MfM, Agro-Technical and Technology College

Department of Electrical and Electronics Technology

EET 4314- INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEM

Chapter 7 and 8

Lectured by: Semret M. (MSc)

 MfM, Agro-Technical and Technology College
Department of Electrical and Electronics Technology

EET 4314- INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEM

Chapter 7
Overhead Line Insulators

Lectured by: Semret M. (MSc)

 Insulators
▪ The overhead line conductors are bare & not covered with insulating material.

▪ The bare conductors are insulated from the earth & also from the line support with help of insulators.

▪ The bare line conductors are supported on the insulators. There is no current leakage in the
insulator through support.
▪ The insulators are mounted on the cross arms and phase conductors are attached to the insulators.

▪ The insulators:
✓ Prevent short-circuiting between the different phases &
✓ Provide mechanical support to the phase conductors.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Insulators
• The overhead line conductors should be supported on the poles or towers in such a
way that currents from conductors do not flow to earth through supports
✓ i.e., line conductors must be properly insulated from supports.

• This is achieved by securing line conductors to supports with the help of

insulators.

• The insulators provide necessary insulation between line conductors and supports and
thus prevent any leakage current from conductors to earth.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
➢ In general, the insulators should have the following
desirable properties:

i. High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load etc.
ii. High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid leakage currents
to earth.
iii. High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielectric strength is
high.
iv. The insulator material should be free from impurities & cracks otherwise the
permittivity will be lowered.
v. High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

• The most commonly used material for insulators of overhead line is
porcelain but glass and special composition materials are also used to
a limited extent.

• Porcelain is produced by firing at a high temperature a mixture of

kaolin, feldspar and quartz.

• It is stronger mechanically than glass, gives:

✓ less trouble from leakage and
✓ less affected by changes of temperature.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Types of Insulators

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 Types of Insulators
➢ The successful operation of an overhead line depends to a considerable extent upon the proper
selection of insulators. There are several types of insulators but the most commonly used are
explain below:

1. Pin type insulators

• The part section of a pin type insulator is shown in Fig. 4.4 (i). As the name suggests, the pin
type insulator is secured to the cross-arm on the pole.

• There is a groove on the upper end of the insulator for housing the conductor.

• The conductor passes through this groove & is

bound by the annealed wire of the same
material as the conductor [See Fig. 4.4 (ii)].
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
• Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric power
at voltages upto 33 kV.
• Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type insulators become too bulky
and hence uneconomical.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 Causes of insulator failure
• Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical stresses. The latter type is
primarily due to line voltage and may cause the breakdown of the insulator.

• The electrical breakdown of the insulator can occur either by flash-over or puncture.

• In flashover, an arc occurs between the line conductor and insulator pin (i.e., earth) and the
discharge jumps across the air gaps, following shortest distance. Fig. 4.5 shows the arcing
distance (i.e. a + b + c) for the insulator.

• In case of flash-over, the insulator will continue to act in its proper capacity unless extreme heat
produced by the arc destroys the insulator.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

• In case of puncture, the discharge occurs from conductor to pin through the body of
the insulator. When such breakdown is involved, the insulator is permanently destroyed
due to excessive heat.

• In practice, sufficient thickness of porcelain is provided in the insulator to avoid

puncture by the line voltage.

• The ratio of puncture strength to flashover voltage is known as safety factor i.e.,

Safety factor of insulator = Puncture strength/Flash - over voltage

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
• It is desirable that the value of safety factor is high so that flash-over takes place
before the insulator gets punctured.

• For pin type insulators, the value of safety factor is about 10. Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
2. Suspension type insulators
• The cost of pin type insulator increases rapidly as the working voltage is increased.
Therefore, this type of insulator is not economical beyond 33 kV.

• For high voltages (>33 kV), it is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators shown in
Fig. 4.6.

• They consist of a number of porcelain discs connected in series by

metal links in the form of a string.

• The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the other end of the
string is secured to the cross-arm of the tower.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
• Each unit or disc is designed for low voltage, say 11 kV. The number of discs in
series would obviously depend upon the working voltage.
• For instance, if the working voltage is 66 kV, then six discs in series will be provided
on the string.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 Advantages
1. Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages beyond 33 kV.

2. Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage, usually 11 kV.
Depending upon the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be connected in series.

3. If any one disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the damaged
disc can be replaced by the sound one.

4. The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The connection at the
cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing in any direction.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

5. In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more
satisfactory to supply the greater demand by raising the line voltage than to provide
another set of conductors.
➢ The additional insulation required for the raised voltage can be easily obtained in the
suspension arrangement by adding the desired number of discs.

6. The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers. As the conductors
run below the earthed cross-arm of the tower, therefore, this arrangement provides
partial protection from lightning.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
3. Strain insulators

• When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the line is
subjected to greater tension.

• In order to relieve the line of excessive tension, strain insulators are used.
For low voltage lines (< 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators.

• However, for high voltage transmission lines, strain insulator consists of an

assembly of suspension insulators as shown in Fig. 4.7.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

• The discs of strain insulators are used in the vertical plane.

• When the tension in lines is exceedingly high, as at long river spans, two or
more strings are used in parallel.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

4. Shackle insulators
• In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But
now a days, they are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines.

• Such insulators can be used either in a horizontal position or in a vertical

position.

• They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm.
Fig. 4.8 shows a shackle insulator fixed to the pole.

• The conductor in the groove is fixed with a soft binding wire.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Types of Insulators

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

2 nd Lecture To Be
Continue…
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Potential Distribution
over
Suspension Insulator String

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String
• A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of porcelain discs connected in
series through metallic links.

• Fig. 4.9 (i) shows 3-disc string of suspension insulators. The porcelain portion of each
disc is in between two metal links.

• Therefore, each disc forms a capacitor C as shown in Fig. 4.9 (ii).

• This is known as mutual capacitance or self-capacitance. If there were mutual

capacitance alone, then charging current would have been the same through all the
discs and consequently voltage across each unit would have been the same:

✓ i.e., V/3 as shown in Fig. 4.9 (ii) Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
• However, in actual practice, capacitance also exists between metal fitting of each
disc and tower or earth.

• This is known as shunt capacitance C1. Due to shunt capacitance, charging current is
not the same through all the discs of the string [See Fig. 4.9 (iii)].

• Therefore, voltage across each disc will be different. Obviously, the disc
nearest to the line conductor will have the maximum* voltage. Thus
referring to Fig. 4.9 (iii), V3 will be much more than V2 or V1.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
➢ The following points may be noted regarding the potential distribution
over a string of suspension insulators :

i. The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulators does not distribute itself
uniformly across the individual discs due to the presence of shunt capacitance.

ii. The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. As we move
towards the cross-arm, the voltage across each disc goes on decreasing.

iii. The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is likely to
be punctured.

➢ Therefore, means must be provided to equalise the potential across each unit.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
String Efficiency

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

String Efficiency
• As stated above, the voltage applied across the string of suspension
insulators is not uniformly distributed across various units or discs.

• The disc nearest to the conductor has much higher potential than the other
discs.

• This unequal potential distribution is undesirable and is usually expressed in

terms of string efficiency.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Voltage across the string
String efficiency =
n × disc nearest to conductor
where n = number of discs in the string

• String efficiency is an important consideration since it decides the potential distribution

along the string.

• The greater the string efficiency, the more uniform is the voltage distribution.

• Thus 100% string efficiency is an ideal case for which the voltage across each disc will be
exactly the same.

• Although it is impossible to achieve 100% string efficiency, yet efforts should be made to
improve it as close to this value as possible. Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
• Fig. 4.10 shows the equivalent circuit for a 3-disc string. Let us suppose that self capacitance
of each disc is C.

• Let us further assume that shunt capacitance C1 is some fraction K of self capacitance i.e.,
C1 = KC.

• Starting from the cross-arm or tower, the voltage across each unit is V1,V2 and V3
respectively as shown.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

➢ Appling Kirchhoff’s current low to node A, we get,

➢ Appling Kirchhoff’s current low to node B, we get,

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

➢ Voltage between conductor and earth (i.e., tower) is (V):

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

➢ The following points may be noted from the above mathematical
analysis :

i. If K = 0·2 (Say), then from exp. (iv), we get, V2 = 1·2 V1 and V3 = 1·64 V1. This clearly shows
that disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it; the voltage across
other discs decreasing progressively as the cross-arm in approached.

ii. The greater the value of K (= C1/C), the more non-uniform is the potential across the
discs and lesser is the string efficiency.

iii. The inequality in voltage distribution increases with the increase of number of discs in the
string.
✓ Therefore, shorter string has more efficiency than the larger one.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Methods of
Improving
String Efficiency
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Methods of Improving String Efficiency

• It has been seen above that potential distribution in a string of suspension insulators is not
uniform. The maximum voltage appears across the insulator nearest to the line conductor and
decreases progressively as the cross-arm is approached.

• If the insulation of the highest stressed insulator (i.e. nearest to conductor) breaks down or flash
over takes place, the breakdown of other units will take place in succession.

• This necessitates to equalise the potential across the various units of the string i.e. to improve
the string efficiency.

• The various methods for this purpose are :

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
(i) By using longer cross-arms.
• The value of string efficiency depends upon the value of K (i.e., ratio of shunt capacitance to
mutual capacitance).

• The lesser the value of K, the greater is the string efficiency and more uniform is the voltage
distribution.

• The value of K can be decreased by reducing the shunt capacitance.

• In order to reduce shunt capacitance, the distance of conductor from tower must be increased
(i.e., longer cross-arms should be used).

• However, limitations of cost and strength of tower do not allow the use of very long cross-
arms. In practice, K = 0·1 is the limit that can be achieved by this method.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
(ii) By grading the insulators.
• In this method, insulators of different dimensions are so chosen that each has a different capacitance.

• The insulators are capacitance graded i.e. they are assembled in the string in such a way that the top unit
has the minimum capacitance, increasing progressively as the bottom unit (i.e., nearest to conductor) is
reached.

• Since voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance, this method tends to equalise the potential
distribution across the units in the string.

• This method has the disadvantage that a large number of different-sized insulators are required.

• However, good results can be obtained by using standard insulators for most of the string and larger units
for that near to the line conductor.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

(iii) By using a guard ring

• The potential across each unit in a string can be equalised by using a guard ring which is a
metal ring electrically connected to the conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator as
shown in the Fig. 4.12.

• The guard ring introduces capacitance between metal fittings & the line conductor.

• The guard ring is contoured in such a way that shunt capacitance currents i1, i2 etc. are equal to
metal fitting line capacitance currents i′1, i′2 etc.

• The result is that same charging current I flows through each unit of string.
Consequently, there will be uniform potential distribution across the units.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Example:
• In a 33 kV overhead line, there are three units in the string of
insulators. If the capacitance between each insulator pin and earth is
11% of self-capacitance of each insulator, find:

1. The distribution of voltage over 3 insulators &

2. String efficiency.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 MfM, Agro-Technical and Technology College
Department of Electrical and Electronics Technology

EET 4314- INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEM

Chapter 8
Underground Cables
Lectured by: Semret M. (MSc)
 Introduction
• In addition to the overhead lines we come across every day, electrical power
can also be both transmitted and distributed using Underground cables.

• These underground cables, of course, come with their own set of advantage
and limitations.

• Aside from better general appearance and lesser interference with other
amenities, the advantages include smaller voltage drops and lesser probability
of fault occurrence.

• On the other hand, they have higher production and installation costs,

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

• A typical underground cable will consist of a conductor/s covered by a
number of insulating and protective layers necessary for its satisfactory
operation.

• Underground cables construction is explained below:

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Construction of underground power cables

1. Conductor:
Usually, 1 or 3 conductors (depending upon the application) are used. These conductors are stranded to
reduce skin effect, proximity effect and to keep it flexible. Conductors are made from electrolytic grade pure
copper or aluminum.

2. Conductor screen:
It is a semi-conducting tape. Conductor screening is generally used in MV and HV cables to maintain uniform
electric field and minimize electrostatic stresses.

3. Insulation:
It is provided to withstand the electrostatic stress. Various types (and thickness) of insulators like VIR (Vulcanized
India Rubber), Impregnated paper, PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and XLPE (Cross linked polyethylene) are utilized
depending upon the applied voltage.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Construction of underground power cables…

4. Insulation screen:
A layer of semi-conductive material generally used in MV and HV lines. It serves the similar purpose as that of
conductor screen.

5. Metallic Sheath:
It provides protection to the cable from moisture and other chemicals (acids or alkalies) present in the environment
or soil. It’s usually made up of Aluminum or Lead. It also provides a path for fault and leakage currents as the sheath
is earthed at one cable end.

6. Bedding:
It is a low grade insulator like Jute or Hessian which protects the metallic sheath from corrosion and from
mechanical injury due to armouring.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Construction of underground power cables…

7. Armouring:
It provides mechanical protection from various stresses the cable may get exposed to during its installation and
operational life. It’s usually a steel tape wound around the Bedding layer.

8. Serving:
Another layer of low grade insulator like Jute or Hessian or a thermoplastic compound like PVC is again provided to
protect the steel from atmospheric contaminants and agents.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Types of underground cables

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Classification of Cables
➢ Cables for underground service may be classified in two ways
according to:
1. The type of insulating material used in their manufacture
2. The voltage for which they are manufactured.

➢ However, the latter method of classification is generally preferred,

according to which cables can be divided into the following groups :

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Types of underground cables
➢ Underground cables are usually classified according to their Voltage ratings.
They’re grouped as follows:

1. Low tension (L.T.) cables which have a maximum voltage handling capacity of 1000V

2. High tension (H.T.) cables which have a maximum voltage handling capacity of 11kV

3. Super tension (S.T.) cables which have a maximum voltage handling capacity of 33kV

4. Extra high tension (E.H.T.) cables which have a maximum voltage handling capacity of 66kV

5. Extra super voltage cables which are used for applications with voltage requirement above 132kV.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

underground cables according to voltage rating

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

• A cable may have one or more than one core depending upon the type of service
for which it is intended. It may be:

i. Single-core
ii. Two-core
iii. Three core
iv. Four-core etc.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

• For a 3-phase service, either 3-single-core cables or three-core cable can be used depending upon the operating
voltage and load demand.

• Fig. Below shows the constructional details of a single core low tension cable. The cable has ordinary
construction because the stresses developed in the cable for low voltages (upto 6600 V) are generally small.

• It consists of one circular core of tinned stranded copper (or aluminum) insulated by layers of impregnated paper.

• The insulation is surrounded by a lead sheath which prevents the entry of moisture into the inner parts.

• In order to protect the lead sheath from corrosion, an overall serving of compounded fibrous material (jute etc.) is
provided.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

➢ The insulating materials used in cables should have the following
properties :

1. High insulation resistance: to avoid leakage current.

2. High dielectric strength: to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
3. High mechanical strength: to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.
4. Non-hygroscopic: i.e., it should not absorb moisture from air or soil.
5. Non-inflammable
6. Low cost: so as to make the underground system a viable proposition.
7. Unaffected by acids and alkalies: to avoid any chemical action.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Insulation Resistance of
a Single-Core Cable

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 Insulation Resistance of a Single-Core Cable

• The cable conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulating

material in order to prevent leakage current.

• The path for leakage current is radial through the insulation. The
opposition offered by insulation to leakage current is known as insulation
resistance of the cable.

• For satisfactory operation, the insulation resistance of the cable should be

very high.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 Insulation Resistance of a Single-Core Cable…

• Consider a single-core cable of conductor radius r1 and internal sheath radius r2 as

shown in Figure below.

• Let l be the length of the cable and ρ be the resistivity of the insulation. Consider a
very small layer of insulation of thickness dx at a radius x.

• The length through which leakage current tends to flow is dx and the area of X-
section offered to this flow is 2π x l.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 Insulation Resistance of a Single-Core Cable…

• Insulation resistance of the whole cable is:

• This shows that insulation resistance of a cable is inversely proportional to its length.
• In other words, if the cable length increases, its insulation resistance decreases and
vice-versa
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Example: 1
• A single core cable has a conductor diameter of 1cm and installation
thickness of 0.4 cm. if the specific resistance of insulation is 5 x 1014 Ω-
cm, calculate the insulation resistance for a 2 km length of the cable.

Solution:

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Capacitance of a
Single-Core Cable

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 Capacitance of a Single-Core Cable
• A single-core cable can be considered to be equivalent to two long co-axial cylinders.

• The conductor (or core) of the cable is the inner cylinder while the outer cylinder is
represented by lead sheath which is at earth potential.

• Consider a single core cable with conductor diameter d and inner sheath diameter D
(Fig. below).

• Let the charge per meter axial length of the cable be Q coulombs and ε be the permittivity of
the insulation material between core and lead sheath.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 Capacitance of a Single-Core Cable

• Obviously ε = ε0 εr
Where εr is the relative permittivity of the insulation.
ε0 = 8.84𝑥10−12 𝐹/𝑚

➢ Consider a cylinder of radius x meters and axial length 1 meter. The surface area of
this cylinder is = 2 π x × 1 = 2 π x m2

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 Capacitance of a Single-Core Cable

➢ Therefore Electric flux density at any point P on the considered cylinder is:

➢ Capacitance of the cable is:

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Example: 2
➢ A single core cable has a conductor diameter of 1 cm and internal sheath
diameter of 1.8 cm. If impregnated paper of relative permittivity 4 is used as
the insulation, calculate the capacitance for 1 km length of the cable.

Solution:

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Reading Assignment!
➢ Capacitance of 3-Core Cables, Power factor
and heating of cables

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)