Greek Literature29

Thousands would come from far and wide to see the opening of
the latest drama by Aeschylus, the most famous of Athenian
playwrights. The citizens of Athens felt it was a part of their civic
duty to attend as many dramas as possible.

The dramas typically dealt with important issues of the day, posed
tough questions, and educated theatergoers. Attendance at
dramas was considered such a valuable experience that
sometimes the government would pay for the tickets.

Iliad, Theogony, and Poetry

Among the earliest Greek literature was Homer's epic poems, the
Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad is a detailed telling of the Trojan
War while the Odyssey recounts Odysseus' 20-year journey home
following the Trojan War.

Created as early as 900 B.C.E., Homer's poems were not written

down since Greek civilization lacked a written language at that time. Instead, these massive poems were passed down
from generation to generation by word of mouth.

An Excerpt from the "Iliad"

The passage which follows is from Book XXII of the Iliad. It describes a scene
from the Trojan War that occurs just before Achilles, the Greek warrior,
slays the Trojan hero, Hector.

Old King Priam was the first to see Achilles rushing towards the Trojans
over the fields. As Achilles ran, the bronze on his breast flashed out like the
star that comes to us in autumn, outshining all its fellows in the evening sky
— they call it Orion's Dog, and though it is the brightest of all the stars it
bodes no good, bringing much fever, as it does, to us poor wretches. The
old man gave a groan. He lifted up his hands and beat his head with them.
In a voice full of terror he shouted entreaties to his beloved son, who had
taken his stand in front of the gates in the fixed resolve to fight it out with
Achilles.

"Hector!" the old man called, stretching out his arms to him in piteous
appeal. "I beg you, my dear son, not to stand up to that man alone and
unsupported. You are courting defeat and death at his hands. He is far
stronger than you, and he is savage. The dogs and vultures would soon be

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 feeding on his corpse (and what a load would be lifted from my heart!) if the gods loved him as little as I do — the
man who has robbed me of so many splendid sons, killed them or sold them off as slaves to the distant isles. So come
inside the walls, my child, to be the savior of Troy and the Trojans; and do not throw away your dear life to give a
triumph to the son of Peleus. Have pity too on me, your poor father, who is still able to feel.

As he came to an end, Priam plucked at his gray locks and tore the hair from his head; but he failed to shake Hector's
resolution. And now his mother in her turn began to wail and weep. "Hector, my child," she cried, "deal with your
enemy from within the walls and do not go out to meet that man in single combat. He is a savage; and you need not
think that, if he kills you, I shall lay you on a bier and weep for you, my own, my
darling boy; nor will your richly dowered wife; but far away from both of us, beside
the Argive ships, you will be eaten by the nimble dogs."

–Translated by Reverend William T. McNiff, The Pageant of Literature: Greek and Roman Writers

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 Greek Art and Architecture30

The arts reflect the society that creates them. Nowhere is this truer
than in the case of the ancient Greeks. Through their temples,
sculpture, and pottery, the Greeks incorporated a fundamental
principle of their culture: arete. To the Greeks, arete meant excellence
and reaching one's full potential.
Ancient Greek art emphasized the importance and accomplishments of
human beings. Even though much of Greek art was meant to honor the
gods, those very gods were created in the image of humans.

Much artwork was government sponsored and intended for public

display. Therefore, art and architecture were a tremendous source of
pride for citizens and could be found in various parts of the city.
Typically, a city-state set aside a high-altitude portion of land for an
acropolis, an important part of the city-state that was reserved for
temples or palaces. The Greeks held religious ceremonies and festivals
as well as significant political meetings on the acropolis.

Greek Excellence: The Acropolis

In ancient Athens, Pericles ordered the construction of

several major temples on the acropolis. Among these was
a temple, the Parthenon, which many consider the finest
example of Greek architecture.

Built as a tribute to Athena, the goddess of wisdom for

whom the city-state Athens was named, the Parthenon is
a marvel of design, featuring massive columns contrasting
with subtle details.

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Many barely noticeable enhancements to the design of the Parthenon contribute to its overall beauty and balance. For
example, each column is slightly wider in the middle than at its base and top. The columns are also spaced closer
together near the corners of the temple and farther apart toward the middle. In addition, the temple's steps curve
somewhat — lower on the sides and highest in the middle of each step.

Sadly, time has not treated the Parthenon well. In the 17th century, the Turks, who had conquered the Greeks, used the
Parthenon to store ammunition. An accidental explosion left the Parthenon with no roof and in near ruin. In later years,
tourists hauled away pieces of the Parthenon as vacation souvenirs.

Beauty in the Human Form

Ancient Greek sculptures were typically made of either stone or wood and very few of them survive to this day. Most
Greek sculpture was of the freestanding, human form (even if the statue was of a god) and many sculptures were nudes.
The Greeks saw beauty in the naked human body.

Early Greek statues called kouros were rigid and stood up straight. Over time, Greek statuary adopted a more natural,
relaxed pose with hips thrust to one side, knees and arms slightly bent, and the head turned to one side.

Other sculptures depicted human action, especially athletics. A good example is Myron's Discus Thrower Another famous
example is a sculpture of Artemis the huntress.

The piece, called "Diana of Versailles," depicts the goddess of the hunt reaching for an arrow while a stag leaps next to
her.

Among the most famous Greek statues is the Venus de Milo, which was created in the second century B.C.E. The sculptor
is unknown, though many art historians believe Praxiteles to have created the piece. This sculpture embodies the Greek
ideal of beauty.

The ancient Greeks also painted, but very little of their work remains. The most enduring paintings were those found
decorating ceramic pottery. Two major styles include red figure (against a black background) and black figure (against a
red background) pottery. The pictures on the pottery often depicted heroic and tragic stories of gods and humans.

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 Greek Thinkers31

The citizens of Athens were fed up with the old "wise" man.
Socrates, one of ancient Greece's most learned philosophers,
found himself on trial for his teachings. The prosecution
accused Socrates of corrupting the youth of Athens. A jury of
hundreds found Socrates guilty and sentenced him to death.

At the age of 70, Socrates willingly drank hemlock, a powerful

poison that put an end to his controversial life. How did it
happen that Athenians put to death a great philosopher such
as Socrates?

Throughout his entire life, Socrates questioned everything

from Athenian government to Greek religion and the gods
themselves. His ultimate goal was finding the truth, which he
believed could be reached through reason and knowledge.
Socrates was a
teacher, but he did not have a classroom, any books, or even a school. Instead,
Socrates lectured publicly. Anyone interested in what he had to say was invited
to listen.

Socrates practiced a style of teaching that has since become known as the
Socratic method. Essentially, Socrates taught through questioning. He started
with simple questions, then progressed to more complex, deeper questions.
Through the application of reason and logic, Socrates revealed answers to many
questions that led to a greater understanding of the world.

Problems arose because Socrates often questioned the very fundamentals and
traditions of Greek society. His constant questioning and searching for the truth
were seen as dangerous by many and ultimately led to his death.

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