Advanced SQL Interview Questions and Answers

SQL Basic Interview Questions

“SQL Basic Interview Questions” covers fundamental concepts that are
essential for anyone preparing for a SQL interview. Explore these
essential questions to build a strong understanding and boost our
confidence in SQL basics.

1. What is SQL?

SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standard programming language

used to communicate with relational databases. It allows users to
create, read, update, and delete data, and provides commands to define
database schema and manage database security.

2. What is a database?

A database is an organized collection of data stored electronically,

typically structured in tables with rows and columns. It is managed by a
database management system (DBMS), which allows for efficient
storage, retrieval, and manipulation of data.

3. What are the main types of SQL commands?

SQL commands are broadly classified into:

DDL (Data Definition Language): CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE.

DML (Data Manipulation Language): SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE.
DCL (Data Control Language): GRANT, REVOKE.
TCL (Transaction Control Language): COMMIT, ROLLBACK,
SAVEPOINT.

4. What is the difference between CHAR and VARCHAR2 data

types?
 CHAR: Fixed-length storage. If the defined length is not fully used, it
is padded with spaces.
VARCHAR2: Variable-length storage. Only the actual data is stored,
saving space when the full length is not needed.

5. What is a primary key?

A primary key is a unique identifier for each record in a table. It ensures

that no two rows have the same value in the primary key column(s), and
it does not allow NULL values.

6. What is a foreign key?

A foreign key is a column (or set of columns) in one table that refers to
the primary key in another table. It establishes and enforces a
relationship between the two tables, ensuring data integrity.

7. What is the purpose of the DEFAULT constraint?

The DEFAULT constraint assigns a default value to a column when no

value is provided during an INSERT operation. This helps maintain
consistent data and simplifies data entry.

8. What is normalization in databases?

Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to

reduce redundancy and improve data integrity. This involves dividing
large tables into smaller, related tables and defining relationships
between them to ensure consistency and avoid anomalies.

9. What is denormalization, and when is it used?

Denormalization is the process of combining normalized tables into

larger tables for performance reasons. It is used when complex queries
and joins slow down data retrieval, and the performance benefits
outweigh the drawbacks of redundancy.
10. What is a query in SQL?

A query is a SQL statement used to retrieve, update, or manipulate data

in a database. The most common type of query is a SELECT statement,
which fetches data from one or more tables based on specified
conditions.

11. What are the different operators available in SQL?

Arithmetic Operators: +, -, *, /, %
Comparison Operators: =, !=, <>, >, <, >=, <=
Logical Operators: AND, OR, NOT
Set Operators: UNION, INTERSECT, EXCEPT
Special Operators: BETWEEN, IN, LIKE, IS NULL

12. What is a view in SQL?

A view is a virtual table created by a SELECT query. It does not store

data itself, but presents data from one or more tables in a structured
way. Views simplify complex queries, improve readability, and enhance
security by restricting access to specific rows or columns.

13. What is the purpose of the UNIQUE constraint?

The UNIQUE constraint ensures that all values in a column (or

combination of columns) are distinct. This prevents duplicate values
and helps maintain data integrity.

14. What are the different types of joins in SQL?

INNER JOIN: Returns rows that have matching values in both tables.
LEFT JOIN (LEFT OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows from the left table,
and matching rows from the right table.
RIGHT JOIN (RIGHT OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows from the right
table, and matching rows from the left table.
 FULL JOIN (FULL OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows when there is a
match in either table.
CROSS JOIN: Produces the Cartesian product of two tables.

15. What is the difference between INNER JOIN and OUTER JOIN?

INNER JOIN: Returns only rows where there is a match in both

tables.
OUTER JOIN: Returns all rows from one table (LEFT, RIGHT, or FULL),
and the matching rows from the other table. If there is no match,
NULL values are returned for the non-matching side.

16. What is the purpose of the GROUP BY clause?

The GROUP BY clause is used to arrange identical data into groups. It

is typically used with aggregate functions (such as COUNT, SUM, AVG)
to perform calculations on each group rather than on the entire dataset.

17. What are aggregate functions in SQL?

Aggregate functions perform calculations on a set of values and return

a single value. Common aggregate functions include:

COUNT(): Returns the number of rows.

SUM(): Returns the total sum of values.
AVG(): Returns the average of values.
MIN(): Returns the smallest value.
MAX(): Returns the largest value.

18. What is a subquery?

A subquery is a query nested within another query. It is often used in

the WHERE clause to filter data based on the results of another query,
making it easier to handle complex conditions.

19. What is the difference between the WHERE and HAVING

clauses?
 WHERE: Filters rows before any grouping takes place.
HAVING: Filters grouped data after the GROUP BY clause has been
applied.
In short, WHERE applies to individual rows, while HAVING applies to
groups.

20. What are indexes, and why are they used?

Indexes are database objects that improve query performance by

allowing faster retrieval of rows. They function like a book’s index,
making it quicker to find specific data without scanning the entire table.
However, indexes require additional storage and can slightly slow down
data modification operations.

21. What is the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE

commands?

DELETE: Removes rows one at a time and records each deletion in

the transaction log, allowing rollback. It can have a WHERE clause.
TRUNCATE: Removes all rows at once without logging individual row
deletions. It cannot have a WHERE clause and is faster than DELETE
for large data sets.

22. What is the purpose of the SQL ORDER BY clause?

The ORDER BY clause sorts the result set of a query in either ascending
(default) or descending order, based on one or more columns. This
helps present the data in a more meaningful or readable sequence.

23. What are the differences between SQL and NoSQL databases?

SQL Databases:
Use structured tables with rows and columns.
Rely on a fixed schema.
Offer ACID properties.
NoSQL Databases:
 Use flexible, schema-less structures (e.g., key-value pairs,
document stores).
Are designed for horizontal scaling.
Often focus on performance and scalability over strict
consistency.

24. What is a table in SQL?

A table is a structured collection of related data organized into rows

and columns. Columns define the type of data stored, while rows
contain individual records.

25. What are the types of constraints in SQL?

Common constraints include:

NOT NULL: Ensures a column cannot have NULL values.

UNIQUE: Ensures all values in a column are distinct.
PRIMARY KEY: Uniquely identifies each row in a table.
FOREIGN KEY: Ensures referential integrity by linking to a primary
key in another table.
CHECK: Ensures that all values in a column satisfy a specific
condition.
DEFAULT: Sets a default value for a column when no value is
specified.

26. What is a cursor in SQL?

A cursor is a database object used to retrieve, manipulate, and traverse

through rows in a result set one row at a time. Cursors are helpful when
performing operations that must be processed sequentially rather than
in a set-based manner.

27. What is a trigger in SQL?

A trigger is a set of SQL statements that automatically execute in
response to certain events on a table, such as INSERT, UPDATE, or
DELETE. Triggers help maintain data consistency, enforce business
rules, and implement complex integrity constraints.

28. What is the purpose of the SQL SELECT statement?

The SELECT statement retrieves data from one or more tables. It is the
most commonly used command in SQL, allowing users to filter, sort,
and display data based on specific criteria.

29. What are NULL values in SQL?

NULL represents a missing or unknown value. It is different from zero

or an empty string. NULL values indicate that the data is not available
or applicable.

30. What is a stored procedure?

A stored procedure is a precompiled set of SQL statements stored in

the database. It can take input parameters, perform logic and queries,
and return output values or result sets. Stored procedures improve
performance and maintainability by centralizing business logic.

SQL Intermediate Interview Questions

This section covers moderately complex SQL topics like advanced
queries, multi-table joins, subqueries, and basic optimization
techniques. These questions help enhance skills for both database
developers and administrators, preparing us for more technical SQL
challenges in the field.

31. What is the difference between DDL and DML commands?

1. DDL (Data Definition Language):

These commands are used to define and modify the structure of

database objects such as tables, indexes, and views. For example, the
CREATE command creates a new table, the ALTER command modifies an
existing table, and the DROP command removes a table entirely. DDL
commands primarily focus on the schema or structure of the database.

Example:

CREATE TABLE Employees (

ID INT PRIMARY KEY,
Name VARCHAR(50)
);

2. DML (Data Manipulation Language):

These commands deal with the actual data stored within database
objects. For instance, the INSERT command adds rows of data to a
table, the UPDATE command modifies existing data, and the DELETE
command removes rows from a table. In short, DML commands allow
you to query and manipulate the data itself rather than the structure.

Example:

INSERT INTO Employees (ID, Name) VALUES (1, 'Alice');

32. What is the purpose of the ALTER command in SQL?

The ALTER command is used to modify the structure of an existing

database object. This command is essential for adapting our database
schema as requirements evolve.

Add or drop a column in a table.

Change a column’s data type.
Add or remove constraints.
Rename columns or tables.
Adjust indexing or storage settings.

33. What is a composite primary key?

A composite primary key is a primary key made up of two or more

columns. Together, these columns must form a unique combination for
each row in the table. It’s used when a single column isn’t sufficient to
uniquely identify a record.

Example:

Consider an Orders table where OrderID and ProductID together

uniquely identify each record because multiple orders might include the
same product, but not within the same order.

CREATE TABLE OrderDetails (

OrderID INT,
ProductID INT,
Quantity INT,
PRIMARY KEY (OrderID, ProductID)
);

34. How is data integrity maintained in SQL databases?

Data integrity refers to the accuracy, consistency, and reliability of the

data stored in the database. SQL databases maintain data integrity
through several mechanisms:

Constraints: Ensuring that certain conditions are always met. For

example, NOT NULL ensures a column cannot have missing values,
FOREIGN KEY ensures a valid relationship between tables, and UNIQUE
ensures no duplicate values.
Transactions: Ensuring that a series of operations either all succeed
or all fail, preserving data consistency.
Triggers: Automatically enforcing rules or validations before or after
changes to data.
Normalization: Organizing data into multiple related tables to
minimize redundancy and prevent anomalies.
These measures collectively ensure that the data remains reliable
and meaningful over time.

35. What are the advantages of using stored procedures?

 Improved Performance: Stored procedures are precompiled and
cached in the database, making their execution faster than sending
multiple individual queries.
Reduced Network Traffic: By executing complex logic on the server,
fewer round trips between the application and database are needed.
Enhanced Security: Stored procedures can restrict direct access to
underlying tables, allowing users to execute only authorized
operations.
Reusability and Maintenance: Once a procedure is written, it can be
reused across multiple applications. If business logic changes, you
only need to update the stored procedure, not every application that
uses it.

36. What is a UNION operation, and how is it used?

The UNION operator combines the result sets of two or more SELECT

queries into a single result set, removing duplicate rows. This is useful
when we need a consolidated view of data from multiple tables or
queries that have similar structure.

Example:

SELECT Name FROM Customers

UNION
SELECT Name FROM Employees;

37. What is the difference between UNION and UNION ALL?

UNION: Removes duplicate rows from the result set, ensuring only
unique rows are returned.
UNION ALL: Includes all rows from each query, including duplicates.
Performance-wise, UNION ALL is faster because it doesn’t require an
additional step to remove duplicates.

Example:
 SELECT Name FROM Customers
UNION ALL
SELECT Name FROM Employees;

38. How does the CASE statement work in SQL?

The CASE statement is SQL’s way of implementing conditional logic in

queries. It evaluates conditions and returns a value based on the first
condition that evaluates to true. If no condition is met, it can return a
default value using the ELSE clause.

Example:

SELECT ID,
CASE
WHEN Salary > 100000 THEN 'High'
WHEN Salary BETWEEN 50000 AND 100000 THEN
'Medium'
ELSE 'Low'
END AS SalaryLevel
FROM Employees;

39. What are scalar functions in SQL?

Scalar functions operate on individual values and return a single value

as a result. They are often used for formatting or converting data.
Common examples include:

LEN(): Returns the length of a string.

ROUND(): Rounds a numeric value.
CONVERT(): Converts a value from one data type to another.

Example:

SELECT LEN('Example') AS StringLength;

40. What is the purpose of the COALESCE function?

The COALESCE function returns the first non-NULL value from a list of
expressions. It’s commonly used to provide default values or handle
missing data gracefully.

Example:

SELECT COALESCE(NULL, NULL, 'Default Value') AS Result;

41. What are the differences between SQL’s COUNT() and SUM()
functions?

1. COUNT(): Counts the number of rows or non-NULL values in a

column.

Example:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Orders;

2. SUM(): Adds up all numeric values in a column.

Example:

SELECT SUM(TotalAmount) FROM Orders;

42. What is the difference between the NVL and NVL2 functions?

NVL(): Replaces a NULL value with a specified replacement value.

NVL2(): Evaluates two values:
If the first argument is NOT NULL, returns the second
argument.
If the first argument is NULL, returns the third argument.

Example:

SELECT NVL(Salary, 0) AS AdjustedSalary

FROM Employees;

43. How does the RANK() function differ from DENSE_RANK()?

 RANK(): Assigns a rank to each row, with gaps if there are ties.
DENSE_RANK(): Assigns consecutive ranks without any gaps.

Example:

SELECT Name, Salary, RANK() OVER (ORDER BY Salary DESC) AS

Rank
FROM Employees;

If two employees have the same salary, they get the same rank, but
RANK() will skip a number for the next rank, while DENSE_RANK() will not.

44. What is the difference between ROW_NUMBER() and RANK()?

ROW_NUMBER(): Assigns a unique number to each row regardless

of ties.
RANK(): Assigns the same number to tied rows and leaves gaps for
subsequent ranks.

Example:

SELECT Name, ROW_NUMBER() OVER (ORDER BY Salary DESC) AS

RowNum
FROM Employees;

45. What are common table expressions (CTEs) in SQL?

A CTE is a temporary result set defined within a query. It improves

query readability and can be referenced multiple times.

Example:

WITH TopSalaries AS (
SELECT Name, Salary
FROM Employees
WHERE Salary > 50000
)
SELECT * FROM TopSalaries WHERE Name LIKE 'A%';
46. What are window functions, and how are they used?

Window functions perform calculations across a set of rows that are

related to the current row. Unlike aggregate functions, they don’t
collapse the result set.

Example: Calculating a running total

SELECT Name, Salary, SUM(Salary) OVER (ORDER BY Salary) AS

RunningTotal
FROM Employees;

47. What is the difference between an index and a key in SQL?

1. Index

An index is a database object created to speed up data retrieval. It

stores a sorted reference to table data, which helps the database
engine find rows more quickly than scanning the entire table.
Example: A non-unique index on a column like LastName allows quick
lookups of rows where the last name matches a specific value.

2. Key

A key is a logical concept that enforces rules for uniqueness or

relationships in the data.
For instance, a PRIMARY KEY uniquely identifies each row in a table
and ensures that no duplicate or NULL values exist in the key
column(s).
A FOREIGN KEY maintains referential integrity by linking rows in one
table to rows in another.

48. How does indexing improve query performance?

Indexing allows the database to locate and access the rows

corresponding to a query condition much faster than scanning the
entire table. Instead of reading each row sequentially, the database
uses the index to jump directly to the relevant data pages. This reduces
 the number of disk I/O operations and speeds up query execution,
especially for large tables.

Example:

CREATE INDEX idx_lastname ON Employees(LastName);

SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE LastName = 'Smith';

The index on LastName lets the database quickly find all rows matching
‘Smith’ without scanning every record.

49. What are the trade-offs of using indexes in SQL databases?

Advantages

Faster query performance, especially for SELECT queries with

WHERE clauses, JOIN conditions, or ORDER BY clauses.
Improved sorting and filtering efficiency.

Disadvantages:

Increased storage space for the index structures.

Additional overhead for write operations (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE),
as indexes must be updated whenever the underlying data changes.
Potentially slower bulk data loads or batch inserts due to the need
to maintain index integrity.
In short, indexes make read operations faster but can slow down
write operations and increase storage requirements.

50. What is the difference between clustered and non-clustered

indexes?

1. Clustered Index:

Organizes the physical data in the table itself in the order of the
indexed column(s).
A table
Databases SQLcanMySQL
have only one clustered
PostgreSQL PL/SQL index.
MongoDB SQL Cheat Sheet SQL Interview
Improves range queries and queries that sort data.
 Example: If EmployeeID is the clustered index, the rows in the table
are stored physically sorted by EmployeeID.

2. Non-Clustered Index:

Maintains a separate structure that contains a reference (or pointer)

to the physical data in the table.
A table can have multiple non-clustered indexes.
Useful for specific query conditions that aren’t related to the primary
ordering of the data.
Example: A non-clustered index on LastName allows fast lookups by
last name even if the table is sorted by another column.

51. What are temporary tables, and how are they used?

Temporary tables are tables that exist only for the duration of a session
or a transaction. They are useful for storing intermediate results,
simplifying complex queries, or performing operations on subsets of
data without modifying the main tables.

1. Local Temporary Tables:

Prefixed with # (e.g., #TempTable).

Only visible to the session that created them.
Automatically dropped when the session ends.

2. Global Temporary Tables:

Prefixed with ## (e.g., ##GlobalTempTable).

Visible to all sessions.
Dropped when all sessions that reference them are closed.

Example:

CREATE TABLE #TempResults (ID INT, Value VARCHAR(50));

INSERT INTO #TempResults VALUES (1, 'Test');
SELECT * FROM #TempResults;
52. What is a materialized view, and how does it differ from a
standard view?

Standard View:
A virtual table defined by a query.
Does not store data; the underlying query is executed each
time the view is referenced.
A standard view shows real-time data.
Materialized View:
A physical table that stores the result of the query.
Data is precomputed and stored, making reads faster.
Requires periodic refreshes to keep data up to date.
materialized view is used to store aggregated sales data,
updated nightly, for fast reporting.

53. What is a sequence in SQL?

A sequence is a database object that generates a series of unique

numeric values. It’s often used to produce unique identifiers for primary
keys or other columns requiring sequential values.

Example:

CREATE SEQUENCE seq_emp_id START WITH 1 INCREMENT BY 1;

SELECT NEXT VALUE FOR seq_emp_id; -- Returns 1
SELECT NEXT VALUE FOR seq_emp_id; -- Returns 2

54. What are the advantages of using sequences over identity

columns?

1. Greater Flexibility:

Can specify start values, increments, and maximum values.

Can be easily reused for multiple tables.
2. Dynamic Adjustment: Can alter the sequence without modifying the
table structure.

3. Cross-Table Consistency: Use a single sequence for multiple related

tables to ensure unique identifiers across them.
In short, sequences offer more control and reusability than identity
columns.

55. How do constraints improve database integrity?

Constraints enforce rules that the data must follow, preventing invalid
or inconsistent data from being entered:

NOT NULL: Ensures that a column cannot contain NULL values.

UNIQUE: Ensures that all values in a column are distinct.
PRIMARY KEY: Combines NOT NULL and UNIQUE, guaranteeing that
each row is uniquely identifiable.
FOREIGN KEY: Ensures referential integrity by requiring values in one
table to match primary key values in another.
CHECK: Validates that values meet specific criteria (e.g., CHECK
(Salary > 0)).
By automatically enforcing these rules, constraints maintain data
reliability and consistency.

56. What is the difference between a local and a global temporary

table?

Local Temporary Table:

Prefixed with # (e.g., #TempTable).
Exists only within the session that created it.
Automatically dropped when the session ends.
Global Temporary Table:
Prefixed with ## (e.g., ##GlobalTempTable).
Visible to all sessions.
Dropped only when all sessions referencing it are closed.
Example:

CREATE TABLE #LocalTemp (ID INT);

CREATE TABLE ##GlobalTemp (ID INT);

57. What is the purpose of the SQL MERGE statement?

The MERGE statement combines multiple operations INSERT, UPDATE,

and DELETE into one. It is used to synchronize two tables by:

Inserting rows that don’t exist in the target table.

Updating rows that already exist.
Deleting rows from the target table based on conditions

Example:

MERGE INTO TargetTable T

USING SourceTable S
ON T.ID = S.ID
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE SET T.Value = S.Value
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN
INSERT (ID, Value) VALUES (S.ID, S.Value);

58. How can you handle duplicates in a query without using

DISTINCT?

1. GROUP BY: Aggregate rows to eliminate duplicates

SELECT Column1, MAX(Column2)

FROM TableName
GROUP BY Column1;

2. ROW_NUMBER(): Assign a unique number to each row and filter by

that

WITH CTE AS (
SELECT Column1, Column2, ROW_NUMBER() OVER (PARTITION
BY Column1 ORDER BY Column2) AS RowNum
 FROM TableName
)
SELECT * FROM CTE WHERE RowNum = 1;

59. What is a correlated subquery?

A correlated subquery is a subquery that references columns from the

outer query. It is re-executed for each row processed by the outer query.
This makes it more dynamic, but potentially less efficient.

Example:

SELECT Name,
(SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM Orders
WHERE Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID) AS
OrderCount
FROM Customers;

60. What are partitioned tables, and when should we use them?

Partitioned tables divide data into smaller, more manageable

segments based on a column’s value (e.g., date or region). Each
partition is stored separately, making queries that target a specific
partition more efficient. It is used when

Large tables with millions or billions of rows.

Scenarios where queries frequently filter on partitioned columns
(e.g., year, region).
To improve maintenance operations, such as archiving older
partitions without affecting the rest of the table.

SQL Advanced Interview Questions

This section covers complex SQL topics, including performance tuning,
complex indexing strategies, transaction isolation levels, and
advanced query optimization techniques. By tackling these challenging
questions, we’ll gain a deeper understanding of SQL, preparing us for
senior-level roles and technical interviews.

61. What are the ACID properties of a transaction?

ACID is an acronym that stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,

and Durability—four key properties that ensure database transactions
are processed reliably.

1. Atomicity:

A transaction is treated as a single unit of work, meaning all

operations must succeed or fail as a whole.
If any part of the transaction fails, the entire transaction is rolled
back.

2. Consistency:

A transaction must take the database from one valid state to

another, maintaining all defined rules and constraints.
This ensures data integrity is preserved throughout the transaction
process.

3. Isolation:

Transactions should not interfere with each other.

Even if multiple transactions occur simultaneously, each must
operate as if it were the only one in the system until it is complete.

4. Durability:

Once a transaction is committed, its changes must persist, even in

the event of a system failure.
This ensures the data remains stable after the transaction is
successfully completed.

62. What are the differences between isolation levels in SQL?

Isolation levels define the extent to which the operations in one
transaction are isolated from those in other transactions. They are
critical for managing concurrency and ensuring data integrity. Common
isolation levels include:

1. Read Uncommitted:

Allows reading uncommitted changes from other transactions.

Can result in dirty reads, where a transaction reads data that might
later be rolled back.

2. Read Committed:

Ensures a transaction can only read committed data.

Prevents dirty reads but does not protect against non-repeatable
reads or phantom reads.

3. Repeatable Read:

Ensures that if a transaction reads a row, that row cannot change

until the transaction is complete.
Prevents dirty reads and non-repeatable reads but not phantom
reads.

4. Serializable:

The highest level of isolation.

Ensures full isolation by effectively serializing transactions, meaning
no other transaction can read or modify data that another
transaction is using.
Prevents dirty reads, non-repeatable reads, and phantom reads, but
may introduce performance overhead due to locking and reduced
concurrency.

63. What is the purpose of the WITH (NOLOCK) hint in SQL

Server?

The WITH (NOLOCK) hint allows a query to read data without

acquiring shared locks, effectively reading uncommitted data.
 It can improve performance by reducing contention for locks,
especially on large tables that are frequently updated.
Results may be inconsistent or unreliable, as the data read might
change or be rolled back.

Example:

SELECT *
FROM Orders WITH (NOLOCK);

This query fetches data from the Orders table without waiting for other
transactions to release their locks.

64. How do you handle deadlocks in SQL databases?

Deadlocks occur when two or more transactions hold resources that

the other transactions need, resulting in a cycle of dependency that
prevents progress. Strategies to handle deadlocks include:

1. Deadlock detection and retry:

Many database systems have mechanisms to detect deadlocks and

terminate one of the transactions to break the cycle.
The terminated transaction can be retried after the other
transactions complete.

2. Reducing lock contention:

Use indexes and optimized queries to minimize the duration and

scope of locks.
Break transactions into smaller steps to reduce the likelihood of
conflicts.

3. Using proper isolation levels:

In some cases, lower isolation levels can help reduce locking.

Conversely, higher isolation levels (like Serializable) may ensure a
predictable order of operations, reducing deadlock risk.
4. Consistent ordering of resource access:

Ensure that transactions acquire resources in the same order to

prevent cyclical dependencies.

65. What is a database snapshot, and how is it used?

A database snapshot is a read-only, static view of a database at a

specific point in time.

Reporting: Allowing users to query a consistent dataset without

affecting live operations.
Backup and recovery: Snapshots can serve as a point-in-time
recovery source if changes need to be reversed.
Testing: Providing a stable dataset for testing purposes without the
risk of modifying the original data.

Example:

CREATE DATABASE MySnapshot ON

(
NAME = MyDatabase_Data,
FILENAME = 'C:\Snapshots\MyDatabase_Snapshot.ss'
)
AS SNAPSHOT OF MyDatabase;

66. What are the differences between OLTP and OLAP systems?

1. OLTP (Online Transaction Processing)

Handles large volumes of simple transactions (e.g., order entry,

inventory updates).
Optimized for fast, frequent reads and writes.
Normalized schema to ensure data integrity and consistency.
Examples: e-commerce sites, banking systems.

2. OLAP (Online Analytical Processing)

Handles complex queries and analysis on large datasets.

 Optimized for read-heavy workloads and data aggregation.
Denormalized schema (e.g., star or snowflake schemas) to support
faster querying.
Examples: Business intelligence reporting, data warehousing.

67. What is a live lock, and how does it differ from a deadlock?

1. Live Lock

Occurs when two or more transactions keep responding to each

other’s changes, but no progress is made.
Unlike a deadlock, the transactions are not blocked; they are actively
running, but they cannot complete.

2. Deadlock

Occurs when transactions are blocked waiting for each other to

release locks.
No progress can be made unless one of the transactions is
terminated

68. What is the purpose of the SQL EXCEPT operator?

The EXCEPT operator is used to return rows from one query’s result set
that are not present in another query’s result set. It effectively performs
a set difference, showing only the data that is unique to the first query.

Example:

SELECT ProductID FROM ProductsSold

EXCEPT
SELECT ProductID FROM ProductsReturned;

Use Case:

To find discrepancies between datasets.

To verify that certain data exists in one dataset but not in another.

Performance Considerations:
 EXCEPT works best when the datasets involved have appropriate
indexing and when the result sets are relatively small.
Large datasets without indexes may cause slower performance
because the database has to compare each row.

69. How do you implement dynamic SQL, and what are its
advantages and risks?

Dynamic SQL is SQL code that is constructed and executed at runtime

rather than being fully defined and static. In SQL Server: Use
sp_executesql or EXEC. In other databases: Concatenate query strings
and execute them using the respective command for the database
platform.

Syntax:

DECLARE @sql NVARCHAR(MAX)

SET @sql = ‘SELECT * FROM ‘ + @TableName
EXEC sp_executesql @sql;

Advantages:

Flexibility: Dynamic SQL can adapt to different conditions, tables, or

columns that are only known at runtime.
Simplifies Complex Logic: Instead of writing multiple queries, a
single dynamically constructed query can handle multiple scenarios.

Risks:

SQL Injection Vulnerabilities: If user input is not sanitized, attackers

can inject malicious SQL code.
Performance Overhead: Because dynamic SQL is constructed at
runtime, it may not benefit from cached execution plans, leading to
slower performance.
Complexity in Debugging: Dynamic queries can be harder to read
and troubleshoot.
70. What is the difference between horizontal and vertical
partitioning?

Partitioning is a database technique used to divide data into smaller,

more manageable pieces.

Horizontal Partitioning:
Divides the rows of a table into multiple partitions based on
values in a specific column.
Example: Splitting a customer table into separate partitions
by geographic region or by year.
Use Case: When dealing with large datasets, horizontal
partitioning can improve performance by limiting the
number of rows scanned for a query.
Vertical Partitioning:
Divides the columns of a table into multiple partitions.
Example: Storing infrequently accessed columns (e.g., large
text or binary fields) in a separate table or partition.
Use Case: Helps in optimizing storage and query
performance by separating commonly used columns from
less frequently accessed data.
Key Difference:
Horizontal partitioning is row-based, focusing on
distributing the dataset’s rows across partitions.
Vertical partitioning is column-based, aiming to separate
less-used columns into different partitions or tables.

71. What are the considerations for indexing very large tables?

1. Indexing Strategy:

Focus on the most frequently queried columns or those involved in

JOIN and WHERE conditions.
Avoid indexing every column, as it increases storage and
maintenance costs.
2. Index Types:

Use clustered indexes for primary key lookups and range queries.
Use non-clustered indexes for filtering, ordering, and covering
specific queries.

3. Partitioned Indexes:

If the table is partitioned, consider creating local indexes for each

partition. This improves manageability and can speed up queries
targeting specific partitions.

4. Maintenance Overhead:

Index rebuilding and updating can be resource-intensive. Plan for

regular index maintenance during off-peak hours.
Monitor index fragmentation and rebuild indexes as necessary to
maintain performance.

5. Monitoring and Tuning:

Continuously evaluate query performance using execution plans and

statistics.
Remove unused or rarely accessed indexes to reduce maintenance
costs.

6. Indexing large tables requires a careful approach to ensure that

performance gains from faster queries outweigh the costs of increased
storage and maintenance effort.

72. What is the difference between database sharding and

partitioning?

1. Sharding

Sharding involves splitting a database into multiple smaller,

independent databases (shards). Each shard operates on a subset
of the overall data and can be hosted on separate servers.
 Sharding is a horizontal scaling strategy that distributes data across
multiple databases, typically to handle massive data volumes and
high traffic.
Purpose: Horizontal scaling to handle large volumes of data and
high query loads.
Example: A global user database might be divided into shards by
region, such as a shard for North America, Europe, and Asia.
Key Benefit: Each shard can be queried independently, reducing the
load on any single server.

2. Partitioning

Partitioning splits a single table into smaller, logical pieces, usually

within the same database.
Partitioning is a logical organization of data within a single
database to optimize performance and manageability.
Purpose: Improve query performance by reducing the amount of
data scanned, and simplify maintenance tasks such as archiving or
purging old data.
Example: A sales table could be partitioned by year so that queries
targeting recent sales do not need to scan historical data.

73. What are the best practices for writing optimized SQL
queries?

1. Write Simple, Clear Queries:

Avoid overly complex joins and subqueries.

Use straightforward, well-structured SQL that is easy to read and
maintain.

2. Filter Data Early:

Apply WHERE clauses as early as possible to reduce the amount of

data processed.
Consider using indexed columns in WHERE clauses for faster
lookups.
3. **Avoid SELECT *:

Retrieve only the columns needed. This reduces I/O and improves
performance.

4. Use Indexes Wisely:

Create indexes on columns that are frequently used in WHERE

clauses, JOIN conditions, and ORDER BY clauses.
Regularly review index usage and remove unused indexes.

5. Leverage Query Execution Plans:

Use execution plans to identify bottlenecks, missing indexes, or

inefficient query patterns.

6. Use Appropriate Join Types:

Choose INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, or OUTER JOIN based on the data
relationships and performance requirements.

7. Break Down Complex Queries:

Instead of a single monolithic query, use temporary tables or CTEs

to process data in stages.

8. Optimize Aggregations:

Use GROUP BY and aggregate functions efficiently.

Consider pre-aggregating data if queries frequently require the same
computations.

9. Monitor Performance Regularly:

Continuously analyze query performance and fine-tune as data

volumes grow or usage patterns change.

74. How can you monitor query performance in a production

database?

1. Use Execution Plans:

Review the execution plan of queries to understand how the database
is retrieving data, which indexes are being used, and where potential
bottlenecks exist.

2. Analyze Wait Statistics:

Identify where queries are waiting, such as on locks, I/O, or CPU, to

pinpoint the cause of slowdowns.

3. Leverage Built-in Monitoring Tools:

SQL Server: Use Query Store, DMVs (Dynamic Management Views),

and performance dashboards.
MySQL: Use EXPLAIN, SHOW PROFILE, and the Performance Schema.
PostgreSQL: Use EXPLAIN (ANALYZE), pg_stat_statements, and log-
based monitoring.

4. Set Up Alerts and Baselines:

Monitor key performance metrics (query duration, IOPS, CPU usage)

and set thresholds.
Establish baselines to quickly identify when performance degrades.

5. Continuous Query Tuning:

Regularly revisit and tune queries as data grows or application

requirements change.
Remove unused or inefficient indexes and re-evaluate the indexing
strategy.

75. What are the trade-offs of using indexing versus

denormalization?

1. Indexing

Advantages:
Speeds up read operations and improves query
performance without changing the data structure.
Can be applied incrementally and is reversible if not
effective.
 Consider indexing when you need faster lookups without
altering the data model.
Disadvantages:
Slows down write operations as indexes need to be
maintained.
Requires additional storage.

2. Denormalization

Advantages:
Simplifies query logic by storing pre-joined or aggregated
data.
Can improve performance for read-heavy workloads where
complex joins are frequent.
Consider denormalization when complex joins or repeated
aggregations significantly slow down queries
Disadvantages:
Introduces data redundancy, which can lead to
inconsistencies.
Increases storage requirements.
Makes updates more complex, as redundant data must be
synchronized.

76. How does SQL handle recursive queries?

SQL handles recursive queries using Common Table Expressions

(CTEs). A recursive CTE repeatedly references itself to process
hierarchical or tree-structured data.

Key Components:

Anchor Member: The initial query that starts the recursion.

Recursive Member: A query that references the CTE to continue
building the result set.
Termination Condition: Ensures that recursion stops after a certain
depth or condition is met.
Example:

WITH RecursiveCTE (ID, ParentID, Depth) AS (

SELECT ID, ParentID, 1 AS Depth
FROM Categories
WHERE ParentID IS NULL
UNION ALL
SELECT c.ID, c.ParentID, r.Depth + 1
FROM Categories c
INNER JOIN RecursiveCTE r
ON c.ParentID = r.ID
)
SELECT * FROM RecursiveCTE;

77. What are the differences between transactional and analytical

queries?

1. Transactional Queries:

Focus on individual, short-term operations such as inserts, updates,

and deletes.
Optimize for high-throughput and low-latency.
Often used in OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) systems.

2. Analytical Queries:

Involve complex aggregations, multi-dimensional analysis, and data

transformations.
Typically read-heavy, processing large amounts of historical or
aggregated data.
Often used in OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) systems.

3. Key Differences:

Transactional queries support day-to-day operations and maintain

data integrity.
Analytical queries support decision-making by providing insights
from large datasets
78. How can you ensure data consistency across distributed
databases?

1. Use Distributed Transactions: Implement two-phase commit (2PC)

to ensure all participating databases commit changes simultaneously
or roll back if any part fails.

2. Implement Eventual Consistency: If strong consistency isn’t

required, allow data to become consistent over time. This approach is
common in distributed systems where high availability is a priority.

3. Conflict Resolution Mechanisms: Use versioning, timestamps, or

conflict detection rules to resolve inconsistencies.

4. Data Replication and Synchronization: Use reliable replication

strategies to ensure that changes made in one database are
propagated to others.

5. Regular Audits and Validation: Periodically verify that data remains

consistent across databases and fix discrepancies as needed.

79. What is the purpose of the SQL PIVOT operator?

The PIVOT operator transforms rows into columns, making it easier to

summarize or rearrange data for reporting.

Example:

Converting a dataset that lists monthly sales into a format that displays
each month as a separate column.

SELECT ProductID, [2021], [2022]

FROM (
SELECT ProductID, YEAR(SaleDate) AS SaleYear, Amount
FROM Sales
) AS Source
PIVOT (
SUM(Amount)
FOR SaleYear IN ([2021], [2022])
) AS PivotTable;