AMC PAMPHLET AMCP 706-150 ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK BALLISTICS SERIES INTERIOR BALLISTICS OF GUNS HEADQUARTERS, U.S. ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND FEBRUARY 1965EADQUARTERS UNITED STATES ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND WASHINGTON, D.C. 20315 26 February 1965 AMGP 706-150, Interior Ballistics of Guns the Ballistics Series of the Army Materiel Design Handbook Series forming part of mmand Engineering is published for the information and guid- ance of all concerned, (AMcRD) FOR THE COMMANDER SELWYN D. SMITH, JR. Major General, USA Chief of Staff OFFICIAL Chief, “Administrative Office DISTRIBUTION: SpecialPREFACE uzincvring Design Handbook Series of the Army Materiel Command isa coordinated series of handbooks: containing, basie information and fundamental data nscful in the design and development of Army materiel and systems, ‘The handbooks ate authoritative reference books of practieal information and quanti- tative facts helpful in the design and development of Army materiel so that it will meet the tactical «aud the teelmical aweds of the Armed Forces. Several of these Inndbooks yive the theory and experimental data pertaining to interior, exterior and terminal ballisties. The present handbook deals with de interior Iaalisties of gyms ‘This hindbook, Inferior Ballistics of Guns, prosents fundamental data, fol- lowed by development of the theory smd practice of interior ballistics, with appl cation to rifled, smooth-bore and recoilless guns. Included in the presentation are studies pertaining to heat transfer, temperature distribution aud erosion, logether with standard and experimental methods of measurements. Finally, ignition, flash and other special Lopies are explored. ‘This handbook has been pre awd as an aid to scientists and engineers en- gaged in military research and development programs, and as a guide and ready reference for military and civilian persounel who have. responsibility for the planning snd interpretation of experiments and tests relating to the performance of military materiel during design, developraent: and praduetion ‘The final text is the result of the joint writing efforts of RN. Jones, H. P. Hitelicoek and D. R. Villegas, of the staff of Jobn I. Thompson and Compuny, for the Engineering Handbook Office of Duke University, prime contractor to the Army Research Offiee-Durham, Many valuable suggestions were made by the Interior Ballsties Laboratory and Development. and Proof Serviees at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Picatinny Arscnal, Frankford Arsensl and Springfield Armory, During’ the preparation of this handbook Government establishments we visited for much of the material used and for helpful diseussions with many techni= cal personnel, Elements of the U.S. Army Materiel Command having need forhandbooks may submit requisitions or ollicial requests directly to Publications and Reproduction Ageney, Letterkenny Army Depot, Chambersburg, Pennsylvania 17201, Con: tractors should submit such requisitions or requests to their contracting, officers, Comments and suggestions on this handbook are weleomie and should be addressed ( Army Researeh Office-Durham, Box CM, Duke Station, Durham, North Carolina 27706,TABLE OF CONTENTS Paragraph Page : PREPA alg LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS vii LIST OF CHARTS x LIST OF TABLES : x Cusrren 1 DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM LIST OF SYMBOLS Introduction Guns Definition Classification o Action Inside the Gun Projectiles Distribution of Energy Prossure-Travel Curves : Control of Intorior Ballistic Performance Effects of Propellant. Grain Characteristies Grain Configuration Grain Size Density of Loading Black Powder Gun Propellant Present Gun Propellants Burning Time Burning Action Degressive Burning Neutral Burning. Progressive Burning. Single-Base Propellant Double-Base Propellants Nitroguanidine (Triple-Base) Propellants Solvent Emulsion Propellant (Ball Powder) Characteristics of Standard Propellants ‘The Rate of Buming Energy of Propellants REFERENCES:TABLE OF CONTENTS—(continued) Cuseren 2 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF INTERIOR BALLISTICS Paragraph List oF Introduction Statement of the Equations ‘Phe Energy Equation ‘The Equation of Motion the Burning Rute Egnation Hlimination of Variables Solution of the Eyuations Reduetion to Normal Form, Numerical Integration of the Normal Form Interior Ballistic Trajectories During Burning Reduced Variables Pressure Ratio Chart ao Interior Ballistic Trajectory Charts » Conditions After Burnt ‘Time, Pressure and ‘Travel Fanetions Examples Dual Granulation Charges Hsample for Dual Granulation Charges The Hirsehfelder System. : imple" Interior Ballistie Systems jeueral ‘The Mayer and Hart System, ‘The Bificioney of a Gun-ramunition System Comparison With Experiment General Considerations Experimental Evaluation of the Parameters Similarity and Sealing flects of Changes im the Parameters | Simple Graphiesl Methods Empiieal Methods ‘The Attainment of Higher Velocities General Optimum Gun The Conventional Procedure to Attain Higher Velocities Uneonventional High Velocity Guns Extension of Interior Ballistie Theory to ih Velocity Weapons ‘The High-Low Pressure Gun, Recoilless Rifles 1 ‘Theory of Etthus of Gas through Nozzles 2 Application to Reeoilless Rifles. . ‘raphieal Methods for Recoilless Rifles. Smooth Bore Mortars and Worn Guns. | 16 ‘The Use of High Speed Computing Machines REFERENCES Page MBOLSTABLE OF CONTENTS—(continued) Cuarren 3 HEAT TRANSFER, TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION AND EROSION OF GUN TUBES Paragraph LIST OF SYMBOLS 31 Heat Transfer seas oe B41 General Discussion BO 212) 2 | oat Linnsler Cusfiount eh ner ete 313 Caleulation of the Rate of Heat Input 3414 Nondimensional Heat ‘Transfor Cootficient o ‘Temperature Distribution. ‘The gations of Temperstre Distribution in Reduced Variables: . Heat Input ‘The "Thermal Analyzer” Comparison With Experiment Rrosion ei General Disession Estimation of the Erosion of Life of Gun Tubes Erosion in Vents "ERENCES, RI Caner 4 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS LIST OF SYMBOLS. Introduetion Pressuro Measurements General Principles ‘The Quartz Piezocleetric Gage - Strain Type Pressure Cages Crusher Gage 43 Measurement of Muaale Velocity 43.1 General Principles Chronogeaphs Detecting, Devices 4:34 ‘Tho Caleulation of the Muzzle Velocity « 44 ‘ravel-Time Measurements. 441 Barrel Contacts 442 Microwave Interferometer - ‘Measurement of Projcetile ‘Travel Neat the Start of Motion In-Bore Velocity and Acceleration Measurement 45.4 Differentiation of the Travel-Time Data ‘Tho Measurement of Velocity ‘The Measurement of Acccleration 466 ‘The Measntement of Base PressureTABLE OF CONTENTS—(continued) Paragraph 4-7 ‘The Measurement of Bore Friction 48 The Measurement of Barrel Erosion 481 General. . 482 Tho Star Gage 48.3 The Pullover Gage 484 The Automatie Recording Bore Gage 4-9 Barrel ‘Temperature Measurements 49.1 ‘Thermocouples a 4.92 Resistance Type Temperature Measuring Gages 425, 410 Motion of the Propellant During Burning 426 4-11 Rotating Mirror Camera Poll. aes REFERENCES . . oo Ae Charren 5 SPECIAL TOPICS LIST OF SYMBOLS. . el SL The Hydrodynamic Problems of Interior Ballistios . . 2... Be SLI Pressure Distribution and Kinetie Energy of the Propellant Gases 5 ‘The Emptying of the Gun 5 Ignition of Propellants dcoo90bceab : 5 General Diseussion : 5 Laboratory Investigations of Ignition 5 ‘Theories of Ignition 5 Ignition in Guns 5 Ignition Systems for Guns 53 Flash and Smoke 5 Flash, 3 Flash Suppression, REFERENCESLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig, No. Title rt 1 13 M4 1 16 wa 18 19 23 Recoil Gun yystom Recoilless Gin System Pressure-Travel and Velocity-Travel Curves Pressure-Travel Relationship : fects of Grain Configuration on Pressure-Travel Curves Effeets of Independently Varying Grain Size ‘Typical Shapes of Propellant Grains Sizes of Some Typical Grains Web Thickness and Route of Burning Progress through a Progressively Burning Grain Relative Areas of Burning As a Function of Pereent of Individual Grain Consumed for Several Typical Grain Shapes ‘Theorotieal Pressure-Time Curve for 105mm Howitzer Using Taylor's Theory Reault of the Analysis of a Firing Record for a 105mm. Howitzer Round (Measured Values of Pressure and Displacement. Velocity and Acecleration Determined by Numerieal Differentiation of Displacement.) Engraving Foree for a Typical 105myn Howitzer Round targe Burned versus Time for 37mm Gun, . Linear Burning Rate veraus Pressure for 105mm Howitzer, MI Propellant Observed Radial Wear per Round at the Commencement of Rifling versus Caleulated Heat Input per em* per Round Change in Vertical Land Diameter at 0.1 Inch from ‘Commencement of Rifling versus Number of Rounds in the ‘S8Inch Gun, M1 Bore Enlargement at Origin versus Equivalent Service Rounds, 16-ineh/45 Caliber Guns Marks 6 and 8 ‘The General Shape of Vent Erosion versus Charge Barly Design of Erosion Test Vent Final Design of 0.50-Inch Erosion ‘Test Vent. (Vents With Different Diameters Are Obtained by Adding a Constant Increment to the Numbers Shown.) Weight Loss versus Round Number Diameter Inerease versus Number of Rounds Weight Loss versus Number of Rounds Weight Loss and Diameter Increase versus Number of Rounds Dependence of Erosion on Initial Wall ‘Temperature Quarts Piesoolectrie Pressure Gage . . Diagram of Recording System for Piezoelectric Pressure Gage | ‘Typical Pressure-Time Records from Quartz Piezoelectric Gage (155mm Gun) Dead Weight Apparatus for Calibration of Pressure Gages ‘The C-AN Siain Type Presmue Gage Using a Wine-Wrapped Ferrule . 19 228 2.20 231 233 2a 3.10LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS—(continued) Big. Xo. Title 46 442 413 An Improved Strain Type Pressure Gage Using Cemented. Foil Strain Patehes to Permit the Use of a Smaller Ferrule to Reduee Dimensions of the Gage Intemal Strain Type Pressure Gage Mounted in Cartridge Case to Measure Breech Pressure ‘The Hat Gage Mounted in Cartridge Case to Measure Brecelt Pressure a ‘Typical Input Cireuit of Strain Type Pressure Gages Frequency Response Curves for Different Types of Pressure ‘Guges When Subjected to a Stepwise Pressure Signal in a High Pressure Shock Tube Cross Section of Internal Copper Crusher Pressure Gage Using Cylindrieal Copper Crusher Photograph of a Drum Camera Chronograph Mounted in Range Recording Room ‘Drum Camera Chronograph Reeord of Signal from Velocity Coils Jaumiline Sereens in Use in an Indoor Range - ypical Microwave Interferometer Record of Projectile ‘Travel versus Time (Caliber .50) Block Diagram of the Mierowave Interferometer for ‘Measuring Projectile Travel versus Time “typical Travel-Time Record at Start of Travel Using Back-Lighted Slits in Cutoff Tube (Caliber 30), Back- Lighting Intermittent, 10° Exposures per Second Foil Contactor Assembly for Measuring Travel During the Engraving Process, 105mm Howitzer Consolidated Plot of the Data and Results for the First Four Inches of Travel in the 105mm Howitzer Diagram of Quartz Piezocleetrie Acceleration Gage “Assembled in the Projectile Diagram of the Variable Capacitance Acceleration Gage Diagram of Quartz Piezoelectric Base Pressure Gage ‘Mounted in the Projectile ‘Variable Capacitance Base Pressure Gage Diagram of arts and Assembly Record Produced by the Automatic-Recording Bore Gage. “Three Complete Seans in Both Direetions Lo Test Repeatability. Diagram of One Model of the Automatie-Recording Bore Gage Diagram of Bore Surface Thermocouple and Housing, BRL Model ‘i _ Block Diagram of Apparatus for Observing Motion During Firing of a Radioactive Source Imbedded Initially in a Propellant Grain Photograph of Apparatus for the Study of Propellant Motion ‘During Firing Using Radioactive Tracer Technique. 37mm Gun With Four Scintillation Counters on Each Side of the Barrel Calibration Curves Showing Radioactive Source Position versus -typival Rceord of Source Postion anal Pressure versus Time 416LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS—(continued) Fig. No. Title Page ‘ 451 Consolidated Plot of Observations Showing Correlation of Radioactive Source and Projectile Positions versus Time. 427 482 Consolidated Plot of Radiouetive Source and Projeetile Motion Compared With Gas Motion As Predieted by the Lagrange Approximation 427 4483 Distance Traveled by Radioactive Source As a Function of Initial Position Compared With the Displacement of the Gas Given by the Lagrange Approximation . 428, AGH Velocity Attained by Radioactive Source As a Function of Initial Position Compared With the Velocity of the Gas Given by the Lagrange Approximation, 4 435 Schematie Diagrams of the BRL Rotating Mirror Camera, 2 430 4:36 Photograph of BRL Four Surface Rotating Mirror Camera for Recording Interior Halas Trjetaion (Cover Removed) Graph of ¢, Asa Function of and n Contour Map of Lines of Constant ¢ Reduced Surfuce Temperature, U, versus Logarithm of Reduced Time, + ‘Muzzle Flash from 57mm Gut Still Photograph of Caliber 30 Rifle With Shortened Barret Fired in Air and Nitrogen . Primary Flash and Muzzle Glow from 37mm GunLIST OF CHARTS Chart No. Title 2.23} 2-20) 226 3 2 | nis Mat ‘Time, Pressure and Travel Functions Chart for Interior Ballistic Caleul Strittmater Velocity at Uy/Uo = 5 and P., = 60 kpsi As a Function of C/W (Small Arms) - is by the Scheme of 26 Relative Velocity Normalized to Unity at an Expansion Ratio of 5 Asa Funetion of Expansion Ratio (Small Arms) 27 Velocity Relative to the Velocity at a Peak Pressure of 60 kpsi Asa Funetion of Peak Pressure (Small Arms) 28 — Relative Pressure As a Function of Expansion Ratio 2) Ratio of Nozzle Pressure to Reservoir Pressure LIST OF TABLES Table Xv, Title ulated Themachomial Value for Standard Props (Including Residual Volatiles) Differential Coctficients for Artillery Weapons Values of 1, 8, mand 8, for Standard Weapons ‘Thrust Coefficont, Cy Heat Transfer Function, f(r), for Guns During Burning Heat Transfer Function, f(7), for Guns After All Burt for ry = M4 and 28 Heat Transfer Integral, I Wear of Guns ‘Tubes for the Pidduck-Kent Solution Approximate Range of Vatues of the Variables and Parameters ‘Used in Hieks’ Thermal Theory of Ignition Interior Ballistic Data for 8-inch Howitzer Firing HE Projectile M106 rsBR a CHAPTER 1 LIST OF SYMBOLS Burning rate coefficient Mass of propelling charge Specie heat of propellant gas at constant volume Average Specific heat of propellant gas at constant volume Mass of propellant busued Outer diameter of propellant grain Diameter of the perforations of propellant rain Specilie energy or potential of solid propellant, Force of propellant Fraction of web bured through Internal energy of propellant gas Euergy expended by propellant gas in doing work and heating tube Mass of proectil Number of grains in the charge Number of moles of gas per unit weight of propellant gus Press Molar gas eoustant Area of burning surface of propelling charge Initial surface arca of propelling charge "Temperature of propellant gas Adiabatic flame teniperature of propellant Th Volume of the propellant. gas Travel of projectile Velocity Web thickness Burning rate pressure exponent Factor analogous to the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and volume Specific eovolume of propellant gas Specific mass of the propellantCHAPTER 1 DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM 1-1 INTRODUCTION ‘rw imparting of high velocities to. projectiles requires tremendous foree, ‘The souree of the enerey ivhieh supplies these forces must be readily nant facture, tay to traisport, ang capable of being applied. At various ties, proposals have Teen made for utifization of energy provided by tis other than explosives, uel ax compressed cir, eleetronnagitie Force, and ecutrifugal, force, ‘rhs far, however, no results have hen attained Frou any of thes’ someees whieh approach those realized fron elusnieal explosives Anterior ballisties of guns (that branch of hallsties dealing, with motion imparted to a projectile by a gu) comprises a study of A working substanes, abd the aweessory apparattss far controlling the release of energy aud for diveeting the aetivity of the working substance, OF allicd interest is the anechanieal functioning of guns and cebyeniieal energy souree, jieeomories. General infarination on the types of guns find their construction and functions is giver in Teforonee 1. Referenees applicable to cach ebapter of this Handbook ave given at the end of the chapter: ine unniweesstry weight ivan unjustified logistical extravagance, weapons ate designed to operate under cater extremes of temperature and pressure than fare ustally cxeonutered in the use of onmilitary Tegnes, Because the tine eyele volved is quite sal, there is not sutlicie tin for the eonstrana- tion af slow processes such ay heat transfer, Ca soyqueatly, it is necessary that the ehennieal energy ouuree al farmish the gaseous products which int themselves constitute the working. substance. This energy souree mag be a solid propellust, as in most iauss, or a liggtid uel and oxidizer souree, such as cametinies use ite rweket propulsion Propellauts are studied from several aspeets. ‘Thermodynamic properties indieate the release of fas neh energy per ait Weight ax way: be come Sistenp with offer demands. Studies of the miceh- fans of decomposition indieate the effects of uncon trullable paraneters seh as ambient temperature Denanies of the gases are necessarily a subject of investigation hecanse the Kinetic nergy of the 12 = reeords of actual fixings. The beginner propelling gases is an important part of the total nergy of the process, The study of motion of a projectile inside the gun tube ix not a matter of Simply applying Newton's laws to the motion of the projectile regarded as a point nas, but complicated study of the rate at whieh the high temperature gas is evolved front the propellast; the motion of the gus so produced; and the effeet of this gus on the motion of the projectile itself. ‘The passage of the projectile stresses the tube mechan feally and subjects the interior of the barrel to siding friction. ‘The passage of high temperature gases, im addition to the high pressures generated, Darrel to the extent that cheiwicul interaction with ‘the metal itself occurs. Interior ballisties is defined as the branch of applied niechanies whieh deals with the motion and Iichavior charueteristies of projectiles while under the influence of the gases praduccd by the propellant. ‘As au applied seience it is stil much of an act ‘and largely emmpirical, ‘The phenomena with whieh jt deals ane explicable in tens of well established physical aud chemical principles. Vnfortunately, the phenomena are complex and related in subtle and obscure ways $0 that considerable experience and judgment aie aweessary in the application of the principles if trustworthy theoretical results are to Je derived, ‘There occur in the formulation of the theory quantities which are difficult to determine hy independent measurement beeause their proper vvaluws for parti¢ular eases depend in obscure ways fon the particular circumstances of the ease cot sidered, They have the nature of enipirical correction factors whose values can fre jooly froin the results of numerous examples: ine volving comparison of the theory used with the therefore, forewarned to be on his guard. All theoretical results: should be us firmly backed up by comparison with factual firings as is possible, Tu this seuse the theory serves as a nucans of interpolation between, or extrapolation from, existing designs “The subject of interior baltisties of guns has beet investigated through more than 200 years, starting swith the invention of the ballistie pendulous in 1745 Iieats the hye estimatedA very extensive fiterature has beew built up, ad many excellent texts are available, For general backkound, the texts prepared by Corner? and Hunt! are reeommended, More specific treatments hhave been made hy Bennett! and Taylor and Yagi’ A consolidated NDRC report, written by Curtiss and Wreneh’, eovers the work done duving: Workd War ILA general treatment of the problew with applications to guns is given in Reference 7, 1.2 GUNS. 4.2.1 Definition ‘The term gun int this handbook, unless otherwise indicated, may be taken in its general sense, that is, a projectitethrowing device consisting essentially ‘of a projeetile-gniding tube, with an incorporate or conneeted! action eliamber in whieh the ebemieal ‘energy of a propellant is rapidly converted into heat and the hot gases produced expand to expel the projectile at a high velocity 1.2.2 Classification For convenic 1 of discussion guns are classified according 1 their salient featuees, fanetions, modes ‘of operation, ete,’ The boundaries of these classifica: tions anv not always elearly defined, and the elas- fications and nomenclature are often traditional “The elasitieations ave useful, however, and ave in ‘The prineipal one is based roughly fo size and portability and classifies guns as small anos and artillery. Swwall arms are in general less that SOun in ealiber and are usually portable by foot soldiers, Astillery cousists of the larger weapons usually mounted on carriages and moved by other than human parser, Small aris ate more variable int design aud funetion. ‘They’ inelude such weapons asrifles, machine guns, pistols, cte. Avtillery weapons inchude guns (specific), howitzers and mortars. Guns (specific) include those firing usually at lower elova- tion and higher velocity, and howitzers include those whieh operate iy general velocity range The fatter ean be fired at high angles and use Picere, oned charges, that is, ebarges whiel are foaded in separate increments and ean be varied within limits by the gunner. Mortars operate at high angles like howitzers but operate at still lower velocities and are gencrally loaded fr imple in design and ean be broken down and trans ported hy foot soldi, nthe mzzle. ‘They are 1.2.3 Action Inside the Gun A gun is esentially © heat engine, 1s action resembles the power stroke of an automobile engine With the expansion of hot gases driving the pro- jectile instead of a piston (Figuee 1-1), When the change is ignited, gases are evolved frou the surface of cach grain of propellant, gud the pressure in the chamber increases rapidly. Iesistanee to inital niotion of the projectile is gevat, and relatively high ‘chamber pressures are attained hefore much motion ‘of the projectile takes place. In the solution of the terior ballisties problem, fietitions starting. pres- sures are assumed, which work well in practice, ‘The chamber volume is inereased by: the move tof the projectile, which has the effect. of vercasing the pressure; however, the rate of burning ff the change increases, ‘The uct effect is a rapid inercase in the propellant pressure until the point fof maximuny pressure is reached. ‘This occurs at & relatively short distance from the origin of viling Beyond that point, preswure drops and, at the muzzle, reaches a "value considerably less ¢ maxiniun prossture, probably of the order of 10% to 30% thereof, depending upon the weapon desiga and the propellant, This muzzle pressure continues to act on the projeetile for a short distanee beyond the muzzle. Thus, the projeetile continues to ac ceclerate beydid the muzzle. ‘A special for of this method of propulsion is represented hy the aveoilless system (Figure 1-2) Here reeoil forees are countered by the discharg ‘of gasos through a nozzle at the breveh, ‘The rate ‘of discharge of gases ean be controlled by eoutvolling propellant burning, thus permitting « balance of the sispmentum of the guu-propellant gsprujectile 1. ecll Gan Syste.Goses Rrword—> CN CN) Projectile pe 4. = = WO EXTERNAL FORCE") APPLIED TO MOUNT \ >>“ RECOILLESS RIFLE FIGURE 1-2, Reciless Gum Syste system, The interior ballistic problent here is not ‘oily one of eambustion but of balancing the orifiee diameter against thrust required to maintain a mean recuil velocity of the weapon at zero. The propellant weight in this case exceeds that for a comparable rveoil gun by a factor of 2 to 3. The pressure-travel curve is designed for nsinimun muzzle velocity consistent with satisfactory exterior bullistie per~ formance, thus permitting the use of a thin gu tube which is necessary to maintain the charac toristie light weight of this weapon. ‘The subject fof recoilless weapons and other leaking guns is covered: more fully in Chapter 2 of this handbook 1-3 PROJECTILES Projectiles, like guns, exist ima great variety of designs, depending upon the intended use, Since host of the design characteristies do not affect the interior ballistics, we shall consider only a few, The hnost important of these factors is the mass of the projectile, ‘This must always be taken into account in the formulation of interior ballistics theory, as it has @ major effect on acceleration and velocity of the projectile, as well as on the propellant pressure at all points, ‘Another very important charaeteristie is the de- sign of the rotating band on those projeetiles which fare to be spin stabilized. The band is slightly Jarger than the tube diameter and must be swaged to the tube diameter and engraved by the riffing. ‘The result of this process is & high initial resistance to motion of the projectile, which means that the gases must build up a relatively large starting pres- sure before the projectile hus moved appreciably. ‘This has au important effcet on the interior ballistics, particularly on the maximun. pressure reached aud the tine at which it occurs. ‘This variable is largely climinated in recolless weapons in whieh the rotating band of the projectile is preengraved to fit the rifling Tt is also cliininated in smooth bore weapons whieh fire fin-stabilized projectiles. Here important 14 factor is the amount of clearance between the projectile and the tube, as this determines the leakage of gas around the projectile. The prineipal weapon having this problem is the mortar. Here, with muzzle loading, the clearance must be sufficient to permit the eseape of air so that the projectile will slide down the bore and strike the firing pin with the impact energy required to initiate the primer Only one other characteristic of the projectile need bbe mentioned and that is the axial moment of inertia for spin-stabilized projectiles. And here the effect fon interior ballisties is quite sinall, as the energy fof yotation normally represents ouly a fractional percent of the energy of translation of the projectile 1-4 DISTRIBUTION OF ENERGY As an indication of the relative magnitude of the actors involved in utilizing the energy developed by the burning of the propellant in a medium ealiber reeuil gun, the following possible distrinition is given, Buergy Abeoried 4 of Tout Tranaation of projet 20 Frictional work on projectile (ve tu engraving of rotating Doan und wal fition) 20 “Translation of propellant gas 30 Heat loss to un and projectile 200 ‘Serie and Intent heat Tose i propellant gases 20 Rotation of projectile and translation ‘of ceulling part each nbout 01% ‘and reside i approxination= total) uw Propellant potential, 00.00 Distribution of the available energy of the propellant charge is diseussed in Chapter 2, as basic to the solution of the interior ballisties problem, 1-5 PRESSURE-TRAVEL CURVES In order that the projectile may acquire the designated muzzle velocity, and that the pressuresdeveloped to accomplish this do not damage the ‘weapon, all tubes are designed in accordance with 4 desirable pressure-travel curve for the proposed: weapon.” ‘The pressure-teavel eurves (Figure 1:8) indivate the pressure (or foree it pressure is multiplied by the eros-seetional arva of the bore) existing at the ase of the projeetile at any point of its iotion, Henee, the arca under any of the eurves represents the work done on the projectile per unit ross see tional area, by the expanding, gases. JF the areas under curves the specific mass of the propellant SS the area of the burning strface te eaeicient he deprndenee of the bin the remaining web as the cl wg surface rye is consumed exit dE fram the geometry of the grainy by assusing that this goonetey does not change during, Durning, ie., that Che linear burning rate is: the time at all’ points on the Iurning surface. For propellant in thin shoots, the area of the edges is negligible and the steer is constant doing buen. Kor single perforatest evlinders, if Sp is the initial sxunface and f the fr be eafeult ior of the web burned thie PeN je(Da rh) c where YW is the mumber of grains inthe ree The seeamd term on the ight arisos from the combined olfeet of the change in the area of the cond surf x and tH reduction in length of the tain. Othervvise, the deereass in the outer diameter is eompensated by the inerease in the inner ditnieter If the second term can be negleeted, the burning surface is constant, Bor single perforated grains of the usual proportions, the select of Chis second form gives a surface atea, at burnout of the eharge ant tow high, "Chat is the charge is actually sorwowhat degressive, For seven perforated grains, the charge is progiesive tuntil the wel is burned throughs after whiel it is dogressive A relation sth as Riguation 163, whieh takes fect on the rate of pas evolution ff the changing huring susface area, is ealled the form finetion of the granulation, simple for shoots, cords and long single gains or tubes, For seven perforated: which isapprosinitely ten per account of th ‘This fanetion is perforated ins, its laples, especially after splintering. For the simple ‘shapes itis exptessed as a polynomial in the remain= ing web, but for seven perforated grains it is often riven in tabular form, Formulas for the surfaces for complex shapes are given in Reference 10. For ‘other forntulations of the form funetion see Refer conees 2, and 6. In practice the differenew in the interior baltisties for single aud multiple perforated grains is not as tat as tory indicates. In ealeulating the surfaces from the geometry, the assumption is made that ae the ignition is simultancous over all surfaces. ‘This °. For the seven perforated charges the degressive burning of the slivers remaine ing after the we is burned through tends to reduce the progressive character of the early burning. Also the burning rate is influenced not only by the pressure but also by the flow of the gas over the rain and within the perforations. The shape of the rains is not exactly maintained during burning Fxeept, thevelore, for highly dexressive grains such, as eatds, the assumption of a constant burning surface is adequate With this assumption, the burning surface of the charge may be ealeulated hy the fornaula isnever the we in practi (es) where Cs the mass of charge Tn practice, the mate at whieh guy is evolved depends on the detailed conditions under whieh A standard method for de- tevnuining burning rates is to bury the charge in a elosed chamber at constant volunie and measure siniultancously the pressure and its tine derivative, Then, if the relation between © and 2 is known, a value for the burning rate coelligient, #8, ean be derived by the use of Equations 12 and 1-4. The ccoullcient, so detenained, is also called the closed chamber burning rate covtlicient, and it is used inainly for comparative purposes and for standavdizing propellant lots. ‘The details of the method are given in Referenees 3 and 7, “The closed chataber burning nite eocificient rarely yields good agreement with observation if used in interior ballistic calculations for guns. ‘The condi- tions in the gun are very different, and the burning rate coefficient must be determined by adjustiient to the results of actual firings. By observing. the results of minievous firings when fitted to a giv formulation of the twory, the user ean estimate ‘a burning rate coefficient for a particular ease which then can be adjusted to the actual ease in question. ‘The burning rate pressure index, a, varies for different propellants, but the latest. experiments indicate that it lies betwoen 0.8 and 0.9. <\ figure fas low as } has been used by some authors, and frequently it is assumed to be equal to unity. In the latter ease, the solution of the equations of the theory ean’ be given analytically, otherwise this is not possible and numerical methods must be used. With the developacnt of high speed computing, the charge is burned.TABLE 1-1 CALCULATED THERMOCHEMICAL VALUES FOR STANDARD PROPELLANTS (INCLUDING RESIDUAL VOLATILES) (located in the back of this handbook) 1+13/1-14this is not the disadvantage it onee was. ‘Phe value of « may be determined from elosed haanber measurements, The methods are deseribwed 1 Reference 3. (9.13 Energy of Propellants “The propellant gas is a complex mixture of several ases and for the mixture to have the same properties fof independence of energy from density) all changes n which occur must be equivoluminar lent of the density. This in effect cestriets the theory to “coo!” propellants,* that is, ‘© those for which the temperature is not high nnough to produce siguifieant dissociation of the iu eoustituents of the gas mixture, To the approx- tation of the assumed equation of state, cach rropellant formulation has a definite explosion tem- verature, Thus, the decomposition of a unit mass f propellant always liberates the same amount of tucigy which then heats the produet gases to the ame temperature independent of the deusity, Bor ost propellants, the most important equilibrium. the water gas equilibrium and since this equilib juin is equimolar, the assumed equation of state s sufficiontly accurate for use in the interior ballistic hheory of guns. The use of a more accurate equation T state would greatly complieate the theory and sould not be justified iu view of other simplifying, ‘ssumptions and approsimations whieh are always. ‘art of any formulation of the theory, Tw treating, he thermochemistry of propellants, however, a more ceurate equation of state must be used. Extended reatments of the thermochemistry of propellants re given in Referenees 1 and 5. Tt is standard practice in the formulation of atetior ballistic theory to assuine an equation of tate of the simple eovolume type. This is am equa jon of state of the Van der Waals type with the a” term omitted but not tho “b" term and is own as tho Abel equation of state. For a gus eying sueh an equation of state, the inter hiorgy depends only on the temperature and not nthe density, The Abel equation is expressed as as) PY = 9) = oer jor ballistics it is usually written in ‘weight of gas, so that V and 9 have di ions volume per unit weight aud » is the f moles per unit weight, Many authors also define Pas the gas constant per unit weight so that n =Coot” proylants maybe defined roughly aa those ve which the unended explosion temperate isnot greater han 300" ° is ho does not appear explicitly in the equation defined is not constant unless 1 is also. Tf Ty is the adiabatic flame temperatwe, the ‘energy released by the decomposition of unit weight, ‘of propellant, called the “force” of the propellant, although it has the dimensions of energy per unit weight ngth, is defined by PF = nk, ‘Phe foree can be determined experimentally by burning a eharge of propellant in a closed chamber (i.e, at constant volume) and measuring the ma wuin pressure produced and using Kquation 1 along with stitable cooling eorreetions. ‘To do this requires a kuowledge of 9 whieh ean be determined sinvultancously by firing a series of charges of dif- ferent masses and measuring the corresponding, nax~ pressures. ‘Table L-1 includes valws of the foree for a. number of standard and experimental gum pro- pellants, Fores and other thermodynamie paraneters ‘of propellants can be ealeulated theoretically if the necessary theruweliomical data are available, Th sults of extended ealeulations of this sort are given in Reference 11, The subject is also covered briefly in Reference 9. During the operation of the gua, the gas is pro- duced at temperature, Ty, and falls to a lower temperature, 7, duc to the loss of heat to the tbe and the performanee of work during the expansio "Phe change in internal energy per unit. mass of gas can be expressed as C,(2y ~ 1) where average value of the specific heat of the gas at constant volume averaged over the tenperature range, (1, — 1). This energy is used in heating the gun and in imparting kinetie energy to the projeetile, the gas, and moving parts of the weapon. ‘The quantity €,Ty is ealled the specific enengy or potential of the propellant. tis assumed in interior ballisties that the average specific heat at: constant volume, C, beats the same relation to e, the gas constant, as the specific heat fat constant volume for a perfect gas does, so that it may be stated w= Ctr — 1). However, » is niot iow the actual ratio of specific heats, but is ao) + analogous to it, its value being adjusted for best fit to the theory used. In effect, C, is replaced by nl/y — 1. Thon, from Equation 16, if 1 Aevotes the potential, 6,7. r-—t on y FF represents effectively the total energy available vasfrom unit mass of propellant, Tt is equal approx- imately to the internal energy of unit mass of the propellant gus at the adiabatie flame temperature, 1, which is given by J3* C, dP. ‘The equation of state of the gas in the gun is written as PU, ~ en) = ent as) where ¢ is the mass of propellant burned, equal to the mass of gas, and U, is the actual volume of the gas. Actually the pressure is not uniform throughout the mass of gas, nor is the temperature, so both P and T are unknown average values consistent with the equation as written, and P, U,,¢ and T are rapidly varying funetions of the time. ‘yand n are also variable, but less so, so that average values can be used. If itis assumed that the internal energy, Z, of the gas can be represented by c(,? with sullicient ecuracy, then PU, = en) rm PU (8) and the general energy equation of interior ballistics can be written = 21) [otk where K is the energy expended by the gas in the doing of work and in heat eonducted to the gun. (1-10)1 REFERENCES AMCP 706-250, Guns—General 5. Comer, Theory of the Interior Balistics of Guns, John Wiley & Sons, N. Y., 1950. FR, W. Hunt, Internal Ballistics, Philosophical Library, Ine., N. ¥., 1951. AL A. Bennett, Tables for Interior Ballistics, War Dept. Document No, 2039, 1921. Revision and expansion directed by H. P. Hitchcock, BRL Report No. 993, 1956 and BRL Technical Note No, 1208, 1960. W. ©. Taylor and F Engineering Design Handbook, Yagi, A Method for Com- ‘une for urface, puting Interior Ballistic Trajectories in Charges of Arbitrarily Varying Burning BRL Report No, 11 CH 1961. Curtiss and J. W. Wrench, Jr., Interior 1 Consolidation and Revision of Pre AL 1. Jerome vious Reports, Interior Ballisties I to VII, Na- tional Defense Research Committee Report No. A397, DDC Document No. ATI 24 AMCP 706-247, Engineering Design Hand- book, Design for Projection. AMCP 706-252, Engineering Design Handbook, Gun Tubes. AMP 706-175, Engineering Design Handbook, Solid Propellants, Part One. ML. Prankle and Jones R. Hudson, Pr: pellant Surface Area Calculations for Interior Ballistic Systems, BRL, Memorandum Report No, 1187, 1959. Paul G, Baer and Kenneth R. Bryson, Tables of Coniputed Thermodynamic Properties of Mit itary Gun Propellants, BRI, Memorandum Re- port Xo. 1338, 1961CHAPTER 2 LIST OF SYMBOLS Aven of the eross scetio of the bore, in? Area of the eross section of a nozzle, in? Leakage area, in’ Acceleration, in/see® roat area of nozzle, in? Sonie velocity in gus tant index, dimensionless Weight of the propellant, Ib Weight of propellant for ideal rifle, Ib ‘Thrust coeltieieut, dimensionless Weight of propellant burnt, th Spovific hab ab constant volume, in-b/12 slugs °C Caliber of the gun, diameter of the projectile body, in ceitie energy of the propellant, in-Ib/1 sidand, specific energy of the propellant, inb/tb Ballistic offcioney, dimensionless Spoeitie foree of the solid propellant, in-th/b Engraving foree, Ib ‘Theust fore, tb iy factor, dimensionless Momentum factor, dimensionless Heat loss ratio, dimensionless Gravitational avecteration, in/see” ergy of the gas, inet Axial monwent of inertia of the projectile, T-in-see” Work done by the gas, in-tb Axial radius of gyration of the projeetile, in Leakage factor, dimensionless Reduced chantber length, dimensionless Effective mass of the projectile, 12 slugs Modified effeetive mass of the projectile, 12 slugs Log. 10 (approximately 2.3026) “Monentum of gan, Ib-see Angular velocity of the projectile, rad/see Proportion of the propellant that is in a rocvilless rile in gaseous forma, dimensionless Lead of rifling, dimensionless Space average pressure, Ib, P/w, dimensionless Rodueed pressure, dimensionless Internal ¢ w me x Heat los, inclb Quiekness (Bennett), dimensi Rate of flow, Ib/in’-see ‘Wmpirieal quickness factor, (in’/Tb)* Weight of gun and recoiling parts, tb sas eonstant, insth/lb-"K Linear rate of sxgression, in/see Ratio of actual to tabular velocity, dimen- Ballistic parameter, dimensionless mpiieal velocity factor, (Ib/in")* aeface area of the grains, in® Space ratio (expansion), dimensionless neray of the fraction of the charge burned, int ‘Temperature, °K Ratio of the gns temperature at any tine after burnt to the mean value during burning, dimensionless Adiabatic flame temperature, °K ‘Time, see Reduced time, dimensionless Dimensionless time Free volume, in" Volume from nozle throat to base of pro- Jette in reeoilless rifles, in" Chamber volume, in? ‘Volume of the propellant gas, i Spocitic volume of the sold propellant, in /Ib Specie volume of the gas, in’/Ib Specific volume of water: 27.68 in'/Ib Velocity of the projectile in/see Leakage velocity eoelfcient, in/see Velocity of the recoiling parts of the gun and eanvinge, in/see Sonie velocity in air, in/sve Dimensionless projectile velocity Average projectile velocity after burnt, in/sce Velocity of gas, in/sce Weight of the projectile, Ib Effective projectile weight (Strttmater), Ib Effective projectile weight, 1b (Mayer’ and Hart; and Bennett) Wob thickness in ‘Travel of the projectile, in Axial eoordinate of the projeetil ss 24x 22 Dinrensionlss travel Volume expansion ratio: U sionloss Ratio of musale pressure to peak press P./Py dimensionless Piczonctri effcieney, dimensionless Burning rate exponent (assumed ~ 0.8) Differential eoeltcient: (C2V.)/W" aC), die snensiontess Escape spord of gas, in/sce Ditfereutial coefficients (CaP,)/(P,aC), snensiontess Burning rate coefficient (linear Dilferential eoolficient: (Uaa¥ ionloss ential coe dimensionless Ratio of specific heuts of the gas (assumed elfective value: 1.30) Differential coefficient: (X,eV4)/V AX.) ‘onl (Ui, dimen wv), in’ /lb-see VBC ay feuts (UndP,)/(P,0U a, Ratio of specific heats of the gas, adjusted to take account of toss of heat to the gun, dimensionless Density of loading, specific geavity of loading, dinensionless Differeutial eootficient: messionless. (aavy/(V,aa}, die Pidduek-Kent constant, dimensioness Ditevential coelficient: (A3P,)/(P,0d), di reusiouless Interior ballistic parameter, inlb incerioe balbstie parameter: yaw/aCn!, die measioutess Specific covolunwe of the ens, in?/lb Differential coefficient: (WWaV,)/(V, Eimensionless Differential eoeficient: (WaP,)/(P,aHP}), di- aor accounting for rotational energy and fcictional resistance (assunted yale: 0.05) Fraction of total energy available to pro- jeviile: Katsanis factor, dimensiouless Dillerential coefficient! (w9¥”,)/(V au rnensionless| aw), di. Difieseutial coefficient: mensiontess Differential coefficient: (BOV)/ (Wad! mensiouloss Differential coefficient aneusiontess Pressure ‘unetion, dimensionless Ratio of throat aren to bore area: 4/A, dimensionless ‘Travel funetion, dimensionless Dependent variable: w/(dK/aP), sionless Pressure facto Specific weight of propellant, tb/in’ Ballistic parameter: FaSB/A(y — 1, ‘Time function, dimensionless ‘Time unit, see Tndopendent variable: log (1/22), dimen- Propertion of the prop siontess Ualliscie parameter, function ), dimensionless Dependent variable (/7), dimensionless (war) (Paw), dix (war,)/(P,98), die dinen- sored, dion: ‘Subseripts ‘ Initial value: whon t= 0 Characteristic of fast propellant in dual granulation charge Characteristic of slow propellant in dual granulation charge Of atmosphere At end of burning: “burnt” value Chamber value: at breech At nozzle exit Kither 1 or 2 Muzzle valus: when base of projectile is at muzzle ‘ozzle opeving At peak or theoretieal maximunt In reservoir Space maximum at any At base of projectile “Yabulated value (Bennett) At nozzle throat tantCHAPTER 2 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF INTERIOR BALLISTICS 241 INTRODUCTION ‘Ther are numerous systems of interior ballisties. Different baltistivians have formulated the theory in various ways, ‘Their systems, if they are not purely empirieal, do not differ essentially since they are treatnwnts of the same thermadynannieal and mechaniesl phenomenon. ‘They differ in the sin plitying; assumptions made, that is, mainly in degree ‘of complexity und sophistication of treatment and in the details of the mathematical procedures. For Inany practical problems, very simple formulations are adequate aud thes are much used. However, with the widespread and inereasing availability of high speed automatie computers the more com: plicated formulations ean be used without too much expenditure of tine aud effort. ‘There are five general equations whieh are used in the forinulations of interior ballistie theory. ‘They. lure: (1) the equation of state of the propellant zases; (2) the eiuation of energy; (3) the equation fof motion; (1) the burning rate equation; and (5) the equation of the form funetion, ‘The first two of these are related, as the first is involved in the formulation of tho sceond; therefore, only four equa tions are basic Lo any particular formulation of the theory. “The form of the equation of slate of the propellant, gases yewvrally used in interior ballsties has been diseussed in Chapter 1 and is given in Equation 1-8, The equation has been shown, by experience, to be sufficiently accurate for the purpose. ‘The equation of energy has also been disenssed Chapter 1 and its form is given in Equation 1-10, The equation of energy is @ statement of how the energy rvleased by the combustion of the propellant is distributed during the operation of the gun ‘The equation oF motion is dhe formulation of Newton's second kaw as applicable to the interior bullistic problem. it relates the forees due io the sas pressure to the neceleration of the projectile. The buming rate equation takes account of the sae at whicit new gus is being generated in the gun by the combustion of the charge. This rate ig assumed to be a function only of the pressure, under which the combustion takes place, and the area of the reacting. surface. ‘The form of the equation used here is given in Equation 1-2 UF the reacting surface is not constant, it is necessary to introduee the form function to account for the effect of the changing burning surface on the rate of generation of gas in the gun, Except for very degressive granulations, the assumption of constant burning surface is generally sufficiently ‘accurate and this assumption is made in the explicit treatments whieh follow. 2.2 STATEMENT OF THE EQUATIONS 22.1 The Energy Equation ‘There is presented hore first the formulation due to Taylor’. ‘The fundamental units used in the ‘Taylor system are the inch, pound (weight) and second. This makes mass a devived unit with dime sions weight over gravitational aeceleration, W the length unit the ineh, the unit of mass is equal to 12 shigs, ‘The energy equation may be stated simply as TeK4+I 21) where TT is the energy released by the amount of charge ‘which bas been burned K the work done by the gas, plus energy lost by: heating the barrel I the internal energy of the gus By Equation 1-10 ey where F is now defined as the energy per unit weight of propellant (specific force) and by Rqua- on 9 1~ Pen es) where U, isthe volume occupied by the gas. K, the work done by the propellant gas, consists of several parts 4. The principal part is the translational kinetic 23