What is Referencing?

 Referencing is also called as citation.

 Referencing can be defined as a method of acknowledging and recognizing someone for
his or her innovative work that you used in you research to back and support you idea.
 A reference usually includes the name of author, date of publication, name and location
of the publishing company, title of the journal or name of the book, title of the research or
chapter’s name, and DOI (Digital Object Identifier)
 In your document, referencing is done at two levels; first you need to give a brief
reference in the body of text called as “in-text citation”, and secondly a detailed reference
is provided at the end of the document in the form of a list.

What are the Purposes of Referencing?

 Referencing has become a necessary element of academic writing.
 It is used to locate the original source of work so that everyone may access the material
and understand it in his/her own way.
 Another purpose of it is to fight with plagiarism.

Referencing Styles
 There are various standard methods used for citing the source of work.
 These methods are called as referencing styles or citation styles.
 Some common and widely used citation styles are:
o Harvard
o Vancouver
o APA (American Psychological Association) Referencing Style
o MLA ((Modern Language Association) Referencing Style
o Chicago/ Turabian Referencing Style
 There are other styles that are not that common but are still required at some places:
o ACS (American Chemical Society)
o AGLC (Australian Guide to Legal Citation)
o AMA (American Medical Association)
o CSE/ CBE (Council of Science Editors/ Council of Biology Editors)
o IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
 Various referencing styles differ in terms of formatting, use of punctuation and the order
of information; such differences occur at both the levels of referencing i.e. in-text
citation, and reference list.
 Which citation style is to use in your document often depends on the discipline you are
writing for.
 Moreover, the publishers or the academic institutions decide their citing styles.
 The system used by various types of referencing styles can broadly be categorized into
two types: documentary-note system, and parenthetical system.
o Documentary-note system refers to the use of chronological numbers as in-text
markers to either footnotes or endnotes or both; footnotes are included at the end
of each page, and endnotes are listed on a separate page at the end of the
document; in text citation is done with a numeric digit usually placed after the full
stop; detailed references in endnotes or reference list may or may not be indicated
by numeric digit depending on the particular referencing style.

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 14

 o Parenthetical system refers to the use of brief author and date (or page number as
in MLA format) description as in-text citation surrounded by parenthesis (round
brackets) and then the detailed reference is provided as a separate list at the end of
the document.

What is the difference between a Reference List and Bibliography?

In the reference list only those sources are included which have been mentioned
in your in-text citation while in Bibliography you are allowed to mention the sources
which you have used to gather the background information but are not mentioned in your
document as in-text citation.

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 15

 HARVARD
REFERNCING
STYLE

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 16

 INTRODUCTION
 Harvard is actually a generic term refers to all the referencing styles that are “author-
date” based; thus this style does not have any official manual.
 This style is most commonly used in U.K and Australia.
 Before describing the reference style, I must mention that there exist a great variation in
the use of punctuation and other formatting such as indentation, line spacing etc. from
institution to institution.
 The guide in the following section has been adopted from Charles Darwin University’s
(CDU) Harvard Referencing Style guide 2016 version.
 So, before using a particular guide there is a need to take caution what style your
institution demands; it may vary from the guide given below.
System of referencing:
 It uses the parenthetical system of referencing.
 A brief in-text reference containing the name of author and year of publication is given in
round brackets; thus it is also called as author-date based referencing style.
Disciplines using the style:
 It is used in various subjects of humanities.

General Rules for in-text Citation

 It uses parenthetical system thus the reference in the text appears like this:
(<author name> <publication year>, <page number/s>)
 In in-text citation only the last name (surname) of the author is used; author’s name and
year of publication are not separated by a comma (,). For example: (Ghaznavi 2003)
 A comma (,) is put after the publication year if a page number is mentioned after it.
(Ghaznavi 2003, p 40)
 It is also allowed to write the author’s name out of the bracket. For example: Ghaznavi
(2003, p 40) observes ………..
 Punctuation marks such as comma or full stop are used after the citation and not before
them.

General Rules for Reference List

 Detailed references are listed on a separate page at the end of the document.
 The title ‘References’ is given to the list, placed in center and in bold font.
 Only those sources are to be listed that has been cited in your work.
 No reference carries hanging indent.
 Author’s name and the year are not separated by a comma or a full-stop.
 Each reference ends up with a full stop (.).
 There is a use of double line spacing between each entry.
 The list is arranged in an alphabetical order with reference to the first author’s surname or
the first significant word of the title (if the reference has begun with it in case of the
absence of author’s name).
 If more than one sources have the same first author but the later authors are different, the
references are listed first by the first author’s name then arranged alphabetically by the
subsequent author/s name.

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 17

  If you have used the sources of the same author/s with different years of publication, the
references are alphabetically listed first by the first author’s name then chronologically by
publication year.
 If there are sources of the same author/s with the same year of publication, the references
are listed first by the first author’s name then by the small letters put after the year.
 If a title or a corporate author has been used instead of author’s name, the reference is
listed under the first important word and not under A, An or The.
 If the first word of a reference is a numeric digit and not an alphabet, the reference is
listed before the references having alphabetical start.
 Titles of a bigger source such as a book or journal are italicized.
 Titles which are a part of a bigger work such as a chapter of a book, article in a journal or
news paper are enclosed in single quotation marks without being italicized.
 Page number is required to mention only when a part of work (such as article from a
journal or newspaper, a chapter from an edited book etc.) is used; if the whole work is
considered here is no need to mention the page number.
 If there is reference to a single page an abbreviation p. is used, and if there are multiple
pages pp. is used.
 If you want to mention sources that have been utilized in the hunt of knowledge but are
not cited in your document, they can be mentioned under the heading of “Bibliography”
on a separate page.

How to write the Name of an Author?

 In the in-text citation only the surname of an author is used; if there are more than one
author with identical surname then the first names or the initials of first names are also
mentioned.
 In the reference list, the name of an author is written in a way: last name is written first
and afterwards initials of the first name/s are written; no full stop is put after the initials.
For Example:
Khalid Ghaznavi is written as Ghaznavi K
Mohsin Hasan Alvi is written as Alvi MH

What to do if there are Multiple Authors of a Source?

Order of names:
If there are more than one author of a publication mention their names exactly in the
same sequence as they are presented in the publication.
In-text Citation and reference list entry for two authors:
In the in-text citation only the surnames of the two authors will be used separated by
‘&’. It will look like this:
(<author #1 surname> & <author #2 surname> <Publication Year>)
Example:
(Alvi & Zaidi 2009)
Whatever times the reference is cited in your work it appears the same.
In the reference list both the surname and initials of the two authors are used separated
by ‘&’. Thus it looks like this:
<Author#1 surname>, <author#1 first name/s initials> & <author#2 surname>, <author#2 first
name/s initials> <Publication Year>, <title>,……………

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 18

Example:
Alvi, MH & Zaidi, R 2009, <title>…………..
In-text Citation and reference list entry for three authors:
In the in-text citation only the surnames of the three authors are used, first two separated
by a comma (,) and last two by ‘&’. It will look like this:
(<author #1 surname>, <author#2 surname> & <author #3 surname> <Publication
Year>)
Example:
(Alvi, Ghaznavi & Zaidi 2009)
If the same source is cited again in the text it will appear like this:
(<Author #1 surname> et al. <Publication Year>)
Example: (Alvi et al. 2009)
Note: ‘et al.’ is written in italic letters. It is a Latin phrase which means ‘and others’
In the reference list both the surname and initials of the three authors are used, first two
separated by a comma (,) and last two by ‘&’. Thus it looks like this:
<Author#1 surname>, < Author #1 first name/s initials>, < Author #2 surname>, < Author #2
first name/s initials> & < Author #3 surname>, < Author #3 first name/s initials> <Publication
Year>, <title>,……………
Example:
Alvi, MH, Ghaznavi K & Zaidi, R 2009, <title>………….
In-text Citation and reference list entry for more than three but up to 6 authors:
In the in-text citation only the surname of the first author is written followed by ‘et al.’
thus it appears like this:
(<Author#1 surname> et al. <Publication Year>)
Example:
(Alvi et al. 2009)
Whatever times the source is cited in your work it appears the same.
In the reference list both the surname and initials of all the authors are used, last two
separated by ‘&’ and the remaining by comma (,). Thus it looks like this:
<Author#1 surname>, < Author #1 first name/s initials>, < Author #2 surname>, < Author #2
first name/s initials>, <Author#3 surname>, < Author #3 first name/s initials>, < Author #4
surname>, < Author #4 first name/s initials> & < Author #5 surname>, < Author #5 first name/s
initials> <Publication Year>, <title>,……………
Example:
Alvi, MH, Ghaznavi, K, Zaidi, R, Hashmi, M & Siddiqui, D 2009, <title>………….

What to do if Name of Author is not Available in the Source?

One of the following two steps can be taken to encounter with a situation when the name of an
author is not available in the source:
 Use the name of a corporate author
 Use the title of the source in place of the author name
In-text citation and reference list entry of a corporate author
Name of an organization, a company or a publisher owning a document in case of the
absence of any specific author/s is called as corporate author.

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 19

 In the in-text citation the name of the corporate author is written completely followed by
its abbreviation written in square brackets for the first time. In the later instances, however, only
the abbreviation is used
Example:
First in-text citation:
All Pakistan Women Association [APWA] (2015) found in the latest survey……….
Later citation
APWA (2015) demanded following remedies………..
In the reference list full name of the corporate body is used.
In-text Citation and reference list entry of a title in place of author
If the title is used, it has to be written in italic letters both in in-text citation and reference
list.
If the title is too long you may shorten it in the in-text citation by either omitting the
subtitle or reducing the title’s own words if there is not any subtitle.
In the reference list, however complete title has to be written.
An Anonymous Author:
Sometimes source itself designate the author as ‘Anonymous’. In such a case you have to
write anonymous in place of author’s name both in the in-text citation and reference list.

What to do if the Date of Publication is not Provided in a Source?

One of the following two steps can be taken to encounter with a situation when you
cannot locate the date of publication in a source:
 Write an estimated year of publication
 Write ‘n.d.’ (abb. for no date) in place of date
Sometimes you are able to estimate the time when a publication could have been appeared on
the basis of relevant events. In this case you can write the estimated year of publication in place
of the date like this ‘c. <Publication Year>’. For example c. 1998
In case when you cannot estimate the date, you need to go for the second option.
Whatever of the two methods you have adopted for your in-text citation, will go for the reference
list entry.

What to do if a Source has been Used Several Times in Your Work?

For the first time entry of a source in in-text citation it is required to mention both the author
name and the date. In the subsequent entries, date may be omitted provided it does not produce
confusions.
If you have used a source with either one or two authors more than once in your work, every
time you need to put the same in-text citation.
If a source with three authors is used, first time you need to mention the surnames of all the
three authors. In the later entries only the surname of first author is written followed by ‘et al.’
If a source with more than three authors is used, every time you write the first author’s surname
followed by ‘et al.’
If a source with a corporate author is used, name of the author is written completely followed by
its abbreviation written in square brackets for the first time. In the later instances, however, only
the abbreviation is used.
However, in the reference list, the detailed reference is only presented for once.
For reference list entry of 2 authors.

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 20

For reference list entry of 3 authors.
For reference list entries of more than 3 authors.

What to do if Numerous Sources have been Cited Together?

If you have supported your argument by more than one source, you need to mention each in your
in-text citation separated by a semicolon (;). The citation will appear as follows:
(McGeady et al. 1996; McDonagh 1990; Shalloway and Trott 2009)
The sources are needed to be ordered alphabetically by first author’s name of each source.
If more than one sources have been cited by the same author, name of author is written for once
only and the years are separated by a comma. For example:
(McGeady et al. 1996, 1998)
In the reference list each source has to be mentioned individually.

What and how to Cite if you have Read about a Source in Another
one?
In case when you are referencing to a source that is not directly read by you but is cited by a
source you have read, the in-text citation appears like this:
Zahbi (as cited in Ghaznavi 2003, p. 5) found that………
In the reference list, reference of Ghaznavi, and not of Zahbi, would be provided.

What to Capitalize in a Title?

In the title of journal, all the major words are capitalized.
For a source other than a journal (such as web page, book, article etc.) not all the major words
are capitalized rather capitalization is done for:
 The first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle
 The first word after a colon or a dash in a title
 Proper nouns

What to do if there are Various Sources with same Author/s and

Year of Publication?
If there are more than one publications included whose author/s and year of publication are same,
the distinction is made by placing lower case letters (a, b, c, d..) right after the year; both in the
in-text citation and reference list
The order in the reference list is then made first by the author/s name and then by the alphabets
placed after the year.

How to write and Cite a Quotation?

If you are writing the exact words of an author without doing paraphrasing, it is called as
quotation.
In this case it is essential to mention the page number.
If a quotation contains less than 40 words, it goes with the text and is put into double quotation
marks (“….”).
For example:
Ghaznavi mentioned “olive oil is the…………..food” (p. 15).

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 21

The full stop is not put before the closing quotation n mark rather it is used after the brackets of
citation.
If a quotation contains 40 or more words, it is written in a new line with a five space indentation;
it is not put in any quotation marks, and is written with double line spacing.
Example:
What so far has been observed till this century, it ………………………………….., in his book
Ghaznavi (2003) mentioned
Honey can be used as food……………………………best source (p. 28)

What to do if Page Numbers are not Provided in a Source

Sometimes a source may indicate paragraph numbers instead of page numbers, in this case use
the abbreviation ‘para.’ And write the relevant number after it.
For example:
As Alvi (2009) mentioned ……… (para. 5)
In other cases the source may not even indicate the paragraph numbers, in such a situation write
the name of heading and the relevant paragraph number counting it from the beginning of the
related heading.
For example:
All the natural elements…………. (Ghaznavi 2003, Introduction, para. 3)

How to cite the Personal Communications?

Personal communications include conversations, interviews, spoken lectures, personal files,
telephone conversations, letters and e-mail messages.
Their reference is not given in the reference list
They are cited only in the in-text in a way like this:
<name of communicator>, <type of ccommunication>, <MM DD>, <Publication Year>
For example:
S. Richard (interview, February 20, 2013)...

General Format of Reference for Various Types of Sources

Name of authors/ editors are written the same way as they are guided above i.e. first the surname
is written followed by the initials of first name.
Referencing Various Types of Books
 Edition is only required to mention only when it is not the first; if an edition is not
available omit the piece of information
 Number of edition is written this way: nth edn., for example 2nd edn., 4th edn.; write rev.
edn., if it is a revised edition
Book with an author:
<Name/s of author/s> <Publication Year>, <Book Title>, <Edition>, <Publisher>.
Book with more than one author:
 For books with more than one author every piece of information remains the same as the
book with one author
 To find how the names of authors are written, follow the section “What to do if there are
multiple authors of a source?”
Book with a corporate author:

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 22

 <Name of corporate author> <Publication Year>, <Book Title>, <Publisher>.
Book with an editor/s:
<Name of editor> (ed.) <Publication Year>, <Title>, <Publisher>.
 If there are more than one editor, write their names the same way as for the authors;
abbreviation “eds.” is used for multiple editors.
 In the in-text citation “ed. or eds.” is not written.
Book with multiple volume:
<Name of author/s> <Publication Year>, <Title>, vol. <mention the volume number>,
<Publisher>.
Volume number is mentioned in a numeric digit such as 2, 45, 34 etc.
Chapter in an edited book:
<Name of chapter’s author> <Publication Year>, '<Chapter title>', in:<name of editor> (ed.),
<Book title>, <Publisher>.
 Use abbreviation eds. If there are more than one editors.
 In this particular case name of editor is written the way: first the initials of the first names
are written followed by the surname. For instance Mohsin Hasan Alvi would be written
as MH Alvi.
Electronic Book (e-Book):
 E-books are cited the same way as the printed books.
Various Types of Journal Articles
 Author names are written the same way as they are guided above.
 Volume and issue number can be omitted if it is not provided in the source
 ‘p’ is written if the reference is made to a single page number and ‘pp.’ is written if there
is a range of page numbers
Journal article in Print:
<Name of author/s> <Publication Year>, '<Article title>', <Journal title>, vol. <volume
number>, no. <Issue number>, pp. <range of page numbers>.
 Volume number and issue number are written in numeric digit such as 2, 5, 45 etc.
 Range of pages is written this way: <starting page number– ending page number> such
as 24-33, 15-26 etc.
Article from e-journal
 E-journal articles are cited the same way as the printed journals.
Pre print journal article:
 A journal article which is submitted and before peer review but not printed yet is reffered
as follows:
<Name of author/s> <Publication Year>, '<Article title>', submitted to <Journal title>, [pre-
print], <URL>
Post print journal article:
 A journal article which has been reviewed and accepted but has not been published yet is
referred as follows:
<Name of author/s> <Publication Year>, '<Article title>', <Journal title>, [post-print],
<URL>

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 23

Various Types of Newspaper Articles:
Newspaper article in Print:
< Name of author> <Publication Year>, ‘<Article title>’, <Title of Newspaper>, <DD MM>
 Day (DD) is written as a numeric digit such as 1, 13, 23
 Month (MM) is written in spelling such as January, March etc.
Newspaper article without author name:
‘<Article title>’, <Publication Year>, <Title of Newspaper>, <DD MM>
Newspaper article available online:
< Name of author> <Publication Year>, ‘<Article title>’, <Title of Newspaper>, <DD MM>,
<URL>
Various Sources Available on Internet:
Page on a website:
<Name of Author/s> <Publication Year>, <page title>, <URL>.
Page on a website without an author name:
<Page title>, <Publication Year>, <URL>.
Facebook update
<Name of Author> <Publication Year>, Facebook update, <DD MM>, <URL>.
 Day (DD) is written as a numeric digit such as 1, 13, 23
 Month (MM) is written in spelling such as January, March etc.
Twitter update
<Name of Author> <Publication Year>, Twitter update, <DD MM>, <URL>.
Blog
<Name of Author/s> <Publication Year>, <page title>, <URL>.
Miscellaneous Sources
Various types of reports:
<Name of Author/s> <Publication Year>, <Report Title>, <Report number>, <Publisher/ URL>
 The format is applicable for a number of reports such as industrial reports, research
reports from an individual or an agency etc.
 If it belongs to an agency, the name of a corporate author is used.
 If report number is not given simply omit the piece of information.
 If it is a web document, write the URL instead of publisher.
Dissertations and thesis:
<Name/s of Author/s> <Publication Year>, <title>, <degree level> thesis, <name of awarding
institution>
 Degree level refers to the degree for which the thesis has been prepared such as Ph.D,
[Link], [Link] etc.
University provided learning material:
<Name of author/s>, <Publication Year>, <Title and subtitle>, <Type of medium>, <Name of
institution>.
 If name of author/s is not given, initiate the reference with the name of institution
 Type of medium refers to the format in which the material has been provided such as
power point slides, lecture notes etc.
Conference Paper- Published:
<Name of Author/s> , ‘<Title of conference paper>’, <Title of conference>, <venue>, <DD-DD
MM>, <Publisher>, pp.<Page number/s>.

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 24

  Venue refers to the place where the conference was held
 Day (DD) is written as a numeric digit such as 1, 13, 23
 Month (MM) is written in spelling such as January, March etc.
 If page numbers are not given, simply omit the piece of information.
Conference Proceedings- Unpublished:
<Name of Author/s> , ‘<Title of conference paper>’, paper presented to the <Title of
conference>, <venue>, <DD-DD MM>.
 Venue refers to the place where the conference was held
 Day (DD) is written as a numeric digit such as 1, 13, 23
 Month (MM) is written in spelling such as January, March etc.
Dictionary:
 Dictionary is cited the same way as a book is cited.
Encyclopedia:
<Name of corporate author> <Year of publication>, <Title of encyclopedia entry>.

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 25

 APA
REFERNCING
STYLE

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 26

 INTRODUCTION
 American Psychological Association, commonly known as APA Referencing is very
similar to that of Harvard Referencing Style
 Where Harvard is most commonly used in U.K. and Australia, APA is more popular in
USA.
 Although there does not exist much variation in the formatting, however, before using a
particular guide there is a need to take caution what style your institution demands.
 The guide in the following section has been adopted from APA 6th edition Library guide
for the University of Sydney.
 APA style throughout the text requires the double line spacing, worthy to mention it is
required also for the reference section.
Brief History:
 This style of referencing came forth in 1929 in the form of “Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association”.
 With the passage of time the manual kept on having revisions and edition. So far 6
editions of the manual have been published.
 The latest edition came to the publication in 2009.
System of referencing:
 It uses the parenthetical system of referencing.
 A brief in-text reference containing the name of author and year of publication is given in
round brackets; thus it is also called as author-date based referencing style.
Disciplines using the style:
 It is mostly used in the various fields of social sciences.
 It is also used in some other fields such as business, education and nursing.

General Rules for in-text Citation

 It uses parenthetical system thus the reference in the text appears like this:
(<author name>, <publication year>, <page number/s>)
 In in-text citation only the last name (surname) of the author is used; author’s name and
year of publication are separated by a comma (,). For example: (Ghaznavi, 2003)
 However, if there are more than one authors with the same family name, their initials are
recommended to use in the in-text citation to avoid the confusion.
 A comma (,) is put after the publication year if a page number is mentioned after it.
(Ghaznavi, 2003, p 40)
 It is also allowed to write the author’s name out of the bracket. For example: Ghaznavi
(2003, p 40) observes ………..
 Punctuation marks such as comma or full stop are used after the citation and not before
them.

General Rules for Reference List

 Detailed references are listed on a separate page at the end of the document.
 The title ‘References’ is given to the list, placed in center and in bold font.
 Only those sources are to be listed that has been cited in your work.
 There is a use of double line spacing between each entry.

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 27

  Each reference carries hanging indent i.e. the first line of each reference is flushed to the
left margin, remaining lines are indented.
 Author’s name and the year are separated by a comma.
 Year of publication is put in parenthesis.
 Each reference ends up with a full stop (.).
 The list is arranged in an alphabetical order with reference to the first author’s surname or
the first significant word of the title (if the reference has begun with it in case of the
absence of author’s name).
 If more than one sources have the same first author but the later authors are different, the
references are listed first by the first author’s name then arranged alphabetically by the
subsequent author/s name.
 If there are sources whose authors’ surnames are same but the initials are different, , the
references are listed first by the first author’s surname and then by chronologically by the
initials of first name.
 If you have used the sources of the same author/s with different years of publication, the
references are listed first by the first author’s name then chronologically by publication
year.
 If there are sources of the same author/s with the same year of publication, the references
are listed first by the first author’s name then by the small letters put after the year.
 If a title or a corporate author has been used instead of author’s name, the reference is
listed under the first important word and not under A, An or The.
 If the first word of a reference is a numeric digit and not an alphabet, the reference is
listed before the references having alphabetical start.
 Page number is required to mention only when a part of work (such as article from a
journal or newspaper, a chapter from an edited book etc.) is used; if the whole work is
considered here is no need to mention the page number.
 If there is reference to a single page an abbreviation p. is used, and if there are multiple
pages pp. is used.
 Titles of a bigger source such as a book or journal are italicized.
 Titles which are a part of a bigger work such as a chapter of a book, article in a journal or
news paper are enclosed in double quotation marks without being italicized.
 If you want to mention sources that have been utilized in the hunt of knowledge but are
not cited in your document, they can be mentioned under the heading of “Bibliography”
on a separate page.

How to Write the Name of an Author?

The name of an author is written in a way: last name is written first and afterwards initials of the
first name/s are written; comma is put after surname and a full stop is put after each initial.
For example
Khalid Ghaznavi is written as Ghaznavi, K.
Mohsin Hasan Alvi is written as Alvi, M. H.

What to do if there are Multiple Authors of a Source?

Order of names:
If there are more than one author of a publication mention their names exactly in the
same sequence as they are presented in the publication.

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 28

In-text Citation and reference list entry for two authors:
In the in-text citation only the surnames of the two authors will be used separated by
‘&’. It will look like this:
(<author #1 surname> & <author #2 surname>, <Publication Year>)
Example:
(Alvi & Zaidi, 2009)
Whatever times the reference is cited in your work it appears the same.
In the reference list both the surname and initials of the two authors are used separated
by ‘&’. Thus it looks like this:
<Author#1 surname>, <author#1 first name/s initials>. & <author#2 surname>, <author#2 first
name/s initials>. (<Publication Year>). <title>. ……………
Example:
Alvi, M. H. & Zaidi, R. (2009). <title>. …………..
In-text Citation and reference list entry for three to five authors:
In the in-text citation only the surnames of the three authors are used, first two separated
by a comma (,) and last two by ‘&’. It will look like this:
(<author #1 surname>, <author#2 surname>, <author #3 surname>, <author#4 surname> &
<author #5 surname>, <Publication Year>)
Example:
(Alvi, Ghaznavi, Hashmi, Siddiqui & Zaidi, 2009)
If the same source is cited again in the text it will appear like this:
(<Author #1 surname> et al., <Publication Year>)
Example: (Alvi et al., 2009)
In the reference list both the surname and initials of all the authors are used, , last two
separated by ‘&’ and the remaining by comma (,). Thus it looks like this:
<Author#1 surname>, < Author #1 first name/s initials>., < Author #2 surname>, < Author #2
first name/s initials>., <Author#3 surname>, < Author #3 first name/s initials>., < Author #4
surname>, < Author #4 first name/s initials>. & < Author #5 surname>, < Author #5 first name/s
initials>. (<Publication Year>). <title>. ……………
Example:
Alvi, M. H., Ghaznavi, K., Hashmi, M., Siddiqui, D. & Zaidi, R. (2009). <title>.
………….
In-text Citation and reference list entry for 6 to 7 authors:
In the in-text citation only the surname of the first author is written followed by ‘et al.’
thus it appears like this:
(<Author#1 surname> et al., <Publication Year>)
Example:
(Alvi et al., 2009)
Whatever times the source is cited in your work it appears the same.
In the reference list both the surname and initials of all the authors are used, last two
separated by ‘&’ and the remaining by comma (,). Thus it looks like this:
<Author#1 surname>, < Author #1 first name/s initials>., < Author #2 surname>, < Author #2
first name/s initials>., <Author#3 surname>, < Author #3 first name/s initials>., < Author #4
surname>, < Author #4 first name/s initials>., <Author#5 surname>, < Author #5 first name/s
initials>., < Author #6 surname>, < Author #6 first name/s initials>., & < Author #7 surname>, <
Author #7 first name/s initials>. (<Publication Year>). <title>. ……………

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 29

Example:
Alvi, M. H., Ghaznavi, K., Afridi, S., Zaidi, R., Hashmi, M. & Siddiqui, D. (2009).
<title>,………….
In-text Citation and reference list entry for 8 or more authors:
In the in-text citation only the surname of the first author is written followed by ‘et al.’
thus it appears like this:
(<Author#1 surname> et al., <Publication Year>)
Example:
(Alvi et al., 2009)
Whatever times the source is cited in your work it appears the same.
In the reference list write the names of first six and the last author. Last two names are separated
by “……..,” and the remaining by commas.
<Author#1 surname>, < Author #1 first name/s initials>., < Author #2 surname>, < Author #2
first name/s initials>., <Author#3 surname>, < Author #3 first name/s initials>., < Author #4
surname>, < Author #4 first name/s initials>., <Author#5 surname>, < Author #5 first name/s
initials>., < Author #6 surname>, < Author #6 first name/s initials>., ………, < Last Author
surname>, <Last Author first name/s initials>. (<Publication Year>). <title>. ……………
Example:
Alvi, M. H., Ghaznavi, K., Afridi, S., Zaidi, R., Hashmi, M. & Siddiqui, D.,…., Qureshi,
T.R. (2009). <title>. ………….

What to do if Name of Author is not Available in the Source?

One of the following two steps can be taken to encounter with a situation when the name of an
author is not available in the source:
 Use the name of a corporate author
 Use the title of the source in place of the author name
In-text citation and reference list entry of a corporate author:
Name of an organization, a company or a publisher owning a document in case of the
absence of any specific author/s is called as corporate author.
In the in-text citation the name of the corporate author is written completely followed by
its abbreviation written in square brackets for the first time. In the later instances, however, only
the abbreviation is used
Example:
First in-text citation:
All Pakistan Women Association [APWA] (2015) found in the latest survey……….
Later citation
APWA (2015) demanded following remedies………..
In the reference list full name of the corporate body is used.
In-text Citation and reference list entry of a title in place of author:
If the title is used, it has to be written in italic letters both in in-text citation and reference list.
If the title is too long you may shorten it in the in-text citation by either omitting the subtitle or
reducing the title’s own words if there is not any subtitle.
In the reference list, however complete title has to be written.

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 30

 What to do if the Date of Publication is not Provided in a Source?
If a source does not provide the date of publication, write ‘n.d.’ (abb. for no date) in place of date
both in the in-text citation and the reference list.

What to do if a Source has been Used Several Times in Your Work?

For the first time entry of a source in in-text citation it is required to mention both the author
name and the date. In the subsequent entries, date may be omitted provided it does not produce
confusions.
If you have used a source with either one or two authors more than once in your work, every
time you need to put the same in-text citation.
If a source with three to five authors is used, first time you need to mention the surnames of all
the three authors. In the later entries only the surname of first author is written followed by ‘et
al.’
If a source with more than five authors is used, every time you write the first author’s surname
followed by ‘et al.’
If a source with a corporate author is used, name of the author is written completely followed
by its abbreviation written in square brackets for the first time. In the later instances, however,
only the abbreviation is used.
However, in the reference list, the detailed reference is only presented for once.
For reference list entry of 2 authors.
For reference list entry of 3 to 5 authors.
For reference list entry of 6 to 7 authors.
For reference list entry of 8 or more authors.

What to do if Numerous Sources have been Cited Together?

If you have supported your argument by more than one source, you need to mention each in your
in-text citation separated by a semicolon (;). The citation will appear as follows:
(McGeady et al., 1996; McDonagh, 1990; Shalloway and Trott, 2009)
The sources are needed to be ordered alphabetically by first author’s name of each source.
If more than one sources have been cited by the same author, name of author is written for once
only and the years are separated by a comma. For example:
(McGeady et al., 1996, 1998)
In the reference list each source has to be mentioned individually.

What and how to Cite if you have Read about a Source in Another
one?
In case when you are referencing to a source that is not directly read by you but is cited by a
source you have read, the in-text citation appears like this:
Zahbi (as cited in Ghaznavi, 2003, p. 5) found that………
In the reference list, reference of Ghaznavi, and not of Zahbi, would be provided.

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 31

 What to Capitalize in a Title?
In the title of journal, all the major words are capitalized. Articles (a, an, the), conjunctions (and,
or etc.), and prepositions (of, to etc.) are not capitalized unless they are the first word of a title.
For a source other than a journal (such as web page, book, article etc.) not all the major words
are capitalized rather capitalization is done for:
 The first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle
 The first word after a colon or a dash in a title
 Proper nouns

What to do if there are Various Sources with same Author/s and

Year of Publication?
If there are more than one publications included whose author/s and year of publication are same,
the distinction is made by placing lower case letters (a, b, c, d..) right after the year; both in the
in-text citation and reference list.
The order in the reference list is then made first by the author/s name and then chronologically
by the alphabets placed after the year.

How to Write and Cite a Quotation?

If you are writing the exact words of an author without doing paraphrasing, it is called as
quotation.
In this case it is essential to mention the page number.
If a quotation contains less than 40 words, it goes with the text and is put into double quotation
marks (“….”).
For example:
Ghaznavi mentioned “olive oil is the…………..food” (p. 15).
The full stop is not put before the closing quotation mark rather it is used after the brackets of
citation
If a quotation contains 40 or more words, it is written in a new line with a five space indentation;
it is not put in any quotation marks, and is written with double line spacing.
Example:
What so far has been observed till this century, in his book Ghaznavi (2003) mentioned:
Honey can be used as food……………………………best source. With the passage of
time new discoveries came up with the strength in the belief…………….and has proved
the truth. (p. 28).
It shows the sagacity……….

What to do if Page Numbers are not Provided in a Source

Sometimes a source may indicate paragraph numbers instead of page numbers, in this case use
the abbreviation ‘para.’ And write the relevant number after it.
For example:
As Alvi (2009) mentioned ……… (para. 5)
In other cases the source may not even indicate the paragraph numbers, in such a situation write
the name of heading and the relevant paragraph number counting it from the beginning of the
related heading.
For example:

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 32

 All the natural elements…………. (Ghaznavi 2003, Introduction, para. 3)

How to Cite the Personal Communications?

Personal communications include conversations, interviews, spoken lectures, personal files,
telephone conversations, letters and e-mail messages.
Their reference is not given in the reference list
They are cited only in the in-text in a way like this:
<name of communicator>, personal communication, <MM DD>, <Publication Year>
For example:
S. Richard (personal communication, February 20, 2013)...

General Format of Reference for Various Types of Sources

Name of authors/ editors are written the same way as they are guided above i.e. first the surname
is written followed by the initials of first name.
Referencing Various Types of Books:
 Edition is only required to mention only when it is not the first; if an edition is not
available omit the piece of information
 Number of edition is written this way: nth edn., for example 2nd edn., 4th edn.; write rev.
edn., if it is a revised edition
Book with an Author:
<Name of author>. (<Publication Year>). <Book Title> (<Edition>). <Place of
Publication>: <Publisher>.
Book with more than one Author:
 For books with more than one author every piece of information remains the same as the
book with one author
 To find how the names of authors are written, follow the section “What to do if there are
multiple authors of a source?”
Book with a Corporate Author:
<Name of corporate author>. (<Publication Year>). <Book Title>. <Place of
Publication>: <Publisher>.
Book with an Editor/s:
<Name of editor> .(Ed.). (<Publication Year>). <Title>. <Place of Publication>:
<Publisher>.
 If there are more than one editor, write their names the same way as for the authors;
abbreviation “Eds.” is used for multiple editors
 In the in-text citation “Ed. or Eds.” is not written instead the names are mentioned the
same way as of the authors.
Book with Multiple Volume:
<Name of author/s>. (<Publication Year>). <Title>. (vol. <mention the volume
number>). <Place of Publication>: <Publisher>.
Volume number is mentioned in a numeric digit such as 2, 45, 34 etc.
Chapter in an Edited Book:
<Name of chapter’s author>. (<Publication Year>). <Chapter title>. In: <name of editor> (Ed.),
<Book title> (pp. <range of pages>). <Place of Publication> : <Publisher>.

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 33

  Use abbreviation Eds. If there are more than one editors.
 In this particular case name of editor is written the way: first the initials of the first names
are written followed by the surname. For instance Mohsin Hasan Alvi would be written
as MH Alvi.
Electronic Book (e-Book):
<Name/s of author/s>. (<Publication Year>). <Book Title> (<Edition>). <Place of
Publication>: <Publisher>. Retrieved from <URL>
 If instead of URL, there is a DOI (digital object identifier), write as follows:
<Name/s of author/s>. (<Publication Year>). <Book Title> (<Edition>). <Place of
Publication>: <Publisher>. DOI: <write the DOI address>
Various Types of Journal Articles:
 Author names are written the same way as they are guided above.
 Volume and issue number can be omitted if they are not provided in the source
Journal Article in Print:
<Name of author/s>. (<Publication Year>). <Article title>. <Journal title>, <volume number>
(<Issue number>), <range of page numbers>.
 Volume number and issue number are written in numeric digit such as 2, 5, 45 etc.
 Range of pages is written this way: <starting page number– ending page number> such
as 24-33, 15-26 etc.
 If there is a reference to discontinuous pages write the numbers separated by comma. For
example: 21, 23, 30.
Article from e-Journal:
<Name of author/s>. (<Publication Year>). <Article title>. <Journal title>, <volume number>
(<Issue number>), <range of page numbers>. Retrieved from <URL>
Various Types of Newspaper Articles:
Newspaper article in Print:
< Name of author>. (<Year, MM DD>). <Article title>. <Title of Newspaper>, p. <mention the
page number>.
 Month (MM) is written in spelling such as January, March etc.
 Day (DD) is written as a numeric digit such as 1, 13, 23
Newspaper Article Without Author Name:
<Article title>, (<Year, MM DD>). <Title of Newspaper>, p. < mention the page number >
Newspaper article available online:
< Name of author>. (<Year, MM DD>). <Article title>. <Title of Newspaper>. Retrieved from
<URL>
Various Sources Available on Internet:
Page on a Website:
<Name of Author/s>. (<Publication Year>). <page title>. Retrieved <mention the date of
retrieval>, from <URL>.
 Date of retrieval refers to the date when you assessed that data from the source
 It is written this way: <MM DD, YY>; Month (MM) is written in spelling while Day
(DD) and year (YY) is written in numeric digits.
Page on a Website Without an Author Name:
<Page title>. (<Publication Year>). Retrieved <mention the date of retrieval>, from <URL>.
 Date of retrieval refers to the date when you assessed that data from the source

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 34

  It is written this way: <MM DD, YY>; Month (MM) is written in spelling while Day
(DD) and year (YY) is written in numeric digits.
Facebook Update:
<Name of Author>. (<year, MM DD>). <Title of the post> [Facebook update]. Retrieved from
<URL>.
 Day (DD) is written as a numeric digit such as 1, 13, 23
 Month (MM) is written in spelling such as January, March etc.
Twitter Update:
<Name of Author>. (<year, MM DD>). <Title of the tweet> [Twitter post]. Retrieved from
<URL>.
 If the name of author is used as the twitter handle, use it as it is without altering it into
sequence of surnames followed by initials.
Blog:
<Name of Author/s>. (<Year, MM DD>). <Page title> [Web blog post]. Retrieved from
<URL>.
Miscellaneous Sources:
Various types of reports:
<Name of Author/s>. (<Publication Year>). <Report Title>. <Report number>. <Publisher/
URL>
 The format is applicable for a number of reports such as industrial reports, research
reports from an individual or an agency etc.
 If it belongs to an agency, the name of a corporate author is used.
 If report number is not given simply omit the piece of information.
 If it is a web document, write the URL instead of publisher.
Dissertations and thesis:
<Name/s of Author/s>. (<Publication Year>). <title>, (<degree level> thesis), <name of
awarding institution> , <place of the institution>
 Degree level refers to the degree for which the thesis has been prepared such as Ph.D,
[Link], [Link] etc.
University provided learning material:
<Name of author/s>. (<Publication Year>). <Title and subtitle>. [<Type of medium>]. <Name
of institution>.
 If name of author/s is not given, initiate the reference with the name of institution
 Type of medium refers to the format in which the material has been provided such as
power point slides, lecture notes etc.
Conference Paper- Published:
<Name of Author/s>. (<Publication Year>). <Title of conference paper>. In <name of
organisation/Editors>, <Title of conference> (pp. <Range of page number>). <Place of
publication> : <Publisher>.
 If there are the names of editors must write (Ed.)/ (Eds.) after their names.
 If page numbers are not given, simply omit the piece of information.
Dictionary & Encyclopedia:
<Name of author>. (<Year of publication>). <Title>.<Place of Publication>: <Publisher>

M. H. Alvi (2016): A Manual for Referencing Styles in Research 35