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 Sunnen Products Company Oldrick Hajzler
Toyota Motor Sales, USA, Inc. Red River College
TRW Inc. gary F. Ham
Wurth USA, Inc. South Plains College
The author would also like to thank the following individuals for Betsy Hoffman
their help. Vermont Technical College
Dan Avery Marty Kamimoto
Tom Birch Fresno City College
Randy Dillman richard Krieger
Rick Escalambre, Skyline College Michigan Institute of Technology
Bill Fulton, Ohio Automotive Technology Steven T. Lee
Jim Linder, Linder Technical Services, Inc. Lincoln Technical Institute
Scot Manna
russell A. Leonard
Dan Marinucci, Communique’
Ferris State University
Jim Morton, Automotive Training center (ATC)
Dr. Norman Nall William Milam
Dave Scaler, Mechanic’s Education Association Eastfield College
John Thornton, Autotrain Carlton H. Mabe, Sr.
Mark Warren Virginia Western Community College
Mike Watson, Watson Automotive LLC Tony Martin
University of Alaska Southeast
TECHNICAl AND CONTENT rEvIEWErS The following Clifford g. Meyer
people reviewed the manuscript before production and checked it Saddleback College
for technical accuracy and clarity of presentation. Their suggestions
Justin Morgan
and recommendations were included in the final draft of the manu-
Sinclair Community College
script. Their input helped make this textbook clear and technically
accurate while maintaining the easy-to-read style that has made Kevin Murphy
other books from the same author so popular. Stark State College of Technology
Joe Palazzolo
Jim Anderson
GKN Driveline
Greenville High School
Fritz Peacock
rankin E. Barnes
Indiana Vocational Technical College
Guilford Technical Community College
Dennis Peter
Victor Bridges
NAIT (Canada)
Umpqua Community College
greg Pfahl
Tom Broxholm
Miami-Jacobs Career College
Skyline College
ron Chappell Kenneth redick
Santa Fe Community College Hudson Valley Community College

Curtis Cline Jeff rehkopf

Wharton County Junior College Florida State College

Matt Dixon Matt roda

Southern Illinois University Mott Community College
Dr. roger Donovan Scott russell
Illinois Central College Blue Ridge Community College
Kenneth P. Dytrt Chuck rockwood
Pennsylvania College of Technology Ventura College
A.C. Durdin Eugene Talley
Moraine Park Technical College Southern Illinois University
Al Engledahl Chuck Taylor
College of DuPage Sinclair Community College
robert M. Frantz Omar Trinidad
Ivy Tech Community College, Richmond Southern Illinois University
Christopher Fry Mitchell Walker
Harry S Truman College St. Louis Community College at Forest Park
Dr. David gilbert Ken Welch
Southern Illinois University Saddleback College

AC K N OWL ED GM EN T S vii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (CONTINUED)

Lee Ashburn Mark Steinle

Craven Community College Northwest Iowa Community College
David Chavez
Austin Community College Thanks to the myautomotivelab advisory board and contributors.

Steve Elder Mike Erny

British Columbia Institute of Technology Ivy Tech Community College
Craig Evers David Macholz
Minnesota State University – Mankato Suffolk County Community College
Curtis garand Joe Moore
Central New Mexico Community College Southern Maine Community College
Thomas Hobson rory Perrodin
Sheltonstate Community College Metropolitan Community College
John Kraemer Jeff rehkopf
Western Iowa Technical College Florida State College
Jeffrey Libby Curt Ward
University of Alaska-Anchorage Joliet Junior College
Michael Parker Larry Wehunt
Lakes Region Community College Gwinnett Technical College
Frederick Peacock
Ivy Tech–Purdue University SPECIAl THANkS The authors wish to thank Chuck Taylor of
Al Playter Sinclair Community College in Dayton, Ohio, plus Greg Pfahl and
Centennial College James (Mike) Watson who helped with many of the photos. A spe-
Bill roche cial thanks to Dick Krieger and Jeff Rehkopf for their detailed and
Danville Community College thorough review of the manuscript before publication and to Richard
Reaves for all of his help.
Jeff rogers
Most of all, we wish to thank Michelle Halderman for her as-
Spokane Community College
sistance in all phases of manuscript preparation.
Kevin ruby —James D. Halderman
Chattahoochee Technical College

AbOUT THE AUTHOr

jIm HAlDErmAN brings a world of experience, knowledge, and tal-

ent to his work. His automotive service experience includes working as
a flat-rate technician, a business owner, and a professor of automotive
technology at a leading U.S. community college for more than 20 years.
He has a Bachelor of Science Degree from Ohio Northern University
and a Master’s Degree in Education from Miami University in Oxford,
Ohio. Jim also holds a U.S. Patent for an electronic transmission con-
trol device. He is an ASE certified Master Automotive Technician and
Advanced Engine Performance (L1) ASE certified.
Jim is the author of many automotive textbooks all published by
Pearson. Jim has presented numerous technical seminars to national
audiences including the California Automotive Teachers (CAT) and the
Illinois College Automotive Instructor Association (ICAIA). He is also a
member and presenter at the North American Council of Automotive
Teachers (NACAT). Jim was also named Regional Teacher of the Year
by General Motors Corporation and an outstanding alumnus of Ohio
Northern University. Jim and his wife, Michelle, live in Dayton, Ohio. They
have two children. You can reach Jim at:

[email protected]

viii ABOUT THE AU THOR

BrIEf CONTENTS
SEcTIon I careers in the Automotive Service Area 1
chapter 1 Automotive Background and overview 1
chapter 2 careers in the Automotive Service Industry 8
chapter 3 Starting a career in the Automotive Industry 16
chapter 4 Working as a Professional Service Technician 24
chapter 5 Technician certification 34

SEcTIon II Safety, Environmental, and Health concerns 41

chapter 6 Shop Safety 41
chapter 7 Environmental and Hazardous Materials 48

SEcTIon III Tools, Shop Equipment, and Measuring 57

chapter 8 Fasteners and Thread Repair 57
chapter 9 Hand Tools 68
chapter 10 Power Tools and Shop Equipment 82
chapter 11 Vehicle Lifting and Hoisting 91
chapter 12 Measuring Systems and Tools 97

SEcTIon IV Principles, Math, and calculations 105

chapter 13 Scientific Principles and Materials 105
chapter 14 Math, charts, and calculations 114

SEcTIon V Vehicle Service Information, Identification, and Routine

Maintenance 119
chapter 15 Service Information 119
chapter 16 Vehicle Identification and Emission Ratings 125
chapter 17 Preventative Maintenance and Service Procedures 130

SEcTIon VI Engine Repair 146

chapter 18 Gasoline Engine operation, Parts, and Specifications 146
chapter 19 diesel Engine operation and diagnosis 158
chapter 20 coolant 175
chapter 21 cooling System operation and diagnosis 182
chapter 22 Engine oil 198
chapter 23 Lubrication System operation and diagnosis 210
chapter 24 Intake and Exhaust Systems 219
chapter 25 Turbocharging and Supercharging 227
chapter 26 Engine condition diagnosis 237
chapter 27 In-Vehicle Engine Service 252
chapter 28 Engine Removal and disassembly 261

BRIEF C ON T EN T S ix
 chapter 29 Engine cleaning and crack detection 272
chapter 30 cylinder Head and Valve Guide Service 280
chapter 31 Valve and Seat Service 293
chapter 32 camshafts and Valve Trains 314
chapter 33 Pistons, Rings, and connecting Rods 336
chapter 34 Engine Blocks 351
chapter 35 crankshafts, Balance Shafts, and Bearings 364
chapter 36 Gaskets and Sealants 381
chapter 37 Engine Assembly and dynamometer Testing 388
chapter 38 Engine Installation and Break-in 415

SEcTIon VII Electrical and Electronic Systems 420

chapter 39 Electrical Fundamentals 420
chapter 40 Electrical circuits and ohm’s Law 428
chapter 41 Series, Parallel, and Series-Parallel circuits 434
chapter 42 circuit Testers and digital Meters 444
chapter 43 oscilloscopes and Graphing Multimeters 460
chapter 44 Automotive Wiring and Wire Repair 467
chapter 45 Wiring Schematics and circuit Testing 479
chapter 46 capacitance and capacitors 493
chapter 47 Magnetism and Electromagnetism 498
chapter 48 Electronic Fundamentals 509
chapter 49 cAn and network communications 524
chapter 50 Batteries 538
chapter 51 Battery Testing and Service 544
chapter 52 cranking System 556
chapter 53 cranking System diagnosis and Service 566
chapter 54 charging System 577
chapter 55 charging System diagnosis and Service 587
chapter 56 Lighting and Signaling circuits 604
chapter 57 driver Information and navigation Systems 625
chapter 58 Horn, Wiper, and Blower Motor circuits 646
chapter 59 Accessory circuits 657
chapter 60 Airbag and Pretensioner circuits 686
chapter 61 Audio System operation and diagnosis 698

SEcTIon VIII Heating and Air conditioning 712

chapter 62 Heating and Air-conditioning components and operation 712
chapter 63 Automatic Air-conditioning System operation 731

x BRIEF CONTENTS
chapter 64 Heating and Air-conditioning System diagnosis 737
chapter 65 Heating and Air-conditioning System Service 745

SEcTIon IX Engine Performance 754

chapter 66 Gasoline 754
chapter 67 Alternative Fuels 766
chapter 68 diesel and Biodiesel Fuels 777
chapter 69 Ignition System components and operation 781
chapter 70 Ignition System diagnosis and Service 794
chapter 71 computer Fundamentals 812
chapter 72 Temperature Sensors 819
chapter 73 Throttle Position (TP) Sensors 828
chapter 74 MAP/BARo Sensors 832
chapter 75 Mass Air Flow Sensors 840
chapter 76 oxygen Sensors 845
chapter 77 Fuel Pumps, Lines, and Filters 860
chapter 78 Fuel-Injection components and operation 875
chapter 79 Gasoline direct-Injection Systems 887
chapter 80 Electronic Throttle control System 892
chapter 81 Fuel-Injection System diagnosis and Service 900
chapter 82 Vehicle Emission Standards and Testing 918
chapter 83 Evaporative Emission control Systems 927
chapter 84 Exhaust Gas Recirculation Systems 935
chapter 85 Positive crankcase Ventilation and Secondary Air-Injection
Systems 942
chapter 86 catalytic converters 948
chapter 87 onBoard diagnosis 957
chapter 88 Scan Tools and Engine Performance diagnosis 965

SEcTIon X Hybrid and Fuel cell Vehicles 983

chapter 89 Introduction to Hybrid Vehicles 983
chapter 90 Hybrid Safety and Service Procedures 991
chapter 91 Fuel cells and Advanced Technologies 1002

SEcTIon XI Brakes 1015

chapter 92 Braking System components and Performance Standards 1015
chapter 93 Braking System Principles 1021
chapter 94 Brake Hydraulic Systems 1027
chapter 95 Hydraulic Valves and Switches 1040
chapter 96 Brake Fluid and Lines 1050
chapter 97 Brake Bleeding Methods and Procedures 1061

BRIEF C ON T EN T S xi
 chapter 98 Wheel Bearings and Service 1070
chapter 99 drum Brakes 1087
chapter 100 drum Brake diagnosis and Service 1101
chapter 101 disc Brakes 1114
chapter 102 disc Brake diagnosis and Service 1128
chapter 103 Parking Brake operation, diagnosis, and Service 1145
chapter 104 Machining Brake drums and Rotors 1157
chapter 105 Power Brake Unit operation, diagnosis, and Service 1195
chapter 106 ABS components and operation 1208
chapter 107 ABS diagnosis and Service 1220
chapter 108 Electronic Stability control Systems 1232

SEcTIon XII Suspension and Steering 1239

chapter 109 Tires and Wheels 1239
chapter 110 Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems 1261
chapter 111 Tire and Wheel Service 1270
chapter 112 Suspension System Principles and components 1288
chapter 113 Front Suspensions and Service 1311
chapter 114 Rear Suspensions and Service 1335
chapter 115 Electronic Suspension Systems 1343
chapter 116 Steering columns and Gears 1358
chapter 117 Steering Linkage and Service 1372
chapter 118 Electric and Hydraulic Power Steering Systems 1388
chapter 119 Wheel Alignment Principles 1413
chapter 120 Alignment diagnosis and Service 1427

SEcTIon XIII Manual drive Train and Axles 1454

chapter 121 clutches 1454
chapter 122 Manual Transmissions/Transaxles 1471
chapter 123 drive Axle Shafts and cV Joints 1494
chapter 124 drive Shafts and cV Joint Service 1503
chapter 125 drive Axles and differentials 1516
chapter 126 Four-Wheel-drive and All-Wheel drive 1534

SEcTIon XIV Automatic Transmissions and Transaxles 1551

chapter 127 Automatic Transmission/Transaxle Principles 1551
chapter 128 Hydraulic components and control Systems 1567
chapter 129 Automatic Transmission/Transaxle diagnosis and In-Vehicle Service 1586
chapter 130 Automatic Transmission/Transaxle Unit Repair 1598

Index 1617

xii BRIEF CONTENTS

 Careers in the Automotive
S E C T I O N I Service Area
1 Automotive Background and Overview 4 Working as a Professional Service Technician
2 Careers in the Automotive Service Industry 5 Technician Certification
3 Starting a Career in the Automotive Industry

chapter Automotive BAckground

1 And overview

OBJECTIVES: After studying this chapter, the reader will be able to: • Explain the evolution of the automobile. • Discuss the major
components of a vehicle. • Describe the evolution of engines. • List the common components of most vehicles. • List the eight areas
of automotive service according to ASE/NATEF.

KEY TERMS: Air filter 5 • Body 2 • Body-on-frame (BOF) 3 • Carbon monoxide (CO) 5 • Catalytic converter 5 • Chassis 2
• Coolant 5 • Drive shaft 5 • Double overhead camshaft (DOHC) 4 • Evaporative emission system (EVAP) 5 • Exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) 5 • Flathead 4 • Frames 3 • Hydrocarbon (HC) 5 • Ignition control module (ICM) 5 • Inline engine 4
• Intake manifold 5 • Internal combustion engine 4 • Malfunction indicator lamp (MIL) 5 • Manufacturer’s suggested retail price
(MSRP) 4 • OBD-II 5 • Oil filter 5 • Oil galleries 5 • Oil pan 5 • Oil pump 5 • Oil sump 5 • Overhead camshaft (OHC) 4
• Overhead valve (OHV) 4 • Oxides of nitrogen (NOX) 5 • PCV valve 5 • Pillars 3 • Positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) 5
• Propeller shaft 5 • Radiator 5 • Scan tool 5 • Self-propelled vehicle 1 • Single overhead camshaft (SOHC) 4
• Thermostat 5 • Transaxle 6 • Transfer case 6 • Unibody 3 • Universal joints (U-joints) 5 • Water jackets 5 • Water pump 5

1896 Henry Ford (1863–1947) built his first car, called the
HISTOrICAl BACkgrOuNd Quadricycle. ● SEE FIguRE 1–1.
1900 About 4,200 total automobiles were sold, including:
• 40% were steam powered
For centuries, man either walked or used animals to provide power
for transportation. After the invention of electric, steam, and gasoline • 38% were battery/electric powered
propulsion systems, people used self-propelled vehicles, which • 22% were gasoline engine powered
are vehicles that moved under their own power. 1902 Oldsmobile, founded by Ransom E. Olds
Major milestones in vehicle development include: (1864–1950), produced the first large-scale,
affordable vehicle.
1876 The OTTO four-stroke cycle engine was developed
by a German engineer, Nikolaus Otto. 1908 William Durant (1861–1947) formed General Motors.

1885 The first automobile was powered by an OTTO cycle 1908 The Ford Model T was introduced.
gasoline engine designed by Karl Friedrick Beary
(1844–1929).
1892 Rudolf Diesel (1858–1913) received a patent for a
compression ignition engine. The first diesel engine
was built in 1897.

Au t o mo t i v e BAc k g ro u nd A n d overview 1
FIguRE 1–1 A Ford Quadricycle built by Henry Ford. FIguRE 1–2 Most vehicle bodies were constructed with a wood
framework until the 1920s.
1912 The electric starter was invented by
Charles F. Kettering (1876–1958) of Dayton, Ohio,
first used on a Cadillac. The starter was produced
by a new company called Delco, which stood for
Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company.
1914 First car with a 100% steel body was made by the
Budd Corporation for Dodge. Before 1914, all car
bodies had wood components in them.
1922 The first vehicle to have four-wheel hydraulically op-
erated brakes was a Duesenberg built in Indianapolis,
Indiana.
1940 The first fully automatic transmission was introduced
by Oldsmobile.
1973 Airbags were offered as an option on some General
Motors vehicles.
1985 Lincoln offers the first four-wheel antilock braking FIguRE 1–3 A chassis of a 1950s era vehicle showing the
system. engine, drivetrain, frame, and suspension.
1997 The first vehicle with electronic stability control was
offered by Cadillac. 3. The braking system of the vehicle is used to slow and stop the
rotation of the wheels, which in turn stops the vehicle. The brak-
ing system includes the brake pedal, master cylinder, plus wheel
BOdIES brakes at each wheel. Two types of wheel brakes are used. Disc
brakes include a caliper, which applies force to brake pads on
both sides of a rotating disc or rotor. Drum brakes use brake
Early motor vehicles evolved from horse-drawn carriages. The shoes which are applied by hydraulic pressure outward against
engine and power train were attached to a modified carriage lead- a rotating brake drum. The brake drum is attached to and stops
ing to the term “horseless carriage.” ● SEE FIguRE 1–2. the rotation of the wheels. Drum brakes are often used on the
The bodies evolved until in the 1930s, all-steel-enclosed bod- rear of most vehicles.
ies became the most used type. All bodies depended on a frame of
4. Wheels and tires—The wheels are attached to the bearing hubs
wood or steel to support the chassis components.
on the axles. The tires must provide traction for accelerating,
braking, and cornering, as well as provide a comfortable ride.

CHASSIS SySTEmS OvErvIEW Wheels are constructed of steel or aluminum alloy and mount
to the hubs of the vehicle using lug nuts, which must be tight-
ened correctly to the proper torque.
The chassis system of the vehicle includes the following components: The chassis components include:
1. Frame or body of the vehicle, which is used to provide the sup- • Front and rear suspension
port for the suspension and steering components as well as the • Axles and hubs (to support the wheels and tires)
powertrain. • Steering mechanism
2. The suspension system of the vehicle, which provides a smooth • Engine and transmission
ride to the driver and passengers and helps the tires remain on
the road even when the vehicle is traveling over rough roads. The
• Final drive differential and axles
suspension system includes springs and control arms which allow Often, these chassis were so complete that they could be
the wheel to move up and down and keep the tires on the road. driven without a body. ● FIguRE 1–3.

2 C HAPTER 1
 C PILLAR

D PILLAR B PILLAR WINDSHIELD HEADER

A PILLAR

COWL

HOOD PANEL
ONE PIECE GRILLE

SOFT COLOR-KEYED
BUMPER

SIDE MARKER AND TURNING LAMP

ROCKER PANEL
REAR AIR DEFLECTOR WITH
INTEGRATED STOP LAMP
REAR VIEW MIRROR INTEGRATED
BACKLIGHT WITH WITH "A" PILLAR AND SIDE GLASS
REAR WIPER

FRONT FENDER
RUNNING TAIL LAMP

BELT LINE
SOFT COLOR-KEYED
BUMPER
LIFT GATE

TAIL LAMP WITH STOP FRONT DOOR

AND TURN FUNCTION
REAR DOOR

QUARTER PANEL D L O (DAYLIGHT OPENING)

FIguRE 1–4 Body and terms.

Many of the expensive automakers in the 1920s and 1930s

had bodies built by another company. Eventually, most bodies were
constructed of steel and many without the need for a frame to sup-
port the drivetrain and suspension.

BOdy TErmS The roof of a vehicle is supported by pillars

and they are labeled A, B, C, and D from the front to the rear of the
vehicle. All vehicles have an A pillar at the windshield but many,
such as a hardtop, do not have a B pillar. Station wagons and sport
utility vehicles (SUVs) often have a D pillar at the rear of the vehicle.
● SEE FIguRE 1–4.

FrAmES
Frame construction usually consists of channel-shaped steel
beams welded and/or fastened together. Vehicles with a separate
FIguRE 1–5 Note the ribbing and the many different pieces of
frame and body are usually called body-on-frame vehicles (BOF).
sheet metal used in the construction of this body.
Many terms are used to label or describe the frame of a vehicle
including:
TECH TIP
uNIT-BOdy CONSTruCTION Unit-body construction (some-
times called unibody) is a design that combines the body with the Treat a Vehicle Body with Respect
structure of the frame. The body is composed of many individual Do not sit on a vehicle. The metal can easily be distorted,
stamped-steel panels welded together. The strength of this type of which could cost hundreds of dollars to repair. This
construction lies in the shape of the assembly. The typical vehicle includes sitting on the hood, roof, and deck (trunk) lid, as
uses 300 separate stamped-steel panels that are spot-welded to- well as fenders. Also, do not hang on any opened door
gether to form a vehicle’s body. ● SEE FIguRE 1–5. as this can distort the hinge area causing the door not to
NOTE: A typical vehicle contains about 10,000 separate close properly.
individual parts.

Au t o mo t i v e BAc k g ro u n d A n d overview 3
 FIguRE 1–8 A Monroney label as shown on the side window of a
new vehicle.
FIguRE 1–6 A Corvette without the body. Notice that the vehicle
is complete enough to be driven. This photo was taken at the Cor-
vette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky.
? FREQuENTLY ASKED QuESTION

What Is the Monroney Label?

The Monroney label is the sticker on the vehicle that
lists the manufacturer’s suggested retail price, usually
abbreviated MSRP. The law that requires this label on
all vehicles is called the Monroney Law, named for the
congressman who sponsored the bill, Almer S. Monroney
(1902–1980), a U.S. farm representative from Oklahoma
from 1939 to 1951 and a U.S. Senator from 1951 to 1969.
Before the Monroney label law was passed in 1958,
the price of a vehicle was unknown to new vehicle buyers
who had to rely on the dealer for pricing. Besides all of
the standard and optional equipment on the vehicle, the
Monroney label also includes fuel economy and exhaust
emission information. ● SEE FIguRE 1–8.

FIguRE 1–7 A Ford flathead V-8 engine. This engine design was
used by Ford Motor Company from 1932 through 1953. In a flat-
head design, the valves located next to (beside) the cylinders. INlINE vErSuS v-TyPE dESIgN Most early engines used
four or six cylinders arranged inline. These were called inline en-
gines and are still produced today. Some engines with 4, 6, 8, 10,
12, or 16 cylinders were arranged with half of the cylinders on each
SPACE-FrAmE CONSTruCTION Space-frame construc-
set of a “V” and connected to a common crankshaft in the bottom of
tion consists of formed sheet steel used to construct a framework
the “V.” The crankshaft changed the up-and-down motion of the pis-
of the entire vehicle. The vehicle is drivable without the body, which
ton to rotary motion, allowing the engine to power the drive wheels.
uses plastic or steel panels to cover the steel framework. ● SEE
FIguRE 1–6.
vAlvE lOCATION dESIgN The design where the valves were
located in the engine block is called flathead design because the
cylinder head simply covered the combustion chamber and included
ENgINE dESIgN EvOluTION a hole for the spark plug. The engine block contains passages for
coolant as well as lubricating oil and is the support for all other en-
gine systems. ● SEE FIguRE 1–7.
All gasoline and diesel engines are called internal combustion en- By the 1950s, most engine designs placed the valves in the
gines and were designed to compress an ignitable mixture. This cylinder head. This is called an overhead valve or OHV design.
mixture was ignited by using a spark (gasoline) or by heat of com- Even newer engine designs feature overhead camshafts
pression (diesel). Early engines used valves that were in the engine (OHC), called single overhead camshaft (SOHC) designs and
block, which also contained the round cylinders where pistons were engines that use two overhead camshafts per bank of cylinders
fitted. The pistons are connected to a crankshaft, which converts called double overhead camshaft (DOHC) designs. The placement
the up and down motion of the pistons to a rotary force which is of the camshaft, which results in better flow of intake air into and
used to propel the vehicle. exhaust out of the engine.

4 C HAPTER 1
 The need for reduced emissions and greater fuel economy led the electrodes of the spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture in the
to advances in engine design. These changes included: combustion chamber and the resulting pressure pushes the piston
■ Electronic ignition systems down on the power stroke.
■ Electronic fuel injection
EmISSION CONTrOl SySTEm The control of vehicle emis-
■ Computerized engine controls
sions includes controlling gasoline vapors from being released into
■ Emission control devices, including the catalytic converter the atmosphere in addition to reducing the emissions from the ex-
used in the exhaust system to reduce emissions haust. Unburned gasoline emissions are called hydrocarbon (HC)
■ Improved engine oils that help reduce friction and reduce emissions and exhaust gases that are controlled include carbon
emissions monoxide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen (NOX). The evaporative
emission control system, usually called the EVAP system, is de-
signed to prevent gasoline fumes and vapors from being released.
Other emission control systems include:
ENgINE SySTEmS OvErvIEW ■ Positive crankcase ventilation (PCV). This system uses a
valve called a PCV valve to regulate the flow of gases cre-
Every engine requires many systems to function correctly. ated in the crankcase of a running engine, which are routed
back into the intake manifold. The engine will then draw these
gases into the combustion chamber where they are burned to
COOlINg SySTEm While some older engines were air cooled, help prevent the release of the gases into the atmosphere.
all engines currently in production are liquid cooled. Coolant is circu-
lated by a water pump through passages in the cylinder block and
■ Exhaust gas recirculation (EgR). The EGR system meters
head called water jackets. The coolant is a mixture of antifreeze and about 3% to 7% of the exhaust gases back into the intake
water to provide corrosion and freezing protection. After the coolant where the gases reduce the peak combustion temperature
picks up the heat from the engine, it flows through a radiator, which and prevent the oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (NO) from the air
cools the coolant by releasing the heat into the air. The temperature from combining to form oxides of nitrogen.
of the coolant is maintained by using a thermostat located in the ■ Catalytic converter. The catalytic converter is a unit located
coolant passage, which opens to allow coolant to flow to the radiator in the exhaust system usually close to the engine, which
or closes until the coolant is hot enough to need cooling. causes chemical changes in the exhaust gases.
■ On-board diagnostics means that the engine as well as the
luBrICATION SySTEm All engines need a supply of lubricat- engine management systems can test itself for proper opera-
ing oil to reduce friction and help to cool the engine. Most engines tion and alert the driver if a fault is detected. The warning
are equipped with an oil pan, also called an oil sump, containing lamp is called the malfunction indicator light (MIL) and is
3 to 7 quarts (liters) of oil. An engine driven oil pump forces the oil labeled “Check Engine” or “Service Engine Soon.” The on-
under pressure through an oil filter, then to passages in the block board diagnostic system is currently in the second generation
and head called oil galleries, and then to all of the moving parts. and is called OBD-II. Electronic hand-held testers, called
scan tools, are needed to access (retrieve) stored diagnostic
AIr INTAkE SySTEm All engines, both gasoline and diesel trouble codes (DTCs) and view sensor and system data.
engines, draw air from the atmosphere. It requires about 9,000 gal-
lons of air for each gallon of gasoline used. The air must be drawn
where deep water in the road cannot be drawn into the engine. The
air is then filtered by a replaceable air filter. After the air is filtered, it
POWErTrAIN OvErvIEW
passes through a throttle valve and then into the engine through an
intake manifold. The purpose of the powertrain is to transfer the torque output of the
engine to the drive wheels.
FuEl SySTEm The fuel system includes the following compo-
nents and systems: rEAr-WHEEl-drIvE POWErTrAIN A rear-wheel-drive
■ Fuel tank vehicle uses the following components to transfer engine torque to
the rear drive wheels:
■ Fuel lines and filter(s)
■ Transmission. An automatic transmission usually uses plan-
■ Fuel injectors
etary gearsets and electronic controls to change gear ratios.
■ Electronic control of the fuel pump and fuel injection In a manually shifted transmission, the drivetrain contains a
The fuel injectors are designed to atomize the liquid gasoline clutch assembly, which allows the driver to disengage engine
into small droplets so they can be mixed with the air entering the torque from the transmission to allow the driver to shift from
engine. This mixture of fuel and air is then ignited by the spark plug. one gear ratio to another. The transmission contains gears
and other assemblies that provide high torque output at low
STArTINg ANd CHArgINg SySTEm Engine starting and speeds for acceleration and lower torque output but at higher
charging systems, which include the battery, starting (cranking) speeds for maximum fuel economy at highway speeds.
system and charging system components and circuits. ■ Drive Shaft. A drive shaft, also called a propeller shaft, is
used to connect and transmit engine torque from the trans-
IgNITION SySTEm The ignition system includes the ignition mission to the rear differential. universal joints (u-joints) are
coil(s) which creates a high voltage spark by stepping up battery used to allow the rear differential to move up and down on the
voltage using an ignition control module (ICM). The arc across rear suspension and still be able to transmit engine torque.

Au t o mo t i v e BAc k g ro u n d A n d overview 5
FIguRE 1–9 A dash control panel used by the driver to control FIguRE 1–10 The alternator is in the heart of the electrical
the four-wheel-drive system. system.

■ Differential. A differential is used at the rear of the vehicle

the number of electronic components has grown to include every
and performs three functions:
system in the vehicle, including:
■ Allows different axle speeds for cornering. ■ A tire pressure monitoring system for the tires
■ The differential increases the torque applied to the rear ■ Heated and cooled seats
drive wheels by reducing the speed. ■ Automatic climate control
■ The differential also changes the direction of the applied ■ Power windows
engine torque and uses axle shafts to transfer the torque to
the drive wheels.
■ Security systems
■ Electric power steering
FrONT-WHEEl-drIvE POWErTrAIN A front-wheel-drive ■ Electronic suspension
vehicle uses a transaxle, which is a combination of a transmission ● SEE FIguRE 1–10.
and differential in one assembly. Drive axle shafts then transfer the en-
gine torque to the front drive wheels from the output of the transaxle.

FOur-WHEEl-drIvE SySTEm There are many types of HEATINg, vENTIlATION, ANd

methods of powering all four wheels. Many include a transfer case
to split engine torque to both the front and the rear wheels. ● SEE AIr CONdITIONINg OvErvIEW
FIguRE 1–9.
Early model vehicles did not include any heaters or other methods to
provide comfort for the driver and passengers. Most early vehicles
ElECTrICAl/ElECTrONIC were open with a simple removable top. Some had optional side cur-
tains that provided all-weather protection. In the 1930s and 1940s
SySTEmS OvErvIEW when fully enclosed bodies became common, the vehicle manufac-
turers started to include heaters, which were small radiators with
engine coolant flowing through them. About the same time and into
Early vehicles did not have an electrical system because even the
the 1950s, about the only options that many vehicles had were a
ignition did not require a battery. Early engines used a magneto to
radio and heater, abbreviated R & H.
create a spark instead of using electrical power from a battery as
Today, air-conditioning systems are on most vehicles and
used today.
incorporate defrosters and passenger compartment heating, often
The first electrical components on vehicles were battery-
in two zones for maximum comfort of the driver and passenger.
powered lights, not only for the driver to see the road, but also so
Additional related comfort options today include heated and cooled
others could see an approaching vehicle at night.
seats and heated steering wheels.
Only after 1912 and the invention of the self-starter did the use
of a battery become commonplace. Charles F. Kettering also in-
vented the point-type ignition system about the same time as the
self-starter. Therefore, the early batteries were often referred to as
SLI batteries meaning starting, lighting, and ignition. From the 1920s
EIgHT ArEAS OF
into the 1950s other electrical components were added, such as
radios, defroster fans, and horns. It was not until the 1960s that
AuTOmOTIvE SErvICE
electrical accessories, such as air conditioning, power seats, and
power windows, became common. In 1972, the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence, a
Today’s vehicles require alternators that are capable of produc- nonprofit organization known as simply ASE, created a series of eight
ing a higher amount of electricity than was needed in the past, and tests that cover the major vehicle systems. ● SEE FIguRE 1–11.

6 C HAPTER 1
 area are rear differential diagnosis and repair plus four-wheel-drive
component diagnosis and repair.

SuSPENSION ANd STEErINg (A4) This content area in-

cludes steering and suspension system diagnosis and repair, includ-
ing wheel alignment diagnosis and adjustments, plus wheel and tire
diagnosis and repair procedures.

BrAkES (A5) The brake content area includes the diagnosis

and repair of the hydraulic system, drum and disc brake systems,
plus power assist units, antilock braking, and traction control
systems.

ElECTrICAl/ElECTrONIC SySTEmS (A6) This

content area includes many systems, including the battery, start-
FIguRE 1–11 Test registration booklet that includes details on all ing, charging, lighting, gauges, and accessory circuit diagnosis
vehicle-related certification tests given by ASE. All testing is now and repair.
done electronically at proctored locations.
HEATINg ANd AIr CONdITIONINg (A7) The heating and
air-conditioning content area includes air-conditioning service, re-
ENgINE rEPAIr (A1) This content area includes questions frigeration systems, heating and engine cooling systems diagnosis
related to engine block and cylinder head diagnosis and service, as and repair, as well as refrigerant recovery, recycling, handling, and
well as the lubrication, cooling, fuel, ignition, and exhaust systems retrofit.
inspection and service.
ENgINE PErFOrmANCE (A8) The engine performance con-
AuTOmATIC TrANSmISSION (A2) This content area in- tent area includes diagnosis and testing of those systems responsi-
cludes general automatic transmission/transaxle diagnosis, includ- ble for the proper running and operation of the engine. Included in
ing hydraulic and electronic related systems. this area are general engine diagnosis, ignition and fuel systems, as
well as emission control and computerized engine control diagnosis
mANuAl drIvE TrAIN ANd AxlES (A3) This content and repair.
area includes clutch diagnosis and repair, manual transmission This textbook covers the content of all eight ASE areas plus
diagnosis and repair, as well as drive shaft, universal, and constant all of the background and fundamental information needed by
velocity joint diagnosis and service. Also included in this content technicians.

rEvIEW QuESTIONS
1. In 1900, what was the most produced vehicle powered by? 5. The powertrain consists of what components?
2. What parts are included in the vehicle chassis? 6. What are the eight automotive service content areas?
3. Why were early engines called flat heads?
4. What is the difference between a unit-body and body-on-frame
vehicle?

CHAPTEr QuIz
1. The first self-propelled vehicle that used an OTTO cycle four- 4. Early engines were called flat head design because they
stroke gasoline engine was produced in ______________. ______________.
a. 1885 c. 1902 a. Were only inline engines
b. 1900 d. 1908 b. Did not include valves
2. Early vehicles were constructed mostly of what material? c. Used valves beside the cylinder
a. Steel d. Used spark plugs at the top of the cylinders
b. Cast iron 5. A V-type engine could have how many cylinders?
c. Wood a. 4 c. 8
d. Tin b. 6 d. All of the above
3. Which component is not part of the chassis system? 6. What component regulates the temperature of the coolant in an
a. Frame engine?
b. Electrical system a. Cooling (water) jackets c. Cooling fan(s)
c. Suspension b. Thermostat d. Radiator
d. Brakes

Au t o mo t i v e BAc k g ro u nd A n d overview 7
 7. A malfunction indicator light (MIL) on the dash may be labeled 9. A four-wheel drive vehicle often uses a ______________ to
______________. transmit torque to all four wheels.
a. Check engine c. MIL a. Drive shaft c. Transaxle
b. Service vehicle soon d. MAL b. U-joint d. Transfer case
8. To retrieve stored diagnostic trouble codes, a service techni- 10. Automotive service systems are generally separated into how
cian needs a ______________. many content areas?
a. Paper clip a. 4 c. 8
b. Desktop computer b. 6 d. 10
c. Wireless connection to an electronic tester
d. Scan tool

chapter cAreers in the

2 Automotive service
industry
OBJECTIVES: After studying this chapter, the reader will be able to: • Discuss the need for servicing vehicles and the sites at which
servicing is performed. • Discuss the various service-related positions and the level of training and experience needed for each position.
• Explain the relationship of the service advisor and the service manager to others in a shop. • Discuss the various positions in an
automotive service industry and explain the arrangement of its organization.

KEY TERMS: Entrepreneur 14 • On-the-job training (OJT) 10 • Parts counter person 13 • Service advisor 12
• Service consultant 12 • Service manager 12 • Service writer 12 • Shop foreman 12 • Team leader 12 • Technician (tech) 8
• VIN 11 • Work order 11

THE NEEd FOr AuTOmOTIvE THE NEEd FOr CONTINuOuS

TECHNICIANS vEHIClE SErvICE
The need for trained and skilled automotive technicians is greater Vehicles are lasting longer due to improved materials and more
than ever for several reasons, including: exacting tolerances. Every year, vehicles are being driven farther
■ Vehicles are becoming more complex and require a higher than ever before. It used to be (in the 1950s) that the life of a vehi-
level of knowledge and skills. cle was considered to be 100,000 miles or 10 years. Now achiev-
ing 200,000 miles without a major repair is common with proper
■ Electrical and electronic components and sensors
maintenance and routine service. However, even the amount of
are included throughout the vehicle.
needed routine service has been reduced due to changes in the
■ Construction of parts and materials being used has changed vehicles, such as radial tires that now last 40,000 miles instead of
over the last few years, meaning that all service work must older tires which were worn out and needed to be replaced every
be done to specified procedures to help avoid damage being 15,000 miles.
done to the vehicle.
■ Increasing numbers of different types of lubricants and coolants
make even routine service challenging. WArrANTIES A warranty is a guarantee to the purchaser of
All of the above issues require proper training and the a vehicle that it will function as specified. The warranty covers
ability to follow factory specified procedures to ensure customer the quality and performance of the product and states the condi-
satisfaction. The number of service technicians needed is increas- tions under which the warranty will be honored. Vehicle warranties
ing due to more vehicles on the road. A good service technician vary but all warranties indicate a time and mileage restriction. The
can find work in almost any city or town in the country, making expressed warranties often include the following areas:
the career as a professional service technician an excellent ■ New vehicle limited warranty that covers most components
choice. and is commonly called a bumper-to-bumper policy.

8 C HAPTER 2
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
be a virtue. Now if the diversity cannot be denied, because it is a
fact that the philosophies of Thales, Plato, and Aristotle were
different, and that this was not merely apparently the case, but that
they contradicted one another, this way of wishing in such
statements of them to gain a knowledge of the philosophies, shows
a want of understanding as regards Philosophy; for such
propositions are not Philosophy, nor do they give expression to it.
Philosophy is quite the reverse of this immediacy of a proposition,
because in that the very knowledge that is essential is not taken into
account; hence such men see everything in a philosophy excepting
Philosophy itself, and this is overlooked. However different the
philosophic systems may be, they are not as different as white and
sweet, green and rough; for they agree in the fact that they are
philosophies, and this is what is overlooked. But as regards the
difference in philosophies, we must likewise remark upon this
immediate validity accorded to them, and upon the form, that the
essence of Philosophy is expressed in an immediate manner. As
regards this ‘is’ the trope undoubtedly does its work, for all tropes
proceed against the ‘is,’ but the truth is all the time not this dry ‘is,’
but genuine process. The relative difference in philosophies is, in
their mutual attitude towards one another (see the fifth trope),
always to be comprehended as a connection, and therefore not as
an ‘is.’
c. The third trope turns on the difference in the constitution of
the organs of sense as related to one another; e.g. in a picture
something appears raised to the eye but not to the touch, to which it
is smooth, &c.[199] This is, properly speaking, a subordinate trope,
for in fact a determination such as this coming through some sense,
does not constitute the truth of the thing, what it is in itself. The
consciousness is required that the unthinking description which
ascribes existence to blue, square, &c., one after the other, does not
exhaust and express the Being of the thing; they are only predicates
which do not express the thing as subject. It is always important to
keep in mind that the different senses grasp the same thing in
contradictory ways, for by this the nullity of sensuous certainty is
revealed.
d. The fourth trope deals with the diversitude of circumstances in
the subject, in reference to its condition, the changes taking place in
it, which must prevent our making an assertion respecting any
particular thing. The same thing manifests itself differently to the
same man, according as he, for instance, is at rest or moving, asleep
or awake, moved by hatred or love, sober or drunk, young or old,
&c. In the diversitude of these circumstances very different
judgments are passed regarding one and the same object, hence we
must not talk of anything as being more than a manifestation.[200]
e. The fifth trope relates to the different positions, distances and
places, for from every different standpoint the object appears to be
different. In respect to position, a long passage appears to the man
who stands at the one end to taper to a point at the other; but if he
goes there he finds it to be of the same breadth at that end as it
was at the other. Distance is likewise, properly speaking, a difference
in the greatness and smallness of objects. In respect to place, the
light in a lantern is quite feeble in the sunshine, and yet in darkness
it shines quite brightly. Pigeons’ necks, regarded from different
points of view, shimmer quite differently.[201] In regard to motion in
particular very different views prevail. The best known example of
such is found in the course of the sun round the earth, or the earth
round the sun. As the earth is said to go round the sun, even though
the opposite appears to be the case, the former assertion is based
on reasons. This example does not, however, come in here, but this
trope will show that because one sensuous feeling contradicts
another, existence is not expressed in it.
f. The sixth trope is taken from intermixture, because nothing
comes within the scope of the sense alone and isolated, but only as
mingled with something else; this admixture with something else,
however, causes change, just as scents are stronger in the sunshine
than in cold air, &c. Further, through the subject himself, this
admixture comes in; the eyes consist of various tunics and humours,
the ear has different passages, &c., consequently they cannot allow
sensations—the light or the voice—to come to us in their purity, for
the sensuous element comes to us first of all modified by these
tunics of the eye and likewise by the passages of the ear.[202] But if
we are to express ourselves in this particular manner, the direct
opposite might likewise be maintained, that the sensuous element
there present is simply purified; the apprehending ear, for example,
again purifies the voice that comes in bodily form from a soul.
g. The seventh trope is the cohesion, the size or quantity of
things, through which they appear different; for instance, we see
how glass is transparent, but loses this transparency when it is
pounded, and thus has its cohesion altered. Shavings of goat’s-horn
appear to be white, but the whole piece looks black; or Carrara
marble ground into powder looks white, though the whole piece is
yellow. The same holds good as regards quantity. A moderate
portion of wine fortifies and exhilarates, a large quantity of it
destroys the body, and the case is similar with drugs.[203] If the
quantity is not to be spoken of as the substance, it is still an
abstraction that quantity and combination are matters of indifference
as regards quality and disintegration; the change of quantity likewise
changes the quality.
h. The eighth trope arises from the relativity of things, and is
thus the universal trope of relationship. This relativity of everything
existent and thought is a more inward, real determinateness, and all
the tropes already mentioned really aim at it. “According to this
trope,” says Sextus (Pyrrh. Hyp. I. c. 14, §§ 135, 136), “we conclude
that since everything is in relation to something, we must withhold
our judgment as to what it is on its own account and in its nature.
But it must be remarked that we here make use of ‘is’ in the sense
of appearance only. Relationship is used in two respects: first in
relation to the judging subject,” and this difference we saw in the
previous tropes, “and in the second place in relation to the object
which is to be judged, like right and left.” Sextus, in the passage
above (§§ 137, 140), argues as follows: “As regards what is set forth
on its own account and separate from others, is it distinguished from
the mere relative or not? If it were not different from it, it would
itself be a relative. If it is different, it again is a relative. That is to
say, what is different is related to something, for it is set forth in
relation to that from which it is distinguished.” Relativity, generally, is
present in what is absolutely predicated, for relationship is a
relationship in itself and not to another. Relationship contains
opposition: what is in relation to another is on the one hand
independent on its own account, but on the other, because it is in
relationship, it is likewise not independent. For if anything is only in
relation to something else, the other likewise belongs to it; it is thus
not on its own account. But if its other already belongs to it, its non-
being also already belongs to it, and it is a contradictory as soon as
it is not without its other. “But because we cannot separate the
relative from its other, we likewise do not know what it is on its own
account and in its nature, and we must consequently suspend our
judgment.”
i. The ninth trope is the more or less frequent occurrence of
things, which likewise alters one’s judgment upon the things. What
happens seldom is more highly esteemed than what comes to pass
frequently; and custom brings about the fact that one judges in this
way and the other in that way. Custom is thus made a circumstance
which also permits us to say that things appear so and so to us, but
not universally and generally that they are so.[204] When men say of
any particular things that “this is so,” circumstances may be
instanced in which the opposite predicate is applicable to them also.
If, for example, we remain at the abstraction of the man, does it
really signify whether or not we have a prince?—No. States?—No. A
republic?—No, and so on, for they are here and not there.
k. The tenth trope mainly concerns ethics and is related to
manners, customs and laws. What is moral and legal is likewise not
such; for what is here considered to be right is elsewhere held to be
wrong. The attitude of Scepticism in this regard is to show that the
opposite of what is maintained as valid law holds equally good. As
regards the ordinary understanding respecting the validity of this
and that maxim, e.g. that the son has to pay the debts of his father,
the ultimate and indeed only ground lies in its being said that this is
true in its immediacy, for it holds good as law or custom. As against
this the Sceptics likewise prove the opposite, saying for instance,
that the son has, indeed, to undertake the debts of the father by the
law of Rhodes; but in Rome he does not require to do so, if he has
renounced his claim on the paternal goods.[205] As in the existence
of what is determined, which is held to be true because it is, the
opposite is shown to exist; so in the case of laws, if their ground is
that they are in force, their opposite can be demonstrated. The
natural man has no consciousness of the presence of opposites; he
lives quite unconsciously in his own particular way, in conformity
with the morality of his town, without ever having reflected on the
fact that he practises this morality. If he then comes into a foreign
land, he is much surprised, for through encountering the opposite he
for the first time experiences the fact that he has these customs,
and he immediately arrives at uncertainty as to whether his point of
view or the opposite is wrong. For the opposite of what held good to
him holds equally good, and he does not possess any further ground
for his practice; so that since the one holds good equally with the
other, neither holds good.
We now see in these modes that, properly speaking, they are not
logical modes at all, nor have they to do with the Notion, for they
proceed directly against empiricism. Something is by immediate
certainty given out as being true, the opposite of this last is from
some other point of view demonstrated to be equally true, and thus
its other-being is set forth as valid. The different modes in which the
non-validity of the first and the validity of the other-being relate to
one another, are ranged under the above heads. If we now classify
these ten tropes in conformity with the plan indicated above by
Sextus (p. 347), we find in the first four tropes the dissimilarity of
the object to depend on the judging subject, because that which
judges is either the animal or the man or one of his senses or
particular dispositions in him. Or the dissimilarity depends on the
object, and here we come to the seventh and tenth tropes, since
first the amount makes a thing into something quite different, and
then the code of morals in different places makes itself the only
absolute, excluding and prohibiting any other. The fifth, sixth, eighth
and ninth tropes finally deal with a union of both sides, or these all
together contain the relationship; this is a demonstration that the
object does not present itself in itself, but in relation to something
else.
From content and form we see in these modes their early origin;
for the content, which has only to deal with Being, shows its change
only, takes up only the variability of its manifestation, without
showing its contradiction in itself, i.e. in its Notion. But in form they
show an unpractised thought, which does not yet bring the whole of
these examples under their universal points of view, as is done by
Sextus, or which places the universal, relativity, alongside of its
particular modes. On account of their dulness we are not
accustomed to lay great stress on such methods, nor esteem them
of any value; but, in fact, as against the dogmatism of the common
human understanding they are quite valid. This last says directly,
“This is so because it is so,” taking experience as authority. Now
through these modes this understanding will be shown that its belief
has contingencies and differences within it, which at one time
present a thing in this way and at another time in that way; and
thereby it will be made aware that it itself, or another subject, with
equal immediacy and on the same ground (on none at all), says: “It
is not so, for it really is the opposite,” Thus the signification of these
tropes has still its value. Should faith or right be founded on a
feeling, this feeling is in me, and then others may say: “It is not in
me.” If one person’s tastes are to be accepted as authoritative, it is
not difficult to demonstrate that another person’s tastes are utterly
opposite, but Being is thereby degraded into seeming, for in every
assurance such as that, the opposite holds equally good.

2. The Later Tropes.

The five other sceptical tropes have an entirely different
character, and it is at once evident that they indicate quite another
point of view and degree of culture as regards philosophic thought;
for they pertain more to thinking reflection, and contain the dialectic
which the determinate Notion has within it. Sextus Empiricus[206]
sets them forth as follows:—
a. The first trope is the diversitude in opinions (ἀπὸ τῆς
διαφωνίας), and that not among animals and men, but expressly
among philosophers; of this matter we have just spoken above (pp.
349, 350). Sextus, and an Epicurean quoted by Cicero (Vol. I. p. 16),
adduce the manifold nature of dogmas, and from this the conclusion
is drawn that the one has just as much support as the other.
Philosophers and others still make copious use of this sceptical
trope, which is consequently in great favour: on account of the
diversitude in philosophies, they say, Philosophy has no value, and
truth is unattainable because men have thought about it in ways so
contradictory. This diversitude in philosophic opinion is said to be an
invincible weapon against Philosophy; but the category of difference
is very barren, and we have said in the introduction (Vol. I. pp. 17-
19) how it is to be understood. The Idea of Philosophy is to all
philosophers one and the same, even if they themselves are not
aware of it; but those who speak so much of this diversity know as
little about it. The true difference is not a substantial one, but a
difference in the different stages of development; and if the
difference implies a one-sided view, as it does with the Stoics,
Epicureans, and Sceptics, in their totality undoubtedly we first reach
truth.
b. A very important trope is that of failing into an infinite
progression (ἡ εἰς ἄπειρον ἔκπτωσις); by it the Sceptics show that
the reason which is brought forward for an assertion itself again
requires a reason, and this again another, and so on into infinitude;
from this suspension of judgment thus likewise follows, for there is
nothing which can furnish a solid foundation. Consequently no
permanent ground can be pointed out, for each continues to press
further and further back, and yet finally a cessation must be made.
In more recent times many have plumed themselves on this trope,
and, in fact, it is as regards the understanding and the so-called
syllogism (supra, pp. 222, 223), a trope of great force. For if
deduction from reasons is made the power of knowledge, we must,
on the other hand, remember that by so doing we have premises
which are quite ungrounded.
c. The trope of Relationship, the relativity of determinations (ὀ
ἀπὸ τοῦ πρός τι), has already been found among those mentioned
above (p. 353). It is that what is maintained shows itself as it
appears, partly merely in relation to the judging subject and partly
to other things, but not as it is in itself by nature.
d. The fourth trope is that of Pre-supposition (ὀ ἐξ ὑποθέσεως):
“When the dogmatists see that they are thrown back into the
infinite, they put forward something as principle which they do not
prove, but wish to have conceded to them simply and without
proof:” that is an axiom. If the dogmatist has the right to pre-
suppose an axiom as unproved, the sceptic has equally the right, or,
if we choose to say so, equally no right, to pre-suppose the opposite
as unproved. One is as good as the other. Thus all definitions are
pre-suppositions. For instance, Spinoza pre-supposes definitions of
the infinite, of substance, of attribute, &c.; and the rest follows
consistently from them. Nowadays men prefer to give assurances
and speak of facts of consciousness.
e. The last trope is that of Reciprocity (διάλληλος), or proof in a
circle. “That which is dealt with is grounded on something which
itself again requires something else as its ground; now that which
has been said to be proved by it is used for this purpose, so that
each is proved through the other.” When we would avoid infinite
progression and the making of pre-suppositions, we use again that
which was proved to prove its own proof. To the question, “What is
the ground of the phenomenon?” the reply is “Power,” but this is
itself merely deduced from the moments of the phenomenon.
Now Sextus shows (Pyrrh. Hyp. I. c. 15, §§ 169-177) in the
following way that, speaking generally, all sceptical investigations
pass into these five modes of reasoning; and from this it is likewise
clear that Scepticism is not really a reasoning against anything from
reasons which can be found, which quick-wittedness discovers in the
particular object, but that it has a profound knowledge of the
categories. (α) “The object before us is either one felt” (according to
Epicurus), “or one thought” (according to the Stoics). “But however
it may be determined, there always is a difference of opinion
respecting it,” and specially of sophic opinions. This is the first trope.
“For some believe what is felt and others what is thought to be
alone the truth,” i.e. the criterion; “others, however, again accept
partly what is thought and partly what is felt.” There consequently is
a contradiction present here. “Now is it possible to harmonize this
contradiction or not? If not, we must withhold our judgment. But if it
is to be solved, the question is, ‘How shall we decide?’” What is to
contain the criterion, the standard, the implicit? “Is what is felt to be
judged by what is felt, or by what is thought?” (β) Either side,
individually considered as the implicit, passes, according to the
Sceptics, into the infinite; but this is a description which must
necessarily be proved on its own account. “If what is felt is to be
judged by what is felt, it is allowed (since feeling is in question) that
this sensation requires another sensation as its reason;” for the
conviction of its truth is not without contradiction. “But if that which
constitutes the reason is again a feeling, that which is said to be a
reason must have a reason just as much; thus we go on into
infinitude”—and here we have the second trope. The case is,
however, similar if what is thought is the criterion, or if the implicit is
made to rest on it. “If to what is thought is given the power of
judging what is felt, this likewise, since it is that respecting which no
harmony prevails, requires another as its ground. This reason is,
however, something thought likewise, and it again requires a reason;
thus this, too, passes into the infinite.” From effect men thus reach
cause; nevertheless this too is not original, but is itself an effect; and
so on. But if men thus progress into infinitude, they have no first
original ground to stand on, for what is accepted as first cause is
itself merely effect; and since they merely progress continually, it is
implied that no ultimate is posited. The false belief that this
progression is a true category, is also to be found in Kant and Fichte;
but there is really no true ultimate, or, what is the same, no true
first. The understanding represents infinite progression as something
great; but its contradiction is that men speak of a first cause and it is
then shown that it is only an effect. Men only attain to the
contradiction and constant repetition of the same, but not to the
solution of it, and consequently to the true prius. (γ) But should this
endless progression not satisfy us—which the Sceptics indeed
perceived—and therefore have to be put a stop to, this may happen
by what is or what is felt having its foundation in thought, and, on
the other hand, by likewise taking for the foundation of thought that
which is felt. In this way each would be founded without there
having been a progression into infinitude; but then that which
founds would also be that which is founded, and there would merely
be a passing from one to the other. Thus, in the third place, this falls
into the trope of Reciprocity, in which, however, there is no more
than there was before any true foundation. For in it each merely
exists through the other, neither is really set forth absolutely, but
each is the implicit only for the other, and this is self-abrogation. (δ)
But if this is avoided by an unproved axiom which is taken as an
implicit fact, a first and absolute ground, this way of arguing falls
into the mode of Pre-supposition—the fourth trope. But if an
assumption such as this were to be allowed, it would also be
legitimate for anyone to assume the contrary. Thus against the
absolute assertion of idealism, “The Absolute is the I,” it is with
equal force maintained that “The Absolute is existence.” The one
man says in the immediate certainty of himself: “I am absolute to
myself;” another man likewise in certainty of himself says, “It is
absolutely certain to me that things exist.” Idealism did not prove
the former, nor did it destroy the latter; it takes its stand alongside
of it, and only bases its assertions on its own principle. Everything,
however, then, comes round to this, that because the ‘I’ is absolute,
the ‘not-I’ cannot be absolute. On the other hand it may be said as
justly: “Because the thing is absolute, the ‘I’ cannot be absolute.” If
it is legitimate, Sextus further says, immediately to pre-suppose
something as unproved, it is absurd to pre-suppose anything else as
proof of that on whose behalf it is pre-supposed; we only require to
posit straightway the implicit existence of that which is in question.
But as it is absurd to do so, so also is the other absurd. Men set to
work in the finite sciences in a similar way. But when, as in a
dogmatism like this, a man asserts his right of pre-supposing
something, every other man has equally the right of pre-supposing
something. Consequently the modern immediate revelation of the
subject now appears. It does no good for any man to affirm, for
example, that he finds in his consciousness that God exists; since
anyone has the right to say that he finds in his consciousness that
God does not exist. In modern times men have not got very far with
this immediate knowledge—perhaps not further than the ancients,
(ε) In the fifth place everything perceived has, according to the
trope of Relationship, a relation to something else, to what
perceives; its Notion is just that of being for another. The same
holds good with what is thought; as the universal object of thought
it likewise has the form of being something for another.
If we sum this up in a general way, the determinate, whether it is
existent or thought, is (α) really, as determinate, the negative of
another, i.e. it is related to another and exists for the same, and is
thus in relationship; in this everything is really exhausted. (β) In this
relationship to another this last, posited as its universality, is its
reason; but this reason, as opposed to that which is proved, is itself
a determinate, and consequently has its reality only in what is
proved. And for the reason that I really again consider this universal
as a determinate, it is conditioned by another like the one that goes
before, and so on into infinity. (γ) In order that this determinate for
which, as in consciousness, the other is, should have existence, this
other must exist, for in this it has its reality; and because this its
object is likewise for another, they mutually condition each other and
are mediated through one another, neither being self-existent. And if
the universal as the basis has its reality in the existent, and this
existent its reality in the universal, this forms the Reciprocity
whereby what in themselves are opposites mutually establish one
another. (δ) But what is implicit is something which is not mediated
through another; as the immediate, that is because it is, it is,
however, an Hypothesis. (ε) Now if this determinate is taken as pre-
supposed, so also may another be. Or we might say more shortly
that the deficiency in all metaphysics of the understanding lies partly
in (α) the Demonstration, by which it falls into the infinite; and partly
in (β) the Hypotheses, which constitute an immediate knowledge.
These tropes thus form an effective weapon against the
philosophy of the ordinary understanding, and the Sceptics directed
them with great acuteness, sometimes against the common
acceptation of things, and sometimes against principles of
philosophic reflection. These sceptical tropes, in fact, concern that
which is called a dogmatic philosophy—not in the sense of its having
a positive content, but as asserting something determinate as the
absolute; and in accordance with its nature, such a philosophy must
display itself in all these forms. To the Sceptics, the Notion of
dogmatic philosophy is in effect that something is asserted as the
implicit; it is thus opposed to idealism by the fact of its maintaining
that an existence is the absolute. But there is a misunderstanding or
a formal understanding in considering that all philosophy that is not
Scepticism is Dogmatism. Dogmatism, as the Sceptics quite correctly
describe it, consists in the assertion that something determinate,
such as ‘I’ or ‘Being,’ ‘Thought’ or ‘Sensation,’ is the truth. In the talk
about idealism, to which dogmatism has been opposed, just as many
mistakes have been made, and misunderstandings taken place. To
the criticism which knows no implicit, nothing absolute, all
knowledge of implicit existence as such is held to be dogmatism,
while it is the most wanton dogmatism of all, because it maintains
that the ‘I,’ the unity of self-consciousness, is opposed to Being, is in
and for itself, and that the implicit in the outside world is likewise so,
and therefore that the two absolutely cannot come together. By
idealism that is likewise held to be dogmatism in which, as is the
case in Plato and Spinoza, the absolute has been made the unity of
self-consciousness and existence, and not self-consciousness
opposed to existence. Speculative philosophy thus, indeed, asserts,
but does not assert a determinate; or it cannot express its truth in
the simple form of a proposition, although Philosophy is often falsely
understood as pre-supposing an original principle from which all
others are to be deduced. But though its principle can be given the
form of a proposition, to the Idea what pertains to the proposition as
such is not essential, and the content is of such a nature that it
really abrogates this immediate existence, as we find with the
Academicians. As a matter of fact, that which is now called a
proposition, absolutely requires a mediation or a ground; for it is an
immediate determinate that has another proposition in opposition to
it, which last is again of a similar nature, and so on into infinitude.
Consequently, each, as being a proposition, is the union of two
moments between which there is an inherent difference, and whose
union has to be mediated. Now dogmatic philosophy, which has this
way of representing one principle in a determinate proposition as a
fundamental principle, believes that it is therefore universal, and that
the other is in subordination to it. And undoubtedly this is so. But at
the same time, this its determinateness rests in the fact that it is
only universal; hence such a principle is always conditioned, and
consequently contains within it a destructive dialectic.
As against all these dogmatic philosophies, such criticism and
idealism not excepted, the sceptical tropes possess the negative
capacity of demonstrating that what the former maintain to be the
implicit is not really so. For implicitude such as this is a determinate,
and cannot resist negativity, its abrogation. To Scepticism is due the
honour of having obtained this knowledge of the negative, and of
having so definitely thought out the forms of negativity. Scepticism
does not operate by bringing forward what is called a difficulty, a
possibility of representing the matter otherwise; that would merely
indicate some sort of fancy which is contingent as regards this
asserted knowledge. Scepticism is not an empiric matter such as
this, for it contains a scientific aim, its tropes turn on the Notion, the
very essence of determinateness, and are exhaustive as regards the
determinate. In these moments Scepticism desires to assert itself,
and the Sceptic therein recognizes the fancied greatness of his
individuality; these tropes prove a more cultivated dialectic
knowledge in the process of argumentation than is found in ordinary
logic, the logic of the Stoics, or the canon of Epicurus. These tropes
are necessary contradictions into which the understanding falls; even
in our time progression into infinitude and pre-supposition
(immediate knowledge) are particularly common (supra, p. 363).
Now, speaking generally, this is the method of Scepticism, and it
is most important. Because the sceptical conscience demonstrates
that in all that is immediately accepted there is nothing secure and
absolute, the Sceptics have taken in hand all particular
determinations of the individual sciences, and have shown that they
are not fixed. The further details of this application to the different
sciences do not concern us here: this far-seeing power of abstraction
is also requisite in order to recognize these determinations of
negation or of opposition everywhere present in all concrete matter,
and in all that is thought, and to find in this determinate its limits.
Sextus, for example, takes up the individual sciences concretely,
thereby demonstrating much capacity for abstraction, and he shows
in all their determinations the opposite of themselves. Thus he sets
the definitions of mathematics against one another, and that not
externally, but as they are in themselves; he lays hold of the fact
(adv. Math. III. 20-22) that there is said to be a point, space, line,
surface, one, &c. We unquestioningly allow the point to rank as a
simple unit in space, according to which it has no dimension; but if it
has no dimension, it is not in space, and therefore is no longer a
point. On the one hand it is the negation of space, and, on the other,
inasmuch as it is the limit of space, it touches space. Thus this
negation of space participates in space, itself occupies space, and
thus it is in itself null, but at the same time it is also in itself a
dialectic. Scepticism has thus also treated of ideas which are,
properly speaking, speculative, and demonstrated their importance;
for the demonstration of the contradiction in the finite is an essential
point in the speculatively philosophic method.
The two formal moments in this sceptical culture are firstly the
power of consciousness to go back from itself, and to take as its
object the whole that is present, itself and its operation included.
The second moment is to grasp the form in which a proposition, with
whose content our consciousness is in any way occupied, exists. An
undeveloped consciousness, on the other hand, usually knows
nothing of what is present in addition to the content. For instance, in
the judgment “This thing is one,” attention is paid only to the one
and the thing, and not to the circumstance that here something, a
determinate, is related to the one. But this relation is the essential,
and the form of the determinate; it is that whereby this house which
is an individual, makes itself one with the universal that is different
from it. It is this logical element, i.e. the essential element, that
Scepticism brings to consciousness, and on this it depends; an
example of this is number, the one, as the hypothetical basis of
arithmetic. Scepticism does not attempt to give the thing, nor does it
dispute as to whether it is thus or thus, but whether the thing itself
is something; it grasps the essence of what is expressed, and lays
hold of the whole principle of the assertion. As to God, for example,
the Sceptics do not inquire whether He has such and such qualities,
but turn to what is most inward, to what lies at the ground of this
conception, and they ask whether this has reality. “Since we do not
know the reality of God,” says Sextus (Pyrrh. Hyp. III. c. I, § 4), “we
shall not be able to know and perceive His qualities.” Likewise in the
preceding books (II. c. 4, sqq.), inquiry is made as to whether the
criterion of truth as fixed by the understanding is anything, whether
we know the thing in itself, or whether the ‘I’ is to itself the only
absolute certainty. This is the way to penetrate to reality.
In these ways the operations of Scepticism are undoubtedly
directed against the finite. But however much force these moments
of its negative dialectic may have against the properly-speaking
dogmatic knowledge of the understanding, its attacks against the
true infinite of the speculative Idea are most feeble and
unsatisfactory. For this last is in its nature nothing finite or
determinate, it has not the one-sided character which pertains to the
proposition, for it has the absolute negative in itself; in itself it is
round, it contains this determinate and its opposite in their ideality in
itself. In so far as this Idea, as the unity of these opposites, is itself
again outwardly a determinate, it stands exposed to the power of
the negative; indeed its nature and reality is just to move continually
on, so that as determinate it again places itself in unity with the
determinates opposed to it, and thus organizes itself into a whole
whose starting-point again coincides with the final result. This
identity is quite different from that of the understanding; the object
as concrete in itself, is, at the same time, opposed to itself; but the
dialectic solution of this finite and other is likewise already contained
in the speculative, without Scepticism having first had to
demonstrate this; for the rational, as comprehended, does, as
regards the determinate, just what Scepticism tries to do. However,
if Scepticism attempts to deal with this properly speculative element,
it can in no way lay hold of it, nor make any progress except by
doing violence to the speculative itself; thus the method of its
procedure against the rational is this, that it makes the latter into a
determinate, and always first of all introduces into it a finite thought-
determination or idea of relationship to which it adheres, but which
is not really in the infinite at all; and then it argues against the
same. That is to say it comprehends it falsely and then proceeds to
contradict it. Or it first of all gives the infinite the itch in order to be
able to scratch it. The Scepticism of modern times, with which for
crudity of comprehension and false teaching the old cannot
compare, is specially noteworthy in this respect. Even now what is
speculative is transformed into something crude; it is possible to
remain faithful to the letter, and yet to pervert the whole matter,
because the identity of the determinate has been carried over to the
speculative. What here appears to be most natural and impartial is
to have an investigation made of what the principle of a speculative
philosophy is; its essential nature seems to be expressed thereby,
and nothing is apparently added or imputed to it, nor does any
change appear to be effected in it. Now, here, according to the
conception of the non-speculative sciences, it is placed in this
dilemma: the principle is either an unproved hypothesis or demands
a proof which in turn implies the principle. The proof that is
demanded of this principle itself pre-supposes something else, such
as the logical laws of proof; these rules of logic are, however,
themselves propositions such as required to be proved; and so it
goes on into infinitude, if an absolute hypothesis to which another
can be opposed is not made (supra, p. 362). But these forms of
proposition, of consecutive proof, &c., do not in this form apply to
what is speculative (supra, p. 364) as though the proposition were
before us here, and the proof were something separate from it
there; for in this case the proof comes within the proposition. The
Notion is a self-movement, and not, as in a proposition, a desire to
rest; nor is it true that the proof brings forward another ground or
middle term and is another movement; for it has this movement in
itself.
Sextus Empiricus (adv. Math. VII., 310-312), for example, thus
reaches the speculative Idea regarding reason, which, as the
thought of thought, comprehends itself, and is thus in its freedom at
home with itself. We saw this (pp. 147-151) with Aristotle. In order
to refute this idea, Sextus argues in the following way: “The reason
that comprehends is either the whole or it is only a part.” But to
know the speculative it is requisite that there should be, besides the
‘either ... or,’ a third; this last is ‘both ... and’ and ‘neither ... nor.’ “If
reason as the comprehending is the whole, nothing else remains to
be comprehended. If the comprehending reason is, however, only a
part which comprehends itself, this part again, as that which
comprehends, either is the whole (and in that case again nothing at
all remains to be comprehended), or else, supposing what
comprehends to be a part in the sense that what is comprehended is
the other part, that which comprehends does not comprehend itself,”
&c. In the first place, however, it is clear that by arguing thus
nothing is shown further than the fact that here Scepticism in the
first place brings into the relationship of thought thinking about
thought, the very superficial category of the relationship of the
whole and the parts, as understood by the ordinary understanding,
which last is not found in that Idea, although as regards finite things
the whole is simply composed of all the parts, and these parts
constitute the whole, the parts and the whole being consequently
identical. But the relationship of whole and part is not a relationship
of reason to itself, being much too unimportant, and quite unworthy
of being brought into the speculative Idea. In the second place
Scepticism is wrong in allowing this relationship to hold good
immediately, as it does in the ordinary and arid conception, where
we make no objection to it. When reflection speaks of a whole, there
is for it beyond this nothing else remaining. But the whole is just the
being opposed to itself. On the one hand it is as whole simply
identical with its parts, and, on the other hand, the parts are
identical with the whole, since they together constitute the whole.
The self-comprehension of reason is just like the comprehension by
the whole of all its parts, if it is taken in its real speculative
significance; and only in this sense could this relationship be dealt
with here. But in the sense implied by Sextus, that there is nothing
except the whole, the two sides, the whole and the parts, remain in
mutual, isolated opposition; in the region of speculation the two
indeed are different, but they are likewise not different, for the
difference is ideal. Outside of the whole there thus undoubtedly
remains another, namely itself as the manifold of its parts. The
whole argument thus rests upon the fact that a foreign
determination is first of all brought within the Idea, and then
arguments against the Idea are brought forward, after it has been
thus corrupted by the isolation of a one-sided determination
unaccompanied by the other moment of the determination. The case
is similar when it is said; “Objectivity and subjectivity are different,
and thus their unity cannot be expressed.” It is indeed maintained
that the words are literally adhered to; but even as contained in
these words, the determination is one-sided, and the other also
pertains to it. Hence this difference is not what remains good, but
what has to be abrogated.
We may perhaps have said enough about the scientific nature of
Scepticism, and we have concluded therewith the second section of
Greek philosophy. The general point of view adopted by self-
consciousness in this second period, the attainment of the freedom
of self-consciousness through thought, is common to all these
philosophies. In Scepticism we now find that reason has got so far
that all that is objective, whether of Being or of the universal, has
disappeared for self-consciousness. The abyss of the self-
consciousness of pure thought has swallowed up everything, and
made entirely clear the basis of thought. It not only has
comprehended thought and outside of it a universe in its entirety,
but the result, positively expressed, is that self-consciousness itself is
reality. External objectivity is not an objective existence nor a
universal thought; for it merely is the fact that the individual
consciousness exists, and that it is universal. But though for us there
is an object, yet this is for it no object, and thus it still has itself the
mode of objectivity. Scepticism deduces no result, nor does it
express its negation as anything positive. But the positive is in no
way different from the simple; or if Scepticism aims at the
disappearance of all that is universal, its condition, as immovability
of spirit, is itself in fact this universal, simple, self-identical—but a
universality (or a Being) which is the universality of the individual
consciousness. Sceptical self-consciousness, however, is this divided
consciousness to which on the one hand motion is a confusion of its
content; it is this movement which annuls for itself all things, in
which what is offered to it is quite contingent and indifferent; it acts
according to laws which are not held by it to be true, and is a
perfectly empiric existence. On another side its simple thought is the
immovability of self-identity, but its reality, its unity with itself is
something that is perfectly empty, and the actual filling in is any
content that one chooses. As this simplicity, and at the same time
pure confusion, Scepticism is in fact the wholly self-abrogating
contradiction. For in it the mind has got so far as to immerse itself in
itself as that which thinks; now it can comprehend itself in the
consciousness of its infinitude as the ultimate. In this way Scepticism
flourishes in the Roman world, because, as we saw (p. 281), in this
external, dead abstraction of the Roman principle (in the principle of
Republicanism and imperial Despotism) the spirit has flown from an
existence here and now, that could give it no satisfaction, into
intellectuality. Then because here the mind can only seek
reconciliation and eudæmonism inwardly through cultured thought,
and the whole aim of the world is merely the satisfaction of the
individual, good can only be brought forth as individual work in each
particular case. Under the Roman emperors we certainly find famous
men, principally Stoics, such as Marcus Aurelius and others; they,
however, only considered the satisfaction of their individual selves,
and did not attain to the thought of giving rationality to actuality
through institutions, laws and constitutions. This solitude of mind
within itself is then truly Philosophy; but the thought is abstractly at
home with itself as dead rigidity, and as to outward things it is
passive. If it moves it only moves while bearing with it a contempt of
all distinctions. Scepticism thus belongs to the decay both of
Philosophy and of the world.
The stage next reached by self-consciousness is that it receives a
consciousness respecting that which it has thus become, or its
essential nature becomes its object. Self-consciousness is to itself
simple essence; there is for it no longer any other reality than this,
which its self-consciousness is. In Scepticism this reality is not yet an
object to it, for to it its object is merely confusion. Because it is
consciousness, something is for it; in this opposition only the
vanishing content is for the sceptical consciousness, without its
having been comprehended in its simple permanence. Its truth,
however, is its immersion in self-consciousness, and the fact of self-
consciousness becoming an object to itself. Thus reality has indeed
the form of a universal in existence or in thought, but in this its self-
consciousness is really not a foreign thing as it is in Scepticism. In
the first place it is not simple as immediate and merely existent, a
complete ‘other,’ as when we speak of the soul being simple; for this
last is the simple negative that turns back out of movement, out of
difference, as the universal, into itself. In the second place this
universal power that expresses that “I am at home with myself,” has
likewise the significance of the Being, which, as objective reality, has
a permanence for consciousness, and does not merely, as with the
Sceptics, disappear; for reason in it alone knows how to possess and
to find itself. This inwardness of mind at home with itself has built in
itself an ideal world, has laid the foundation and groundwork of the
intellectual world, of a kingdom of God which has come down into
actuality and is in unity with it, and this is the standpoint of the
Alexandrian philosophy.
 SECTION THREE
Third Period: The Neo-Platonists.

Since Scepticism is the annulling of the opposites which in Stoicism

and Epicureanism were accepted as the universal principles from
which all other opposites took their rise, it likewise is the unity in
which these opposites are found as ideal determinations, so that the
Idea must now come into consciousness as concrete in itself. With
this third development, which is the concrete result of all that has
gone before, an entirely new epoch begins. Philosophy is now on
quite a different footing, since, with the rejection of the criterion for
subjective knowledge, finite principles in general also disappear; for
it is with these that the criterion has to do. This then is the form
which Philosophy takes with the Neo-Platonists, and which is closely
connected with the revolution which was caused in the world by
Christianity. The last stage which we reached—that subjective
contentment and return of self-consciousness into itself which is
attained by the renunciation of all that is fixed and objective, by
flight into the pure, infinite abstraction in itself, by the absolute
dearth of all determinate content—this stage had come to perfection
in Scepticism, although the Stoic and Epicurean systems have the
same end in view. But with this complete entering into and abiding
within itself of infinite subjectivity, Philosophy had reached the
standpoint at which self-consciousness knew itself in its thought to
be the Absolute (Vol. II. p. 372); and since Philosophy now rejected
the subjective and finite attitude of self-consciousness, and its
manner of distinguishing itself from an unmeaning external object, it
comprehended in itself the difference, and perfected the truth into
an intelligible world. The consciousness of this, expressing itself as it
did in the spirit of the world, now constitutes the object of
Philosophy; it was principally brought about by employing and
reasoning from Platonic conceptions and expressions, but also by
making use of those of the Aristotelians and Pythagoreans.
The idea which had now come home to men that absolute
existence is nothing alien to self-consciousness, that nothing really
exists for it in which self-consciousness is not itself immediately
present—this is the principle which is now found as the universal of
the world-spirit, as the universal belief and knowledge of all men; at
once it changes the world’s whole aspect, destroying all that went
before, and bringing about a regeneration of the world. The
manifold forms which this knowledge assumes do not belong to the
history of Philosophy, but to the history of consciousness and
culture. This principle appears as a universal principle of justice, by
which the individual man, in virtue of his existence, has absolute
value as a universal being recognized by all. Thus, as far as external
politics are concerned, this is the period of the development of
private rights relating to the property of individual persons. But the
character of Roman culture, under which this form of philosophy
falls, was at the same time abstract universality (Vol. II. p. 235), in
the lifelessness of which all characteristic poetry and philosophy, and
all citizen life perished. Cicero, for example, shows, as few
philosophers do, an utter want of appreciation of the state of affairs
in his country. Thus the world has in its existence separated into two
parts; on the one side we have the atoms, private individuals, and
on the other side a bond connecting them, though only externally,
which, as power, had been relegated to one subject, the emperor.
The Roman power is thus the real Scepticism. In the domain of
thought we find an exact counterpart to this species of abstract
universality, which, as perfect despotism, is in the decline of national
life directly connected with the isolation of the atom, showing itself
as the withdrawal into the aims and interests of private life.
 It is at this point that mind once more rises above the ruin, and
again goes forth from its subjectivity to the objective, but at the
same time to an intellectual objectivity, which does not appear in the
outward form of individual objects, nor in the form of duties and
individual morality, but which, as absolute objectivity, is torn of mind
and of the veritable truth. Or, in other words, we see here on the
one hand the return to God, on the other hand the manifestation of
God, as He comes before the human mind absolutely in His truth.
This forms the transition to the mind’s restoration, by the fact of
thought, which had conceived itself only subjectively, now becoming
objective to itself. Thus in the Roman world the necessity became
more and more keenly felt of forsaking the evil present, this ungodly,
unrighteous, immoral world, and withdrawing into mind, in order
here to seek what there no longer can be found. For in the Greek
world the joy of spiritual activity has flown away, and sorrow for the
breach that has been made has taken its place. These philosophies
are thus not only moments in the development of reason, but also in
that of humanity; they are forms in which the whole condition of the
world expresses itself through thought.
But in other forms some measure of contempt for nature here
began to show itself, inasmuch as nature is no longer anything for
itself, seeing that her powers are merely the servants of man, who,
like a magician, can make them yield obedience, and be subservient
to his wishes. Up to this time oracles had been given through the
medium of trees, animals, &c., in which divine knowledge, as
knowledge of the eternal, was not distinguished from knowledge of
the contingent. Now it no longer is the gods that work their
wonders, but men, who, setting at defiance the necessities of
nature, bring about in the same that which is inconsistent with
nature as such. To this belief in miracle, which is at the same time
disbelief in present nature, there is thus allied a disbelief in the past,
or a disbelief that history was just what it was. All the actual history
and mythology of Romans, Greeks, Jews, even single words and
letters, receive a different meaning; they are inwardly broken
asunder, having an inner significance which is their essence, and an