“Characteristics of radar sets and factors affecting performance and

accuracy are explained with reference to detection of targets”

 States the relationship between maximum range and pulse

recurrence frequency.

Pulse-repetition frequency (PRF)

 is the number of pulses of a repeating signal in a specific time unit.

 The frequency at which radar pulses are transmitted. It is the number of
pulses transmitted per second, typically measured in Hertz (Hz). (The term is
used within a number of technical disciplines, notably radar. Is the number of
times a pulsed activity occurs every second.This is similar to cycle per
second used to describe other types of waveforms. PRF is inversely
proportional to time period (T) which is the property of a pulsed wave.PRF is
usually associated with pulse spacing, which is the distance that the pulse
travels before the next pulse occurs.)
 PRF is crucial for systems and devices that measure distance.(Different PRF
allow systems to perform very different functions.)
 A radar system uses a radio frequency electromagnetic signal reflected from
a target to determine information about that target.(PRF is required for radar
operation. This is the rate at which transmitter pulses are sent into air or
space.)

Maximum Range

 The maximum distance at which a radar system can detect a target.

This is influenced by factors such as transmitted power, antenna gain,
and the radar's sensitivity. The maximum range
 also defines a range ambiguity for all detected targets. Because of the
periodic nature of pulsed radar systems, it is impossible for some radar
system to determine the difference between targets separated by
integer multiples of the maximum range using a single PRF. (More
sophisticated radar systems avoid this problem through the use of
multiple PRFs either simultaneously on different frequencies or on a
single frequency with a changing PRT. The range ambiguity resolution
process is used to identify true range when PRF is above this limit.
Relationship between maximum range and pulse recurrence frequency

 The factor of 2 in the formula accounts for the round trip of the radar signal
(to the target and back).
 As the PRF increase, the time between successive pulses decreases, which in
turn reduces the maximum range. This is because the radar must wait for
the return signal from a target before transmitting the next pulse.
 If the PRF is too high, the radar may not be able to detect targets that are
too far away before the next pulse is transmitted.
 Conversely, a lower PRF allows for a longer maximum range, as there is
more time for the radar signal to travel to the target and return before the
next pulse is sent.

High PRF

- Advantages: Better target tracking and resolution, especially for fast-moving

targets.

- Disadvantages: Reduced maximum range and potential for range ambiguity

(where two targets at different ranges may be confused).

Low PRF

- Advantages: Increased maximum range and reduced range ambiguity.

- Disadvantages: Slower target tracking and potential difficulty in detecting fast-

moving targets.

(there is an inverse relationship between maximum range and pulse recurrence

frequency in radar systems. Adjusting the PRF allows radar operators to optimize
performance based on the specific operational requirements, balancing between
range, resolution, and target tracking capabilities.)

 States the relationship between detection range and transmitted

energy (power and pulse length)
Pulse Length

 Pulse length is defined as the duration of the transmitted radar pulse and is
Usually measured in microseconds.
 The minimum range at which a target can be detected is determined Largely
by the pulse length.( If a target is so close to the transmitter that the Echo is
returned to the receiver before the transmission stops, the reception of the
echo, obviously, will be masked by the transmitted pulse. For example, a
radar set having a pulse length of 1 microsecond will have a minimum range
of 164 yards. This means that the echo of a target within this range will not
be seen on the radarscope because of being masked by the transmitted
pulse.)

Since the radio-frequency energy travels at a speed of 161,829 nautical

miles per second or 161,829 nautical miles in one million microseconds,
the distance the energy travels in 1 microsecond is approximately 0.162
nautical mile or 328 yards. Because the energy must make a round trip, the
target cannot be closer than 164 yards if its echo is to be seen on the radarscope
while using a pulse length of 1 microsecond. (Consequently, relatively short pulse
lengths, about 0.1 microsecond, must be used for close-in ranging. Many radar
sets are designed for operation with both short and long pulse lengths. Many of
these radar sets are shifted automatically to the shorter pulse length on selecting
the shorter range scales. On the other radar sets, the operator must select the
radar pulse length in accordance with the operating conditions. Radar sets have
greater range capabilities while functioning with the longer pulse length because a
greater amount of energy is transmitted in each pulse.) (While maximum detection
range capability is sacrificed when using the shorter pulse length, better range
accuracy and range resolution are obtained. With the shorter pulse, better
definition of the target on the radar-scope is obtained; therefore, range accuracy is
better). RANGE RESOLUTION is a measure of the capability of a radar set to
detect the separation between those targets on the same bearing but having small
differences in range. (If the leading edge of a pulse strikes a target at a slightly
greater range while the trailing part of the pulse is still striking a closer target, it is
obvious that the reflected echoes of the two targets will appear as a single
elongated image on the radarscope.)

Power Relation

The useful power of the transmitter is that contained in the radiated pulses And is
called the PEAK POWER of the system. Power is normally measured As an average
value over a relatively long period of time. Because the Radar Transmitter is
resting for a time that is long with respect to the operating Time, the average
power delivered during one cycle of operation is relatively Low compared with the
peak power available during the pulse time. A definite relationship exists between
the average power dissipated over An extended period of time and the peak power
developed during the pulse Time. The PULSE REPETITION TIME, or the overall time
of one cycle of Operation, is the reciprocal of the pulse repetition rate (PRR). Other
factors remaining constant, the longer the pulse length, the higher will be the
Average power; the longer the pulse repetition time, the lower will be the Average
power.

The detection range of a radar system is significantly influenced by the transmitted

energy, which is a function of both the transmitted power and the pulse length.

 States the relationship between minimum range and pulse length.

Pulse Length

The minimum range capability of a radar is determined primarily by the Pulse

length. It is equal to half the pulse length of the radar (164 yards per Microsecond
of pulse length). Electronic considerations such as the recovery Time of the
receiver and the duplexer (TR and anti-TR tubes assembly) Extend the minimum
range at which a target can be detected beyond the Range determined by the
pulse length.
- The minimum range is approximately equal to the distance that the radar
signal travels during the pulse duration. This means that if the pulse length is
longer, the radar cannot detect targets that are closer than a certain distance.

Relationship between minimum range and pulse length.

- The factor of 2 in the formula accounts for the round trip of the radar signal (to
the target and back).
 If the pulse length is longer, the radar system is “blind” to targets that are
closer than the distance the radar signal travels during that pulse.
 For example, if the pulse length is 1 microsecond, the radar signal travels
approximately 300 meters (in one direction) during that time, resulting in a
minimum range of about 150 meters.
Shorter Pulse Length Reducing the pulse length decreases the minimum range,
allowing the radar to detect targets that are closer.
Longer Pulse Length Increasing the pulse length increases the minimum range,
making it impossible to detect targets that are within that range.

(the minimum range of a radar system is directly proportional to the pulse length.
As the pulse length increases, the minimum range also increases, limiting the
radar’s ability to detect nearby targets. Conversely, reducing the pulse length
decreases the minimum range, allowing for detection of closer targets. This
relationship is crucial for radar operators to consider when configuring radar
systems for specific operational requirements.)

 Explains the effects on bearing and range accuracy of beam width,

heading marker error, centring error, yawing, parallax, variable
range marker, gyro error.

The accuracy of bearing and range measurements in radar systems can be

significantly affected by several factors. Beam width influences the precision of
target detection, while heading marker and centering errors can lead to
misalignment in readings. Yawing and parallax introduce additional discrepancies,
and variable range markers and gyro errors further complicate accurate
navigation.

Effects on Bearing and Range Accuracy

Beam Width
- Affects the radar's ability to distinguish between closely spaced
targets.
- Wider beams can lead to increased bearing errors as they may encompass
multiple targets within the beam's width.
- Narrower beams improve target discrimination but may reduce overall detection
range.
Heading Marker Error
- Occurs when the heading marker does not align with the actual heading of the
vessel.
 - This misalignment can result in significant bearing inaccuracies, potentially
leading to navigation errors and collisions.
Centering Error
- Refers to the misalignment of the radar display's center with the actual position
of the vessel.
- This error can distort the perceived position of targets, affecting both bearing
and range measurements.
- Centering errors can often be corrected through calibration.

Yawing
- The lateral movement of the vessel can cause fluctuations in radar readings.
- Yawing can lead to inaccuracies in both bearing and range as the radar may
track targets differently based on the vessel's orientation.
Parallax
- This effect occurs when there is a difference in the angle of observation, leading
to apparent displacement of targets.
- Parallax can cause errors in both bearing and range measurements, especially
when viewing from different positions on the vessel.
Variable Range Marker (VRM)
- The accuracy of the VRM can be affected by the radar's calibration and the
operator's ability to set it correctly.
- Inaccurate VRM settings can lead to erroneous distance measurements,
impacting navigation decisions.
Gyro Error
- Refers to inaccuracies in the ship's gyrocompass, which can affect the heading
information provided to the radar system.
- Gyro errors can lead to incorrect bearing readings, complicating the navigation
process and increasing the risk of collision.

Explains the effects on bearing and range discrimination of beam width,

spot size, plan position indicator tube size, pulse length, gain.

The performance of radar systems in terms of bearing and range discrimination is

influenced by several key parameters, including beam width, spot size, plan
position indicator (PPI) tube size, pulse length, and gain. Each of these factors
plays a critical role in determining how well a radar can distinguish between
targets and accurately measure their distances.

How each factor affects bearing and range discrimination:

1. Beam Width
-Beam width refers to the angular width of the radar beam, typically measured in
degrees.
-A narrow beam width allows for better bearing discrimination, enabling the radar
to distinguish between closely spaced targets. This is particularly important in
congested environments where multiple targets may be present.
- A wide beam width can lead to increased bearing errors, as the radar may pick
up multiple targets within the beam, making it difficult to determine the exact
bearing of each target.
2. Spot Size
- Spot size is the area on the target that the radar beam illuminates.
- A smaller spot size improves range discrimination, allowing the radar to resolve
targets that are close together in distance.
- A larger spot size can cause targets to blend together, making it difficult to
accurately measure their range and potentially leading to misinterpretation of the
radar display.
3. Plan Position Indicator (PPI) Tube Size
-The PPI tube size refers to the physical dimensions of the display screen used to
visualize radar data.
- A larger PPI tube can provide a more detailed view of the radar image, allowing
operators to better discern between targets and their relative positions.

- However, if the PPI is too large relative to the radar’s resolution, it may not
improve discrimination significantly, as the inherent resolution limits of the radar
system will still apply.
4. Pulse Length
- Pulse length is the duration of the radar pulse transmitted by the system.
- Shorter pulse lengths improve range resolution, allowing the radar to distinguish
between targets that are very close together in range.
 - Longer pulse lengths can lead to range ambiguity, where two targets close
together may be detected as a single target, thus reducing the system’s ability to
discriminate between them.
5. Gain
-Gain refers to the amplification of the received radar signal.
- Increasing gain can improve the detection of weak signals, allowing the radar to
pick up smaller or more distant targets.
- However, excessive gain can lead to increased noise levels, which may obscure
the radar image and reduce the ability to discriminate between targets. Proper
gain settings are crucial for optimizing performance.
(the effects of beam width, spot size, PPI tube size, pulse length, and gain on
bearing and range discrimination are interrelated and critical for effective radar
operation. Optimizing these parameters can enhance the radar’s ability to
accurately detect and distinguish between targets, which is essential for safe
navigation and effective situational awareness. Regular calibration and
adjustments based on operational conditions are necessary to maintain optimal
performance.)

Questions
1. What determines the minimum range capability of a radar system?
a) Pulse length
b) Pulse repetition frequency
c) Transmitted power
Answer: a) Pulse length

2. Which factor affects the radar's ability to distinguish between closely spaced
targets?
a) Beam width
b) Pulse length
c) Transmitted power
Answer: a) Beam width
3.. What is the relationship between pulse length and minimum range?
a) Directly proportional
b) Inversely proportional
c) Not related
Answer: a) Directly proportional

4. What happens when the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) increases?

a) Maximum range increases
b) Maximum range decreases
c) Minimum range increases
Answer: b) Maximum range decreases

5.. What is the effect of a narrower beam width on bearing discrimination?

a) Decreases bearing accuracy
b) Increases bearing accuracy
c) Increases range accuracy
Answer: b) Increases bearing accuracy

6. How does increasing the transmitted power affect the detection range?
a) Decreases detection range
b) Increases detection range
c) Increases minimum range
Answer: b) Increases detection range

7. What is the relationship between pulse length and range resolution?

a) Directly proportional
b) Inversely proportional
c) Constant
Answer: b) Inversely proportional
8. How does a larger spot size affect range discrimination?
a) Improves range discrimination
b) Reduces range discrimination
c) Increases bearing accuracy
Answer: b) Reduces range discrimination

9. What is the effect of excessive gain on radar performance?

a) Improves detection range
b) Reduces noise levels
c) Increases noise level
Answer: c) Increases noise levels

10. How does the plan position indicator (PPI) tube size affect radar display?
a) Improves range resolution
b) Reduces bearing accuracy
c) Provides a more detailed view
Answer: c) Provides a more detailed view

11. What is the main purpose of a radar system?

Answer: Detect objects.
12. What does PRF stand for in radar?
Answer: Pulse Frequency.
13. What does PPI stand for?
Answer: Plan Position Indicator
14. Radio Frequency energy travels as a speed of?
Answer: 161, 829 NM per second
15. What is the purpose of a radar antenna?
Answer: Transmit signals.
16. What is a radar target?
Answer: Reflecting object.
17. What type of energy does radar use?
Answer: Electromagnetic.
18. What is the role of the radar receiver?
Answer: Detect signals.
19. What is the purpose of radar in navigation?
Answer: Avoid collisions.
20. Refers to inaccuracies in the ship's gyrocompass, which can affect the heading
information provided to the radar system.
Answer: Gyro Error