NPL REPORT IR 51

THE NPL AIR KERMA PRIMARY STANDARD FREE-AIR CHAMBER

FOR LOW ENERGY X-RAYS: SUMMARY OF FACTORS
INCORPORATING ICRU REPORT 90 RECOMMENDATIONS

M KELLY, G A BASS, J W MANNING, D J MAUGHAN,

R F NUTBROWN, T SANDER, D R SHIPLEY

AUGUST 2019
NPL Report IR 51
 NPL Report IR 51

The NPL air kerma primary standard free-air chamber

for low energy x-rays: summary of factors
incorporating ICRU Report 90 recommendations

M Kelly, G A Bass, J W Manning, D J Maughan,

R F Nutbrown, T Sander, D R Shipley
Medical Physics Department

ABSTRACT
The NPL air kerma primary standard free-air ionisation chamber for low energy x-ray qualities
was established in 1977. The International Commission for Radiation Measurements and Units
Report 90 proposes the introduction of two new correction factors applicable to free air
ionisation chambers in this energy range. This report summarises all the factors for the NPL
primary standard including the two new factors, and changes to the standard up to the
publication date.
NPL Report IR 51

 NPL Management Limited, 2019

ISSN 1754-2952

National Physical Laboratory

Hampton Road, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 0LW

Extracts from this report may be reproduced provided the source is acknowledged
and the extract is not taken out of context.

Approved on behalf of NPLML by

Laurence Brice, Group Leader.
 NPL Report IR 51

CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................1
2 50 KV PRIMARY STANDARD FREE-AIR CHAMBER METROLOGY ..............................1
3 SETUP CONDITIONS ..................................................................................................................2
3.1 GRENZ LEVEL (GL) X-RAYS ....................................................................................................2
3.2 PROTECTION LEVEL (PL) X-RAYS .........................................................................................2
3.3 MAMMOGRAPHIC LEVEL (ML) X-RAYS ...............................................................................2
4 THE AIR KERMA SENSITIVITY EQUATION........................................................................3
5 GRENZ LEVEL BEAM QUALITIES .........................................................................................4
5.1 SUMMARY OF THE MEASURED FACTORS FOR GRENZ LEVEL BEAM QUALITIES ...4
5.2 SUMMARY OF NON-MEASURED VALUES AND FACTORS FOR GRENZ LEVEL BEAM
QUALITIES ...................................................................................................................................5
5.3 PRIMARY STANDARD AIR KERMA SENSITIVITY FOR GRENZ LEVEL BEAM
QUALITIES ...................................................................................................................................5
6 PROTECTION LEVEL BEAM QUALITIES (ISO 4037 NARROW SPECTRUM SERIES) .
..........................................................................................................................................................6
6.1 SUMMARY OF THE MEASURED FACTORS FOR PROTECTION LEVEL BEAM
QUALITIES (ISO 4037 NARROW SPECTRUM SERIES) .........................................................6
6.2 SUMMARY OF NON-MEASURED VALUES AND FACTORS FOR PROTECTION LEVEL
BEAM QUALITIES (ISO 4037 NARROW SPECTRUM SERIES) ............................................6
6.3 PRIMARY STANDARD AIR KERMA SENSITIVITY FOR PROTECTION LEVEL BEAM
QUALITIES (ISO 4037 NARROW SPECTRUM SERIES) .........................................................7
7 MAMMOGRAPHIC LEVEL BEAM QUALITIES (IEC 61267 SERIES) ..............................8
7.1 SUMMARY OF THE MEASURED FACTORS FOR MAMMOGRAPHIC LEVEL BEAM
QUALITIES (IEC 61267 SERIES) ...............................................................................................8
7.2 SUMMARY OF THE NON-MEASURED VALUES AND FACTORS FOR
MAMMOGRAPHIC LEVEL BEAM QUALITIES (IEC 61267 SERIES) ..................................8
7.3 PRIMARY STANDARD AIR KERMA SENSITIVITY FOR MAMMOGRAPHIC LEVEL
BEAM QUALITIES ......................................................................................................................8
8 MEASUREMENT EQUATION FOR AIR KERMA RATE .....................................................9
9 MEASUREMENT EQUATION FOR CALIBRATION OF SECONDARY STANDARD IN
TERMS OF AIR KERMA .............................................................................................................9
10 SUMMARY OF UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS ........................................................................10
11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .........................................................................................................12
12 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................12
NPL Report IR 51
 NPL Report IR 51

1 INTRODUCTION

The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) air kerma primary standard for x-rays generated at kilovoltages
from 8 kV up to 50 kV is a parallel plate, guarded field free-air ionisation chamber that covers the range
of x-ray qualities from approximately 0.024 mm Al HVL to 1.0 mm Al HVL for grenz level qualities,
from 0.058 mm Cu to 0.084 mm Cu for protection level qualities and from 0.31 mm Al to 0.62 mm Al
for mammographic qualities.

Two Free-Air Chambers (FAC) were constructed, measured, and characterised during the late 1970s at
the NPL to replace the 1958 design chamber. Chamber ‘A’ was originally designated as the primary
standard for this energy range and put into service in April 1982. During the early 1990s this chamber
was affected by water damage, and the ‘B’ chamber was designated as the primary standard. NPL took
the opportunity to remake the ‘A’ collector assembly at the same time as manufacturing another FAC
for use at the Swiss NMI in 1994. The ‘B’ chamber remained the primary standard from 1994 onwards.
Following an intercomparison with the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) in 2017, the
insulator resistance of the ‘B’ chamber guard-collector assembly was found to have dropped to below
an acceptable level, and as such it was decided to re-establish the ‘A’ chamber as the primary standard.

The International Commission for Radiation Measurements and Units (ICRU) Report 90 proposes two
new factors for free-air ionisation chambers, 𝑘𝑖𝑖 and 𝑘𝑊 , both related to the mean energy expended in
dry air per ion formed, 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 . The initial ionisation correction factor 𝑘𝑖𝑖 accounts for the fact that the
definition of 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 does not include the charge of the initial charged particle, while the correction factor
𝑘𝑊 accounts for the rapid increase in the value of 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 at electron energies below around 10 keV. It is
noted that, individually, these two factors have large effects but fortuitously cancel each other out.
Calculations of their combined effect have been performed and ICRU Report 90 presents values for the
product of the correction factors 𝑘𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝑘𝑊 as a function of photon energy from which the factors contained
in this report were derived.

This report summarises the factors applicable to the ‘A’ chamber to realise air kerma and calibrate a
secondary standard. The associated uncertainties are also presented, including the increase in the
standard uncertainty of 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 from 0.15% to 0.35% as recommended in ICRU report 90.

2 50 KV PRIMARY STANDARD FREE-AIR CHAMBER METROLOGY

Table 1 contains metrology information for the primary standard and Figure 1 shows the features of the
free-air chamber.
Table 1: Results of free-air chamber metrology
Measurement Value
Collecting electrode length 20.0304 mm
Beam-defining aperture A1 diameter 8.0014 mm
Air path length 89.876 mm
HT-collecting electrode plate separation 62.537 mm
Collecting volume 1019.7 mm3
Collecting electrode insulation resistance at least 1014 

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NPL Report IR 51

Guard Collecting Guard

electrode electrode electrode
Beam aperture
e.g. 12 mm Defining
plane

X-rays Collecting
volume

Beam defining Guard

aperture A1 HT electrode bars
(Not to scale)
Figure 1: Schematic of the 50 kV primary standard free-air chamber (not to scale)

3 SETUP CONDITIONS

For grenz, protection and mammographic level calibrations the following setup conditions are used:

• Beam-defining aperture diameter 8 mm (nominal, serial number A1) fitted to the FAC
chamber
• Reference point (defining plane) of the FAC is 0.79 mm from the external face of aperture
A1
• -1500 V polarising potential applied to chamber HT electrode in normal use, such that
negative ionisation current is generated.

Specific setup conditions are as given below:

3.1 GRENZ LEVEL (GL) X-RAYS

• 15 mm beam-limiting aperture used on x-ray set

• 50 cm source to chamber reference point

3.2 PROTECTION LEVEL (PL) X-RAYS

• 12 mm beam-limiting aperture used on x-ray set

• 75 cm source to chamber reference point

3.3 MAMMOGRAPHIC LEVEL (ML) X-RAYS

• 12 mm beam-limiting aperture used on x-ray set

• 60 cm source to chamber reference point

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 NPL Report IR 51

4 THE AIR KERMA SENSITIVITY EQUATION

The air kerma sensitivity, 𝑁𝐾 , in terms of grays per coulomb, of a chamber is given by the following:
𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝛱 1
𝑁𝐾 = ⋅ ⋅ 𝑘ℎ ⋅ (1)
𝑒 (1 − 𝑔) 𝜌𝑉

where 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 is the energy needed to create an ion pair in dry air,
𝑒 is the electron charge,
𝑔 is the fraction of energy lost to bremsstrahlung,
𝑘ℎ is the correction to 50% relative humidity,
𝜌 is the density of dry air,
𝑉 is the collecting volume of the chamber

and
𝛱 = 𝑘𝑎 ∙ 𝑘𝑑 ∙ 𝑘𝑒 ∙ 𝑘𝑙 ∙ 𝑘𝑝𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑘𝑠𝑐 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑙 ∙ 𝑘𝑠 ∙ 𝑘𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝑘𝑊 (2)

where 𝑘𝑎 is the correction for air attenuation between the aperture and the collecting electrode,
necessary because the reference point of the chamber is taken to be the defining plane
of the aperture and not the centre of the collector,
𝑘𝑑 is the field distortion correction, necessary because the electric field inside the free-air
chamber is not perfectly perpendicular to the electrodes at all points,
𝑘𝑒 is the electron loss correction, necessary at higher energies when the range of the
secondary electrons in air is greater than the plate separation in the free-air chamber,
𝑘𝑙 is the front face penetration correction, necessary if the front face of the free-air
chamber is not thick enough to attenuate the x-ray beam,
𝑘𝑝𝑜𝑙 is the polarity correction, to correct the response of the chamber for the effect of using
negative and positive polarising potentials, determined experimentally for a standard
potential,
𝑘𝑠𝑐 is the scattered photon correction that accounts for photons scattered from the main
beam through the chamber and which produce ionisation in the space between the
electrodes not defined by the ionisation volume,
𝑘𝑓𝑙 is the fluorescence correction which accounts for the re-absorption of fluorescence
photons generated by argon in the air of the free-air chamber, calculated for each beam
quality in mm Al or mm Cu HVL as appropriate from a fit to NPL/BIPM calculated
factors:

𝑘𝑓𝑙 = 0.000790626 × ln (HVL, mm Al) + 0.997684

(3)
𝑘𝑓𝑙 = 0.000519237 × ln (HVL, mm Cu) + 0.999521

𝑘𝑠 is the ion recombination correction that must be applied to the measured response of
the chamber, to account for the incomplete collection of charge (Boag 1987, Attix 1986,
Takata et al. 2005), determined experimentally using the Niatel/Boutillon method
(Boutillon 1998), calculated from the measured ionisation current I in A:

𝑘𝑠 = 5599361 × I + 1.00067 (4)

𝑘𝑖𝑖 is the initial ionisation correction factor accounting for the fact that the definition of
𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 does not include the charge of the initial charged particle,
𝑘𝑊 accounts for the rapid increase in the value of 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 at electron energies below around
10 keV.

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NPL Report IR 51

5 GRENZ LEVEL BEAM QUALITIES

5.1 SUMMARY OF THE MEASURED FACTORS FOR GRENZ LEVEL BEAM QUALITIES

Table 2: 50 kV Primary standard correction factors determined from measurement for grenz level beam
qualities

Nominal Factor
Beam quality
generating
HVL
potential 𝑘𝑎 * 𝑘𝑑 𝑘𝑙 𝑘𝑝𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑠𝑐 𝑘𝑠 **
mm Al
(kV)
8.5 0.024 - 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9944 1.0011
10 0.036 - 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9949 1.0011
11.5 0.05 - 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9954 1.0013
14 0.07 - 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9959 1.0012
16 0.10 - 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9962 1.0013
20 0.15 - 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9967 1.0014
24 0.25 - 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9971 1.0014
34 0.35 - 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9973 1.0019
41 0.50 - 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9975 1.0021
44 0.70 - 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9977 1.0020
50 1.00 - 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9979 1.0017

* Air attenuation for these qualities is measured at each occasion of use of the chamber using a
specially constructed FAC.

**Values of 𝑘𝑠 valid for 50 cm SCD, -1500 V HT and 15 mA beam current

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5.2 SUMMARY OF NON-MEASURED VALUES AND FACTORS FOR GRENZ LEVEL BEAM
QUALITIES

Table 3: 50 kV primary standard correction factors determined from calculation and standard values of
physical quantities for grenz level beam qualities

Nominal Beam quality

Factor or quantity
generating HVL
potential 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜌 𝑉
(kV) mm Al 𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑓𝑙 𝑘𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝑘𝑊 𝑒 (1- 𝑔)-1 𝑘ℎ
(J/C) (kg∙m-3) (cm3)
8.5 0.024 1.0000 0.9947 0.9951
10 0.036 1.0000 0.9951 0.9955
11.5 0.05 1.0000 0.9953 0.9958
14 0.07 1.0000 0.9956 0.9961
16 0.10 1.0000 0.9959 0.9965
20 0.15 1.0000 0.9962 0.9969 33.97 1.000 0.998 1.2046 1.0197
24 0.25 1.0000 0.9966 0.9974
34 0.35 1.0000 0.9969 0.9977
41 0.50 1.0000 0.9971 0.9978
44 0.70 1.0000 0.9974 0.9979
50 1.00 1.0000 0.9977 0.9980

5.3 PRIMARY STANDARD AIR KERMA SENSITIVITY FOR GRENZ LEVEL BEAM
QUALITIES

Table 4: 50 kV primary standard air kerma sensitivity 𝑁𝐾 in grays per coulomb (Gy/C) ×107 for grenz
level beam qualities

Nominal Beam quality

generating HVL Air kerma sensitivity 𝑁𝐾
potential Gy/C ×107
mm Al
(kV)
8.5 0.024 2.7215
10 0.036 2.7249
11.5 0.05 2.7280
14 0.07 2.7309
16 0.10 2.7339
20 0.15 2.7376
24 0.25 2.7409
34 0.35 2.7446
41 0.50 2.7466
44 0.70 2.7479
50 1.00 2.7488

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 NPL Report IR 51

6 PROTECTION LEVEL BEAM QUALITIES (ISO 4037 NARROW SPECTRUM SERIES)

6.1 SUMMARY OF THE MEASURED FACTORS FOR PROTECTION LEVEL BEAM

QUALITIES (ISO 4037 NARROW SPECTRUM SERIES)

Table 5: 50 kV Primary standard correction factors determined from measurement for protection level
beam qualities

Nominal Beam quality HVL Factor

generating
potential mm Al mm Cu 𝑘𝑎 * 𝑘𝑑 𝑘𝑙 𝑘𝑝𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑠𝑐 𝑘𝑠 **
(kV)
10 0.058 - 1.1060 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9954 1.0007
15 0.17 - 1.0312 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9966 1.0008
20 0.36 - 1.0148 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9973 1.0008
25 0.69 - 1.0074 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9977 1.0007
30 1.21 - 1.0045 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9979 1.0007
40 - 0.085 1.0045 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9983 1.0007

*For protection level calibrations the air attenuation correction is entered separately into the calibration
software program and therefore is not included in the total air kerma sensitivity given in Table 7 below

** Values of 𝑘𝑠 valid for 75 cm SCD, -1500 V HT and 20 mA beam current

6.2 SUMMARY OF NON-MEASURED VALUES AND FACTORS FOR PROTECTION LEVEL

BEAM QUALITIES (ISO 4037 NARROW SPECTRUM SERIES)

Table 6: 50 kV primary standard correction factors determined from calculation and standard values
of physical quantities for protection level beam qualities (ISO 4037 Narrow Spectrum Series)

Nominal Beam quality

Factor or quantity
generating HVL
𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟
potential mm mm 𝜌 𝑉
𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑓𝑙 𝑘𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝑘𝑊 𝑒 (1- 𝑔)-1 𝑘ℎ
(kV) Al Cu (J/C) (kg∙m-3) (cm3)
10 0.058 - 1.0000 0.9954 0.9958
15 0.17 - 1.0000 0.9963 0.9967
20 0.36 - 1.0000 0.9969 0.9972
33.97 1.000 0.998 1.2046 1.0197
25 0.69 - 1.0000 0.9974 0.9977
30 1.21 - 1.0000 0.9978 0.9978
40 - 0.085 1.0000 0.9982 0.9981

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6.3 PRIMARY STANDARD AIR KERMA SENSITIVITY FOR PROTECTION LEVEL BEAM
QUALITIES (ISO 4037 NARROW SPECTRUM SERIES)

Table 7: 50 kV primary standard air kerma sensitivity 𝑁𝐾 in grays per coulomb (Gy/C) ×107 for
protection level beam qualities (ISO 4037 Narrow Spectrum Series)

Nominal Beam quality,

generating HVL Air kerma sensitivity 𝑁𝐾
potential Gy/C ×107
mm Al mm Cu
(kV)
10 0.058 - 2.7270
15 0.17 - 2.7351
20 0.36 - 2.7402
25 0.69 - 2.7441
30 1.21 - 2.7461
40 - 0.085 2.7489

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 NPL Report IR 51

7 MAMMOGRAPHIC LEVEL BEAM QUALITIES (IEC 61267 SERIES)

7.1 SUMMARY OF THE MEASURED FACTORS FOR MAMMOGRAPHIC LEVEL BEAM

QUALITIES (IEC 61267 SERIES)

Table 8: 50 kV Primary standard correction factors determined from measurement for mammographic
level beam qualities

Nominal Beam quality,

Factor
generating HVL
potential
mm Al 𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑑 𝑘𝑙 𝑘𝑝𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑠𝑐 𝑘𝑠 *
(kV)
28 0.31 (RQR-M 2) 1.0218 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9972 1.0010
28 0.62 (RQB-M 2) 1.0128 1.0002 1.0000 1.0004 0.9976 1.0007

* Values of 𝑘𝑠 valid for 150 cm SCD, -1500 V HT and 10 mA beam current

7.2 SUMMARY OF THE NON-MEASURED VALUES AND FACTORS FOR

MAMMOGRAPHIC LEVEL BEAM QUALITIES (IEC 61267 SERIES)

Table 9: 50 kV primary standard correction factors determined from calculation and standard values
of physical quantities for mammographic level beam qualities

Nominal Beam quality

Factor or quantity
generating HVL
𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟
potential 𝜌 𝑉
mm Al 𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑓𝑙 𝑘𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝑘𝑊 𝑒 (1- 𝑔)-1 𝑘ℎ
(kV) (J/C) (kg∙m-3) (cm3)
28 0.31 (RQR-M 2) 1.0000 0.9968 0.9971
33.97 1.000 0.998 1.2046 1.0197
28 0.62 (RQB-M 2) 1.0000 0.9973 0.9976

7.3 PRIMARY STANDARD AIR KERMA SENSITIVITY FOR MAMMOGRAPHIC LEVEL

BEAM QUALITIES

Table 10: 50 kV primary standard air kerma sensitivity 𝑁𝐾 in grays per coulomb (Gy/C) ×107 for
mammographic level beam qualities (IEC 61267 Series)

Nominal Beam quality,

generating HVL Air kerma sensitivity 𝑁𝐾
potential Gy/C ×107
mm Al
(kV)
28 0.31 (RQR-M 2) 2.7997
28 0.62 (RQB-M 2) 2.7783

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8 MEASUREMENT EQUATION FOR AIR KERMA RATE

Air kerma rate 𝐾̇ in Gy/s is determined with the primary standard from the measured ionisation current
using the following equation:

𝐾̇ = (𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑤 − 𝐼𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 ) ⋅ 𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 ⋅ 𝑘𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⋅ 𝑘 𝑇𝑝 ⋅ 𝑁𝐾 (5)

where 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑤 is the displayed ionisation current (A) on the electrometer,

𝐼𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 is the leakage current (A),
𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 is the electrometer correction factor,
𝑘𝑖𝑜𝑛 is the ion recombination correction factor,
𝑁𝑘 is the air kerma sensitivity (Gy/C),
𝑘 𝑇𝑝 is the factor to correct from ambient temperature and pressure to standard temperature
and pressure given by

𝑇 101.325
𝑘 𝑇𝑝 = ⋅ (6)
293.15 𝑝

where 𝑇 is the ambient temperature (K) and

𝑝 is the ambient atmospheric pressure (kPa).

9 MEASUREMENT EQUATION FOR CALIBRATION OF SECONDARY STANDARD IN

TERMS OF AIR KERMA

The air kerma calibration coefficient NK,ss in grays per coulomb (Gy/C) for a secondary standard
ionisation chamber, derived from measurements using the secondary standard bracketed by
measurements with the primary standard (calibration by substitution), is given by

𝐾̇
𝑁𝐾,𝑠𝑠 = (7)
(𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑤,𝑠𝑠 − 𝐼𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘,𝑠𝑠 ) ⋅ 𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝑘𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝑘 𝑇𝑝,𝑠𝑠

where 𝐾̇ is the air kerma rate (Gy/s) measured by the primary standard,
𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑤,𝑠𝑠 is the secondary standard ionisation current (A) displayed on the electrometer,
𝐼𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘,𝑠𝑠 is the secondary standard leakage current (A),
𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑠 is the secondary standard electrometer correction factor,
𝑘 𝑇𝑝,𝑠𝑠 is the factor to correct from ambient temperature 𝑇 and pressure 𝑝 to standard
temperature and pressure and
𝑘𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑠𝑠 is the ion recombination correction for the secondary standard. Volume recombination
is negligible at air kerma rates used here (~15 mGy h-1). Initial recombination loss will
also be small (around 0.1%) for therapy and protection level chambers at the
recommended polarising voltage and can be ignored.

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10 SUMMARY OF UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS

Table 11 and Table 12 and summarise the uncertainties associated with the 50 kV primary standard
correction factor and the primary standard measurement of air kerma. Table 13 summarises the
uncertainty in the calibration of a secondary standard ionisation chamber for grenz, protection and
mammographic level energy x-rays.

The stated uncertainties were calculated following the recommendations given in the Guide to the
Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM).

Table 11: Uncertainties in the primary standard correction 𝛱 applicable to therapy, protection, and
mammographic level qualities

Quantity, source of
Symbol Type A Type B
uncertainty
𝑘𝑎 Air attenuation correction 0.20 -
𝑘𝑑 Field distortion correction 0.01 -
𝑘𝑒 Electron loss correction - 0.05
Front face penetration
𝑘𝑙 0.01 -
correction
𝑘𝑝𝑜𝑙 Polarity correction 0.02 -
𝑘𝑠𝑐 Scattered photon correction 0.10 -
𝑘𝑓𝑙 Fluorescence correction - 0.05
Initial ionisation and energy
𝑘𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝑘𝑊 - 0.12
dependence of 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑘𝑠 Ion recombination correction 0.05 -
Combined standard
uc (𝛱) 0.27
uncertainty

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Table 12: Uncertainties in the 50 kV primary standard measurement of air kerma rate 𝐾̇ for therapy,
protection, and mammographic level qualities.

Symbol Quantity, source of uncertainty Type A Type B

Total primary standard
𝛱 - 0.27
correction
Electrometer current calibration
𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 - 0.15
(pA/'pA')
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 Electrometer resolution (pA) - 0.05
𝐼𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 Leakage current (A) 0.10 -
𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟
Energy per ion pair (J/C) - 0.35
𝑒
Fraction of energy lost by
𝑔 - 0.02
bremsstrahlung
𝜌 Density of dry air (kg/m3) - 0.01
𝑘ℎ Humidity correction - 0.05
𝑇 Temperature (K) 0.02 -
𝑝 Pressure (kPa) 0.04 -

𝑉 Collecting volume (cm3) - 0.10

𝑅 Repeatability 0.10 -
uc(𝐾̇ ) Combined standard uncertainty 0.50

Table 13: Uncertainties in the air kerma calibration 𝑁𝐾,𝑠𝑠 of a secondary standard ionisation chamber
for therapy and mammographic level beam qualities (protection level qualities in brackets are higher
due to the use of a transfer chamber)

Quantity, source of
Symbol Type A Type B
uncertainty
𝐾̇ Air kerma rate - 0.50 (0.62)
𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐,𝑠𝑠 Electrometer current
- 0.15
calibration (nA/'nA')
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠,𝑠𝑠 Electrometer resolution (nA) - 0.05
𝑘𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑠𝑠 Ion recombination correction 0.05 -
𝐼𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒,𝑠𝑠 Leakage current (A) 0.10 -
𝑇𝑠𝑠 Temperature (K) 0.02 -
𝑝𝑠𝑠 Pressure (kPa) 0.04 -
𝑘𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 Distance from source - 0.02
𝑘𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 Orientation of chamber - 0.10
𝑅 Repeatability 0.30 -
uc(𝑁𝐾,𝑠𝑠 ) Combined standard
0.62 (0.72)
uncertainty
U Expanded uncertainty (k = 2) 1.25 (1.43)

11
NPL Report IR 51

11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge the financial support of the National Measurement System Policy Unit of
the UK Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy.

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