Subsoil Investigation Overview

When designing and building a foundation, it's important to understand the layers of soil at the
construction site. To do this, we need to collect soil samples from different depths and run tests
in the lab. Additionally, we observe how other nearby structures were built on similar soil. For
larger projects, a detailed subsoil exploration must be done at the site to achieve the following
goals:

1. Understand the type and arrangement of soil layers.

2. Collect soil samples (some may be disturbed, others not) for lab tests and visual
checks.
3. Find out the depth and type of bedrock (if it's present).
4. Perform on-site soil tests like permeability tests, vane shear tests, and standard
penetration tests.
5. Check how water drains into and from the site.
6. Identify any construction challenges that could arise due to nearby buildings or other
structures.
7. Determine where the water table is (the level where groundwater is found).

Planning Soil Exploration

The process of planning a soil exploration for a construction project can be split into four main
steps:

1. Gather existing information about the structure: This includes details about the type
of building or structure being planned, the loads (weight) it will need to handle, and any
requirements from local building codes. For example, if it's a bridge, we need to know
the span length and the load on the piers.
2. Collect existing information about the soil: You can often save time and money by
checking soil reports from nearby projects or maps from geological surveys, the
Department of Agriculture, or state highway departments. These reports help us
understand what kind of soil to expect and what problems might come up during drilling.
3. Inspect the construction site: The engineer should visit the site to visually inspect the
area. Information like the type of plants growing there can give clues about the soil
beneath. Observing how water drains in the area and any visible cracks in nearby
buildings can signal issues with soft or expansive soils.
4. Conduct detailed site investigation: This step involves drilling several test holes
(borings) and collecting soil samples from different depths for lab tests. The number of
test holes and how deep they should go depends on the project, but for most buildings,
one boring at each corner and one at the center is a good start. Additional borings can
be done if the soil varies a lot across the site.
Auger Boring

Auger boring is one of the simplest methods to create boreholes. It uses augers, which are like
large screws, to dig into the soil. There are two main types:

● Hand augers: Used for shallow boreholes (3-5 meters deep) in small projects like
highways or small buildings. Soil sticks to the auger, letting us identify soil types as we
dig. However, the samples are disturbed, meaning they’re not in their original state, but
still useful for basic lab tests like grain-size analysis and Atterberg limits.
● Power augers: For deeper boreholes, continuous-flight augers powered by trucks or
tractors are used. These augers are available in sections and can be extended as
needed. There are two types of power augers:
○ Solid-stem augers: Need to be removed to collect soil samples or run tests like
the Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
○ Hollow-stem augers: Have a hollow center, so samples can be collected and
tests performed without removing the auger. This is especially useful when
working in sandy soils near groundwater, where water can cause complications.

Wash Boring

Wash boring is another common method for creating boreholes. Here’s how it works:

● A casing (a protective pipe) is driven into the ground to keep the borehole open.
● A chopping bit attached to a drilling rod is used to break up the soil inside the casing.
● Water is pumped through the drilling rod and exits with high force through holes in the
chopping bit, breaking up the soil further.
● The water and soil mix rises back to the surface through the casing and is collected in
a container.
● This method can be extended by adding more casings if the borehole needs to go
deeper.
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is a common and simple in-situ test used to assess the
strength and consistency of soil at different depths. It’s widely used for foundation design,
particularly for buildings, roads, and bridges.

Equipment

● Split-barrel sampler: A hollow tube used to collect soil samples. The tube is split into
two halves so the soil can be easily removed for testing.
● Drill rig: Used to make the borehole where the test is conducted.
● Hammer: A 63.5 kg (140 lb) hammer is dropped from a height of 760 mm (30 inches) to
drive the sampler into the soil.
● Drill rods: Rods that connect the sampler to the surface equipment and transfer the
force of the hammer blows.

Procedure

1. Borehole preparation: A borehole is drilled to the depth where the test will be
conducted.
2. Driving the sampler: The split-barrel sampler is placed at the bottom of the borehole.
3. Penetration process:
○ The hammer is dropped repeatedly, driving the sampler into the soil.
○ The test starts by driving the sampler 150 mm (6 inches) to get through any
disturbed soil at the bottom of the borehole.
○ Then, the sampler is driven for an additional 300 mm (12 inches), during which
the number of hammer blows is recorded for each 150 mm increment.
4. Recording the N-value:
○ The total number of hammer blows required to drive the sampler through the last
300 mm (12 inches) is called the N-value.
○ This N-value is a direct indicator of the soil's density and strength.
○ For instance, a high N-value (more blows) suggests dense or strong soil, while
a low N-value indicates loose or weak soil.

Interpretation of Results

● N-value ranges:
○ 0-4: Very loose soil (low strength)
○ 4-10: Loose soil
○ 10-30: Medium dense soil
○ 30-50: Dense soil
○ >50: Very dense soil (high strength)

These N-values help geotechnical engineers decide on the type and size of foundations
required for a structure.
Corrections to the N-value

The raw N-value is often adjusted to account for several factors, such as:

● Overburden pressure: The weight of soil above the test depth. The deeper the test, the
more overburden pressure, which can compress the soil and increase the N-value.
● Energy efficiency: The hammer may not always deliver 100% energy, so energy
corrections are applied to account for this.

Advantages of SPT

● Simple and cost-effective: Requires basic equipment and is relatively inexpensive.

● Provides soil samples: The split-barrel sampler collects a disturbed sample that can be
used for lab tests like grain-size analysis or moisture content.
● Widely used: Results can be easily compared to other projects because SPT is a
standardized test.

Limitations of SPT

● Disturbed samples: The samples collected are disturbed, so they can't be used for
advanced tests like strength testing.
● Not ideal for soft clays or silts: SPT may give inaccurate results in very soft soils or
sands below the water table.
● Energy losses: Variations in hammer energy transfer can affect the consistency of
results.

The SPT is a quick and practical way to understand the behavior of soils, making it an essential
tool in geotechnical investigations.