of technology can make you a savvy navigator of the digital landscape, from social media
marketing to designing user-friendly apps.
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Psychology in Movies & TV

Mr. Steadman’s Favorite Psychology Themed Movies & TV Shows!

INCEPTION
July 2010
Science Fiction/Thriller
Plot Introduction
Leonardo DiCaprio stars as Dom Cobb, a skilled thief who enters the dreams of others to steal
secrets or implant ideas, in this mind-bending tale directed by Christopher Nolan. Cobb's
unique ability has made him a coveted player in the world of corporate espionage but has also
cost him everything he loves. The film takes the audience on a complex journey through layered
dreams within dreams, where reality and the dream world become indistinguishable.
Psychology Connection
Inception delves deep into the psychology of dreams, exploring the power of the subconscious
mind and the impact of unresolved guilt and trauma. It raises intriguing questions about the
construction of reality, the significance of memories in shaping our identity and emotional
state, and the possibility of catharsis and redemption through confronting one's inner demons.

Shutter Island
February 2010
Mystery/Thriller
Plot Introduction
Directed by Martin Scorsese and starring Leonardo DiCaprio as Teddy Daniels, Shutter Island
follows two U.S. Marshals sent to a remote asylum for the criminally insane to investigate the
disappearance of a patient. What begins as a straightforward investigation quickly spirals into
a disorienting examination of reality, as Daniels uncovers shocking truths about the island, the
patients, and himself. The atmospheric thriller is set against a backdrop of Cold War paranoia
and psychological manipulation.
Psychology Connection
The film provides a compelling exploration of psychological disorders, particularly delusions
and the impact of trauma on the human psyche. It questions the boundaries between sanity
and insanity, the ethical implications of psychiatric treatments, and the reliability of memory
and perception. Shutter Island engages with themes of guilt, loss, and the desperate quest for
truth in a world where appearances can be deceiving.
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Fight Club
October 1999
Drama/Action
Plot Introduction
Fight Club, directed by David Fincher and starring Edward Norton and Brad Pitt, dives into
the life of an unnamed protagonist struggling with insomnia and disillusionment in a
consumer-driven society. His life takes a dramatic turn when he meets Tyler Durden, and
together, they create an underground fight club as a radical form of male therapy. The club
evolves into something far more anarchistic and profound, reflecting the protagonist's internal
battle and quest for identity.

Psychology Connection
The film is a rich tapestry of psychological exploration, delving into themes of identity,
masculinity, and the impact of consumer culture on individual psyche. It examines dissociative
identity disorder, showcasing how trauma and societal pressures can fracture the self. Fight
Club also critiques the modern emasculation of men and the extremes to which they might go
to reclaim a sense of power and purpose, offering a stark look at the constructs of masculinity
and the path to self-realization.

Good Will Hunting

December 1997
Drama
Plot Introduction
Good Will Hunting, directed by Gus Van Sant, stars Matt Damon as Will Hunting, a janitor at
MIT with a prodigious talent in mathematics. Despite his brilliance, Will's troubled past and
emotional walls lead him to clash with the law. A compassionate therapist, played by Robin
Williams, helps Will confront his past and realize his potential, offering a moving narrative of
healing and self-discovery.
Psychology Connection
This film explores the psychological impact of abuse and neglect on personal development and
the transformative power of therapy. It highlights the importance of emotional intelligence,
the need for connection, and the journey towards self-acceptance. Through the therapeutic
process, Good Will Hunting illustrates how understanding and compassion can unlock a person's
ability to overcome trauma, embrace their talents, and forge meaningful relationships. The
movie underscores the notion that genius does not exempt one from the struggles of the human
condition but that healing and growth are possible with support and self-reflection.
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Mindhunter
October 2017
Crime, Drama, Thriller
Streaming Service: Netflix
Plot Introduction
Set in the late 1970s to early 1980s, "Mindhunter" follows FBI agents Holden Ford (Jonathan
Groff) and Bill Tench (Holt McCallany), along with psychologist Wendy Carr (Anna Torv), as
they pioneer the development of modern serial-killer profiling. The team delves deep into the
psychology of murder by interviewing imprisoned serial killers to understand what drives them
to commit such crimes, aiming to apply this knowledge to solving ongoing cases.
Psychology Connection
The show is steeped in psychological theory and practice, particularly in the areas of criminal
psychology and behavioral analysis. It explores the concept of the "psychopathology" of killers
and the psychological impact of delving into the darkest corners of the human mind on the
agents themselves. The show also addresses the evolution of the FBI's Behavioral Science Unit
and the challenges of understanding and categorizing deviant behavior within a psychological
framework.

Black Mirror
December 2011
Psychological Thriller, Science Fiction, Dystopia
Streaming Service: Netflix
Plot Introduction
Black Mirror, created by Charlie Brooker, is an anthology series that explores the dark and
often dystopian side of modern society and technology. Each standalone episode serves as a
cautionary tale about the unintended consequences of technology on human behavior,
relationships, and society at large. Themes range from the impact of social media on self-
esteem to the ethical implications of artificial intelligence and virtual reality.

Psychology Connection
The series offers a rich exploration of psychological themes, particularly how technology shapes
human experiences, emotions, and interactions. "Black Mirror" delves into topics such as
identity, memory, consciousness, and the nature of reality, inviting viewers to reflect on the
psychological effects of our increasingly digital lives. It raises questions about autonomy,
privacy, and the manipulation of the human psyche, making it a thought-provoking study of
the intersection between psychology and technology.
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Conducting Your Own

Psychology Experiment!
Embark on an exciting journey into the world of psychology with these hands-on experiments you
can conduct at home or with friends! Each activity is designed to unravel the mysteries of the
mind, offering a fun and interactive way to explore psychological concepts. While diving into
these experiments, remember to adhere strictly to ethical guidelines—ensure participants give
informed consent, understand they can withdraw at any time, and debrief them afterward. Let
curiosity be your guide as you safely navigate through these fascinating psychological
explorations, gaining insights into human behavior and mental processes in the most engaging
way possible.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Stroop Effect

Objective: To explore cognitive interference and the brain’s reaction time when dealing with
conflicting information.
Method: Write color names (e.g., “Red,” “Blue,” “Green”) in colors that do not match the word.
(e.g., the word “Red” written in blue ink). Ask participants to name the color of the ink, not the
word itself, and measure how long it takes them.

Classical Conditioning and Music

Objective: To understand classical conditioning by associating a specific behavior with a neutral
stimulus.
Method: Choose a song and play it before performing a neutral action (e.g., clapping hands,
turning off a light). After repeated associations, play the song to see if it alone triggers the
anticipated behavior.

Memory Recall Test

Objective: To investigate how information is recalled from short-term memory.
Method: Create a list of words or images and show them to a participant for a short period.
After a brief distraction, ask them to recall as many items as possible.

The Marshmallow Test (Adapted)

Objective: To study delayed gratification and self-control.
Method: Offer participants a small reward (like a marshmallow) they can have immediately or a
larger reward if they wait for a period. Observe their choice and discuss the factors influencing
their decision.
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Change Blindness Experiment

Objective: To demonstrate how selective attention can lead to change blindness.
Method: Have a conversation with a participant via a video call. During the call, subtly change
something in your background or appearance. After the call, ask if they noticed the change.

The Asch Conformity Experiment (Adapted)

Objective: To observe conformity to group pressure,
Method: In a group setting, have all but one of the participants (the subject) give an obviously
incorrect answer to a simple question. Observe whether the subject conforms to the group's
incorrect answer.

Illusions and Perception

Objective: To explore how optical illusions can reveal the brain’s perceptual processes.
Method: Present various optical illusions to participants and discuss what they see, exploring the
differences in perception and what these reveal about human vision and brain processing.

Mood and Color Perception

Objective: To investigate how colors can affect mood and emotions.
Method: Have participants spend time in rooms or spaces digitally altered to different colors or
wearing glasses that filter colors, then record their mood changes or preferences.

The Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Objective: To demonstrate how agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to
a second, larger request.
Method: Ask participants for a small favor, and later, a larger one related to the first. Observe
the rate of compliance and discuss the implications for persuasion.

False Memories Creation

Objective: To understand how suggestibility can lead to the formation of false memories.
Method: Tell a made-up, detailed story about an event that never happened to the participant.
Days later, ask them to recall details of the event to see if they remember it as real.
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A Message from Mr. Steadman

Dear AP Psychology Students,

As we turn the final page of this guide, I want to extend my sincerest thanks
for embarking on this journey through the fascinating world of psychology
with me. It has been my honor to provide you with a compass to navigate the
complex theories, groundbreaking experiments, and insightful discoveries that
make psychology such an intriguing field of study.

I hope this guide has served as a valuable tool in your preparation, offering
clarity, inspiration, and perhaps a bit of curiosity to explore beyond what's
covered in these pages. Remember, the understanding you've gained here is not
just for the AP exam but for life—a lens through which you can view human
behavior and mental processes in all their complexity.

As you approach the AP Psychology exam, know that you are well-prepared and
capable of achieving great things. Believe in yourself and the hard work you've
put into getting this far. You've got this!

Best of luck on your AP test and in all your future endeavors. May your
curiosity continue to lead you to new discoveries, and may the knowledge you've
gained empower you to make a positive impact in the world.

With gratitude and best wishes,

Timothy F Steadman
Tim Steadman
AP Psychology Teacher, Extraordinaire
Time Magazine’s Person of the Year, 2006 (It’s true, google it!)
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