UNIT 6 DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL AND

ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE
Structure

Learning Outcome
Introduction
Developing Physical and Economic Infrastructure
Environmental Infrastructure Development
Sustainable Comm~~nity
Development
Disaster Preparedness in Asia
Conclusion
Key Concepts
References and Further Reading
Activities

6.0 LEARNING OUTCOME

After reading this Unit, you will be able to:

r Discuss the 'nature of physical and economic infrastructure

e Exarnine the significance of sustainable community development; and

(II Throw light on disaster preparedness measures for strengthening environmental infrastructure.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In our previous Unit, we examined how increased vulnerability conditions can intensify the
aftermath of disasters. One way of reducing vulnerability is to build adequate socio-economic
and physical infrastructure. Disaster preparedness in the form of infrastructure development is
essential to withstand the wrath of man-made and natural disasters. The community-based
organisations have a significant role to play in building the infrastructure resources of a vulnerable
community. This Unit focuses on the development of adequate physical and economic
infrastructure that is responsive to the' needs of the people in the aftermath of disaster. The
Unit also looks at the development of different types of primary physical and social infrastructure,
and the role of the cornlnunity towards strengthening the infrastructure.

6.2 DEVELOPING PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC

INFRASTRUCTURE
The term 'infrastructure' literally means the basic or internal structure or foundation. In
administrative parlance, it means the structure for communication and services within an
institution. Presently, in the context of development, infrastructure has come to connote buildings,
means of transportation and communication as well as other necessary basic utilities and
facilities e.g., schools, hospitals etc. Let us now throw light on different types of infrastructure
and their development:
 78 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
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I

i) Different Types of Infrastructure

Infrastructure can be broadly classified into the following:

@ physical - This may include roads, water, drainage, electricity and so on

e Services - Transportation, health and education

e Social - Social sector services, especially primary health care, old age homes, community centres
and so on

e Environmental - Creation of necessary environmental conditions to reduce the risk of disaster

It becomes important to understand the peculiar context of the developing nations in any
discussion on infrastructure. Limited resources in these nations often imply that infrastructure
is undeveloped or underdeveloped. Lack of basic public utilities like water, all weather (puccn)
roads and electricity is a common problem in a developing country like India. It is even more
so in case of health care facilities, secondary level schools and other services in the social
sector. In times of disaster, even these limited infrastructural facilities are destroyed and are
unable to cater to the needs of the people.

ii) Development of Infrastructure

When we talk of adequate physical infrastructure particularly in relation to disasters, the nature
of housing, has to form the core of discussion. Housing infrastructure needs to be planned for
the peculiar environmental conditions of the aredregion. There may be an area that is flood-
prone or a mountainous region prone to landslides and so on. Housing has to be as per the
requirements of that area. Similarly, there are particular requirements of the urban areas that
need to be kept in mind. Earthquake safety measures in high-rise buildings in urban areas are
a case in point.

Nodoubt, the first question is whether or not every one has a shelter. The shelterless that are
vulnerable even in normal times aye affected the most at the time of any disaster. Studies
reveal that a homeless child is twice. as likely to have learning disabilities and six times more
likely to have stunted growth than a child in a stable environment. The example of post-
earthquake rehabilitation in Gujarat is useful at this point. The agenda in the reconstruction
programme, propagated by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), has not been
just to build houses but also to construct them in a demonstrative manner to transfer the
technologies to the villagers. These houses have served as model houses, incorporating disaster
resistant technologies (corner vertical bars, header stones, reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
bands at different sections of the structure etc.). This has created a multiplier effect in the
surrounding areas.

The major objectives of UNDP's Shelter Programme are to:

@ Build local capacities (training of semi-skilled construction workers and masons in hazard resistant
construction)

Support the environment (use of alternative technologies for reconstruction e.g., coinpressed
stabilised earth blocks, rammed earth technology etc.) - "

e Involve local communities (owner-drjven and participatory construction); and

Development of Physical and Economic 1~7fmstructztre 79

e Help rebuild lost livelihoods (customised designs to suit individual housing and livelihood
requirements).

In the post-Bh~ljEarthquake phase, these reconstruction programmes have been concentrated

in the severely affected areas of Kutch, Patan and Surendranagar Districts, with aid froin
countries like Italy and Norway. The aim of these programmes has been to reconstruct
approximately 1,400 dwelling units. These projects have been in motion and the reach of the
reconstruction programme has been extended to the Districts of Rajkot and Jainnagar, with the
assistance of other organisations.

Apart from reconslruction of houses, other conlplementary prograInmes that have been
undertaken by the LTNDP aim at overall development in the vi1Iages of Rajkot and Jamnagar
Districts. These include generating awareness anlong the villagers on health, education, mason
training programmes for earthquake and cyclone resistant technology through posters/audio/
video cainpaigns, eco-restoration of water bodies and so on. The UNDP has also i~nplernented
a Reconstruction Programme in the Patan and Surendranagar Districts, which were also
severely affected by the Earthquake. The damaged houses of women-hcaded households have
been given highest priority. Women's groups have been instrumental in carrying out the
reconstr~ictionprogramme in these areas.

As far as the infrastructural facilities are concerned, attention has been given to the provision
of adequate water supply. Watershed development for vulnerability reduction has been undertaken
extensively in the states of Gi~jaratand Rajasthan and also other parts of India. Many national
and international agencies have together implemented an Integrated Programme of Watershed
Development in the Districts of Patan, Surendranagar, Bharucli, Jamnagar, Rajkot, Bhavnagar,
and Banaskantha in Gujarat.

The Progralnme aims at making the livelihoods less vulnerable to disasters by strengthening
existing natural resource-based livelihoods through reconstructing water harvesting structures
and strengthening the natural resource base. This would thereby nullify the disturbing factors
like decreased soil moisture, low rainfall, decreased availability of nutrition, lack of natural seed
bank, high salinity levels and increased overgrazitlg. The repairs of water l~arvestingstructure
would include ~naintenancein terms of repairing, erosion protection measures, and de-silting of
the tanks and wells. These drought-proofing activities would also enhance thC livelihood security
of the people and address the ecological degradation in the area by reviving traditional sources
of water.

The Programme has also proposed to improve food security through a series of soil and water
conservationlgrassland developlnent activities, which woulcl enhance tlie vegetative cover of
the land. With improved food security and natural resources, it is expected that migration will
be arrested and people will have better capacity to cope with droughts. These aclivities include:
lake repair, well repair, plantation, levelling and fodder development. Laws, policies and institutions
drive the inhastri~cturerelated decisions that determine a region's economic and environmental
future.

Decisions about constiucting or rehabilitating facilities to handle sewage coulcl support the
sustainable use of land and watersheds, efficient patterns of growth and economic development,
and continued vitality and economic health of existing urban communities. These decisions
could also contribute to sprawling costs and loss of urban vitality. Sewage infrastructure is a
very important area but it is neglected in cornparison to development issues such as transportation,
education, taxes, water supply and land use regulation. Such issues are being confro~itedacross
the country as states, regions and localities pursue vital economic development, while battling
urban decay at the saine time.
 \
80 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery

In the United States, the Environmental Law Institute has studied the relationship between
sewage infrastructure decisions in Southwestern Pennsylvania and its effects on the urban,
suburban and rural landscape of the region. Edamining the challenge of sustainable land use
in the context of complex metropolitan regions is essential if the lessons of'smart growth are
to be meaningful and the implications of alternative choices are to be understood. Ageing
infrastructure in Southwestern Pennsylvanian region's older communities causes substantial
water quality impairments for many days per year during rainfall or snowfall leading to landslides.
These are the very areas that have lost much of their population or at best remained static in
population and economic development. At the same time, other public and private funds are
being expended to support infrastructure and development in the new (formerly rural) areas.

Without careful targeting of these investments and sufficient attention on preserving existing
investments in infrastructure, the region could incur unnecessary expenses that, in turn, may
undermine its competitive position with regard of its social institutions and econolnic vitality.
This kind of situation is not very different from the present day conditions in many cities of
India. Sustainable approaches towards sewage infrastructure investments should serve four
objectives. The process should:

e Result in an environmentally sound system for handling and treating sanitary sewage

e Promote informed local decision-making

e Reward responsible behaviour

Achieve cost-efficiency and resource-efficiency; and

r Support economic development and redevelopment that maintains the vitality of the region's
existing communities and infrastructure investments.

The need for adequate power supply for development cannot be disputed. However, studies by
the US Department of Energy show that world energy consumption is currently projected to
rise by nearly 60 per cent in the next 20 years, with most of that energy coining from oil or
natural gas. World electricity generation is projected to nearly double in the next 20 years,
according to the International Energy Agency, causing huge depletions in fossil fuels.

Even if there is an unlimited supply of coal and oil, use of fossil fuel contributes to a wide range
of environmental problems. Among them are acid rain, (through emissions of mercury and
other toxic chemicals) as well as sprawl and smog (through increased vehicular pollution), and
solid waste (in the form of combustion ash and oil refining waste). Thus, alternatives have to
be researched and put to use before the scenario becomes worse. Some initiatives have been
taken to build the infrastructure around the globe. Let US discuss two such endeavours now:

Pathakota Primary Education Project

I

This Primary Education Project has been started to improve the quality of education in Pathakota
village in the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh (AP) by supporting teachers of mathematics
and science in the Sompalli Zilla Parishad High School. This village is located in the drought-
prone region of Rayalaseema, and most of its population comprises small and marginal farmers.
The weather in the region is such that for every year with good rainfall, on an average, there
are three bad years, adding to the challenges of these subsistence farmers.

The village school currently has 700 odd students enrolled, but just 3 teachers. As a result,
students often go to board exams without having had a mathematics or science teacher for the
 Development of Physical and Economic Infrustrz~cture 81
entire year. This has seriously affected the quality of education and consequently the chances
of a better life for the children in this village. This Project aims to improve the quality of
education in this village and surrounding areas. Since the school is in Pathakota in Chittoor
District of Andhra Pradesh, the surrounding villages in AP and Karnataka are also bound to .
benefit from it. VIDE (Volunteers in Development and Empowerment), a. U.S-based organisation :
is supposed to support teachers for 3 years at a total cost of 4500 dollars.

Development Cooperation in Kosovo

Kosovo was formally a part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), but since the truce
in June 1999 between FRY and North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), it is being governed
by the UN Mission, UNMIK. Sweden contributes personnel to its administration and surveillance,
maintains a peacekeeping battalion as well as provides financial aid to reconstruction and
development. Since the end of the war, the work done by, the Swedish Development Cooperation
with Kosovo has been substantial and far-reaching. Rebuilding the infrastructure has been a
high priority with specific programmes that target the railway district heating, electricity supply
and telecommunications. It is one of the biggest donors in the area of house rehabilitation. It
also takes part in programmes that safeguard food supplies and improve the environment.

House reconstruction is an area of considerable importance to Kosovo. Only a few months

after the war in Kosovo had ended, several Swedish Development Funding Organisations
initiated work on rehabilitation of schools and houses in the region. The work was done through
so-called Integrated Area Programmes, a method that rests on Ihe principle of self-help. These
Programmes include the restoration of local infrastructure like wells, roads and bridges. To be
able to support themselves, the villagers are supplied with various means such 4s seeds for
farms, hens for poultry, tools for artisans, and fruit trees etc.

After the war, the Swedish Development Cooperation focused on rebuilding what had been
damaged during the protracted period of fighting. Later, the focus shifted to the building up of
the administrative set-up. Efforts are now on to allocate a great deal of resources to the area
of human rights and democracy, as well as to institutional capacity building. The Mission of the
World Bank is to fight poverty. An important part of this Mission is to provide assistance to
the people for prepcaring themselves to cope with natural or man-made disasters that can result
in great human and economic losses.

Indeed, developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits; more than 95 per
cent of all deaths caused by disasters occur in the developing countries; and losses due to
natural disasters are 20 times greater in developing countries than in the developed ones. In
this connection, the World Bank's Disaster Management Facility (DMF) has been established
'
since July 13, 1998, to provide proactive leadership in introducing disaster prevention and
mitigation practices into the World Bank's development efforts.

6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

Any discussion on physical and economic infrastructural development is incomplete without
adequate emphasis on building environmental support system. There is a direct connection
between environmental preservation and disaster mitigation. Unfortunately, human-induced
activities are playing havoc with the natuial environment. There are thousands of lakes, ponds,
marshes, lagoons, estuaries, backwaters and inangrove swamps that are rhe lifeline of a
, country's wetlands, fresh water needs and biodiversity. In [Link] of a National Wetlands
Act in India, environmental infrastructure development has been tardy. A few success stories
may nevertheless be mentioned.
82 Rehnbilitation, Recurzstruction und Recovery

In India, instances such as revival of Sukhna Lake in Chandigarh and greening of Alwar
District show that traditional water harvesting wisdom needs to be adequately lapped to build
infrastructure, especialIy environmental infrastructure. An example of Community Supported
Agriculture (CSA) from the state of Minnesota in the U.S. also reiterates the significance of
sustainable agricultural practices to protect the environment. The farms and woodlands are
more than just sources of food and timber; they are also producers of environmental and social
benefits. Resolving this conflict l~ecessitateschanging the connotation of the term 'maximising
productivity'. Some of the methods that promote environmental and social benefits include
increased consumer knowledge, cost sharing and watershed partnerships, as well as provision
of choice for consumers to select production methods.

At their most fundamental level, the CSA farms provide a weekly delivery of organically grown
produce to consumers during the growing season (approximately June to October). Those
consumers, in turn, pay a subscription fee. Being involved with CSA operations always means
sharing the rewards as well as the risks of farming. By linking together through CSA operations,
f a h e r s md consumers alike can benefit from an agriculture that provides bountiful nutiitious
food while preserving the ecological and social base necessary for the future generations.

Efforts to build sustainable environmental infrastructure are being made by national as well as
international agencies all over the world. The aim is to reduce emissions of green house gases
and preserve the global commons (i.e., the oceans, seas, rivers, mountains and atmosphere) for
the future generations. Let us now take a look at some of the major environmental agreements:

Major Environmental Agreements

e Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

CITES establishes worldwide controls on- the intel-national trade in threatened species of animals
and plants. In the case of species threatened with extinction, CITES prohibits all commercial
trade in wild specimens. The Convention was signed in 1975 and more than 125 countries are
its members.

r Basel Convention on Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes

The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and
their Disposal was adopted in 1989. It came into force in May 1992. This global etivironmental
treaty strictly regulates the trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes and obliges its
members to ensure that such wastes are managed and disposed off in an environrnenlally
sound manner.

Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed by over 150 governments at the Rio "Ea1t1-1
Summit" in 1992. It has become the centrepiece of international efforts to conserve the
planet's biological diversity, ensure the sustainable use of its components, and proillote fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources.

Convention on Climate Change

Over 150 States signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in June
1992 at the Rio "Earth Summit", thereby recognising climate change as "a common concern
of humankind". The Convention provides a "framework" within which governments can work
I
together to carry out new policies and programmes for which people live and work for.
 Development of Physical and Econonzic Znfi-astructure 83
a Kyoto Protocol to the united. Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The Document consists of the final authentic text of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations
Ramework Convention on Climate Change. he Protocol has come into force with an objective
of protecting the environment of the world from further deterioration. Around 180 countries
have signed the Kyoto ~rotocol.

e Convention to Combat Desertification

The Convention to Combat Desertification promotes a new approach to lnanaging both dryland
ecosystems and the flow of aid for development in d ought-affected countries particularly in
Africa. Their Website contains Official Documents for the International Negotiating Comn~ittee
(INCD), as well as public information material.

e Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOS)

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea codifies the rules by which nations use
the oceans of the world. The links between the nations are maintained by the independent
Council on Ocean Law, which offers an extensive collection of documents about the LOS,
including links to the text of the Convention.

e Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

The Montreal Protocol is the primary international agreement providing for control on the
production and consun~ptionof ozone-depleting substances such as chloro-fluoro-carbons (CFCs),
halons and methyl bromide. As of November 2003, 183 States have become parties' to the
r
Protocol, including virtually all major industrialised countries and most developing countries.

6.4 SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Every physical space, which can be designated as a community, needs to develop sufficient
resources within it for fulfilling certain functions. In the context of India, creating and strengthening
of anganwadis (centres for mothers and children) and balwadis (day care homes for children
and infants), and other similar institutions will go a long way in building sustainable communities.
Both rural and urban communities in India should have community centres, fe~fialechildren
homes, old age homes and day care homes.

These institutions fulfil. the functions of takigg care of the needs of special groups in the
community such as the children, women, old and disabled. The social networks created through
the functioning of health care centres and community centres (used for various activities of the
community or its residents) are strong points for any community. In cases where these ~retworks
function well, they prove particularly useful in post-disaster situations.

A sustainable community ineets its present needs without sacrificing the needs of future
generations. It is engaged in developing attitudes and actions that strengthen its economic,
environmental and social infrastructure. [Link] community development is easily achieved
when it comes from within an existing community. The benefits of this type of developrne~~t
include more liveable communities, lower costs of living and a safer environment for future
generations. Some of the prominent ways of developing a sustainable community are to:

Promote and support sustainable agriculture

' a Support local businesses

 84 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery

@ Protect water resources

e Conserve energy and support renewable energy initiatives

e Preserve green space

e Recycle building materials

e Promote alternatives to rapid consumption of fuel (such as in the use of vehicles); and

e Generate awareness and education,on sustainability.

The term 'community' cannot be described in definitive terms, but a feeling of shared interests
and consensus on goals to be achieved between cross-sections of people makes an effective
community.

A Community must have:

9 Enough population to support a full cross-section of community services i.e., schools (including a
high school) a major shopping centre etc.

6 Large population so that it would be iinpractical for any portion to patronise reasonably located
community facilities within it

Easily identified boundaries

e Strong identifying feature or characteristic, wherever possible

9 Adequate linkages with outside communities and systems to fulfil all its needs

The term 'neighbourhood' is used to describe the basic sub-division of the community, especially
in countries like the U.S. The term is meant to apply to predominantly residential areas. Though
service institutions, schools and businesses serving day-to-day needs are included within
neighbourhood boundaries, the term may also be applied to intensive and special use areas such
as industrial, commercial and institutional districts. The infrastructure required for any community
would include:

Roads and other Civic Amenities

9 Adequate drainage and sewerage system

e Well-developed system of connecting roads

. .

@ Transportation facilities including roadways and railways

o Communication system such as postal service

Health

Countries as vast and populous as India require health care services that can reach to the
bottom most grass roots levels. This is both in terms of primary care and specialised care. For
this, the health system needs to include: ,

e Phnary health care centres designed to meet all basic needs for healthcare
 Development of Physical and Ecorzornic Infmstructzrre 85

@ Well-equipped hospitals as well as secondary and tertiary care units with trained personnel

A strong system of referrals for healthcare

Education and Work Opportunities

Education continues to be one of the primary needs for any nation after. the basic needs of
food, clothing, shelter and healthcare. Good educational infrastructure would include facilities
for schooling at different levels (primary, seconday, senior secondary), and opportunities for
higher education and vocational training. Both in rural and urban areas, vocational and livelihood
skills need to be designed to respond to the needs of the young people and the demands of
the market. In rural areas, development of pasturelands and livestock are some of the priorities.
Similarly, provision of minor equipment for artisans and craft persons is required. Skills training
to encourage these trades could also be of relevance. This aspect is further discussed in our
next Unit.

6.5 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS IN ASIA

The mogt effective way of managing disasters is to bring down the vulnerability levels of the
r
community and build sustainable livelihood practices. It, thus, becomes imporlailt to assess the
preparedness levels to cope with disasters. This Section gives an overview of disaster
preparedness measures in Asia that are crucial to the development of an adequate physical and
other infrastructure, The Section also discusses some significant initiatives in planning and
preparedness for disasters in the Asian region. Disaster management, as we all know, is a
collective term encompassing all aspects of planning for and responding to disasters, including
both pre- and post-disaster activities. It may refer to the management of both the risks as well
as consequences of a disaster.

Nearly half of the world's major disasters occur in the Asia and Pacific region. Earlhquakes,
floods, volcanic eruptions, landslides, famines, epidemics, hurricanes, tsunamis and technological
accidents occur in this region with considerable frequency. Significant population growth rates,
increased urbanisation and environmental degradation compound the impact of each of these
phenomena. Every year, disasters in the Asia and Pacific region claim thousands of lives,
render hundreds of thousands of people homeless, and destroy millions of dollars worth of
infrastructure and personal property.

As its main conduit for mitigating the effects of disasters in the Asia and Pacific region, U.S.
Agency for International Development 1 Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster, Assistance (USAID/
OFDA) provides funding to the Asian Disaster Prepiiredness Centre (ADPC) located in
Bangkok, Thailand. ADPC is the leading centre in this region dedicated to protecting communities
and environment from the devastation caused by disasters. ADPC works with national and
. local governments to develop the capabilities of countries in responding to disasters and instituting
appropriate policies to mitigate their effects.

ADPC achieves these goals through programmes that focus on training, technical assistance
and information sharing. The four key programmes at ADPC are the Asian Urban Disaster
Mitigation Programme (AUDMP), Programme for Enhancement of Emergency Response
(PEER), Programme for Understanding Extreme Climate Events (PUECE), and the Damage
Assessment and Needs Analysis Programme (DANA). USAID/OFDA provides funding for
each of these initiatives.

j The AUDMP, launched in 1995, is ADPCYslargest Regional Programme. It has been designed
i to make cities safer from disasters, with a goal of reducing the disaster vulnerability of urban
1
 86. Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovely
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population, infrastructure, critical facilities, and shelter in the [Link] cities. It also
aims to promote replication and adaptation of successful mitigation measures throughout the
region, Towards this end, the Programme conducts national demonstration projects, information
dissemination and networking activities, policy seminars and professional training in the target
countries of Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka,
and Vietnam. .

The PEER Programme, which is a collaborative initiative between ADPC, USAID/OFDA and
I the Miami Fire Rescue Department, commenced in October 1998, with an objective to develop
and strengthen search and rescue training capabilities in Asia at the national, regional, and sub-
regional levels. This is the first initiative of its kind in Asia to impart skills and enhance the
expertise of local responders to provide effective and coordinated on-scene management of
rescue and ~nedicalresponse needs, following a disaster. The four target countries are India,
Indonesia, Nepal and the Philippines.
I

The PUECE Programme is a follow-on initiative to the February 1998 Asian Regional Meeting
on El Niiio-related crises held by ADPC in collaboration with National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), the US National Weather Service and partially funded by USAIDJ ;
OFDA in February 1998. The goal of the Programme is to significantly improve the understanding
of the impact of extreme climate events such as El NiZo and La Niiia on the environment in
selected Asian countries. It also aims to reduce the disaster impact of such events through
1
effective application of climate forecast information. The Programme is currently operational 1
in Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam, and may expand to include Bangladesh and 'Thailand.

The DANA programme, which started in the year 2000, aims to develop a standard methodology
\$nd protocol to assist disaster managers in the Asia and Pacific region with a view to assessing
and reporting on post-disaster damages and needs. In doing so, disaster response will be
facilitated and coordinated through the opti~nisationof local and international resources. In time,
the DANA Programme is expected to expand to encompass the development of a standard.
methodology for the assessment of rehabilitation and reconstruction needs and the damaged
infrastructure. It will also look into the training programmes for rapid response teams, and planning
for post-disaster needs.

Through the implementation of such lnitigation programmes, disasters will have a far less
devastating impact throughout the Asia and pacific kgion. Ultimately, by strengthening regional,
national and local capabilities to respond to disasters, and by instituting appropriate diqaster
mitigation policies, .the region is likely to witness a reduction in loss of life and property. Iri
'addition, the international relief community would experience a drastic reduction in the cost it .'
bears to provide towards continual post-disaster assistance.

On the regional front, the United Nations Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
(UNOCHA) has recently set up a Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific in Bangkok,
Thailand. UNDP's Regional Centre serving Asia and the Pacific is also located in Bangkok
along with the Regional Desk of International Secretariat for Disaster Reduction (ISDR-a UN
Secretariat). These countries in the region are pushing forward the agenda of the Hyogo
Framework of Action (2005-2015) for integration of disaster risk reduction'considerations with
sustainable development policy, as well as planning and programming at all levels in order to
build resilient and strong communities. During the coming few years, Earth Observation and
Early Warning for Environment Team will continue to build on the existing strategic partnerships
as well as the new ones in Europe, the U.S. and Southern Africa. It will concentrate on
developing:
Development of Physical and Ecorzomic Ir~fmstr-ucture 87

i) Novel methods for delivering rainfall estimation, soil moisture and crop [Link] acadenlic,,
governmental and commercial end-users worldwide

ii) Improved and near-real time easly warning systems for better disaster management and recovery,
as part of a systematic emphasis on disaster management within sustainable development

These objectives are to be achieved by deriving at soil and crop parameters, and mapping
vulnerability to fires, cyclones and floods etc. These could be realised by providing decision
support information systems based on synergistic use of 'high-resolution optical imagery',
'super-spectral very high-resolution imagery', and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) system.
Ultimate goal is to develop local and field-scale products that could be delivered where and
when most needed. The research led by the Earth Observation and Early Warning team is a
significant component of the wide range of activities that broadly call for better management
of environmental vulnerability through a combination of enhanced management of resource
systems and better ~nanagenlentof livelihood assets.

The Indira Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Centre (IGCMC) was established by the World
Wild Life Fund (WWF) India in 1994 as a major national facility, with a view of providing
information support to the governmental and non-governmental programmes for environment
conservation in the country. The IGCMC provides relevant information to concerned governmental
agencies and NGOs to assist in the iml~lementationof the Biodiversity Conventioil. This is
being achieved by developing and maintaining database on India's environment, especially
indigenous species 02 flora and fauna, habitats having conservation value including national
parks / other protected areas.

The Main Objectives of IGCMC are to:

Q Maintain information in the form of database on India's natural resources, especially its biological
diversity

e Gather, stol-e, retrieve and disseminate such information through a modern information management
system, and

Q Provide a link to other relevant organisations dealing with natural resources.

IGCMC endeavours to:

@ Build database on indicators of conservation status of species, ecosyste~nsand biodiversity

Support international conventions an wildlife conservation through data management and analysis
*
0 Ensure the application of remote sensing and GIs Techniques; and

Provide reliable, up-to-date itlformation for natural resources decision. -r

The IGCMC is extensively using remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems, about
which we have already read in our earlier Units, for providing data on habitats and ecosystems
in the country so that the requisite spatial information becomes available to resource managers
and planners. Similar work is being planned for wetlands, degraded forests and other important
ecosystems. State-of-the art hardware and software facilities including image processing software
have been set up at the Centre to take up the above mentioned activities.
 88 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery

6.6 CONCLUSION
We can face disasters more resiliently if we have the infrastructure required for disaster
management in place. Infrastructural development is an integral part of disaster mitigation.
This Unit discussed the significance of developing adequate physical, economic and environmental
infrastructure for effective disaster mitigation. Some of the considerations in developing
infrastructure were also addressed. While discussing the need for infrastructure development
vis-a-vis disaster management, the significance of disaster preparedness was brought out. The
role of community in the development and sustenance of infrastructure was also illustrated.
The Unit made an attempt to highlight the interconnection between disaster management,
infrastructure development as well as sustainable environment protection.

6.7 KEY CONCEPTS

Community-based Institutions (CBIs)

These could be considered as emerging third-sector institutions that have a potential to provide
a mechanism for self-reliant approach to development. These are generally grass roots
organisations managed by members. They command confidence quite easily because people
feel that they belong to them and these institutions are responsive to their priorities. Indigenous
identity based on caste, ethnicity, clan, gender and age lays the foundation for many of these
organisations. Management of the common natural resources that are used by community
members is one of the key areas for which CBIS are most concerned frequently. Now many
non-governmental organisations involved in rural development activities are also largely operating
through the CBIs.

El Nino

It is the disruption of the ocean-atmospheric system in the tropical-pacific having important

consequences for the weather and climate on the globe.

[Link]

Wyogo Framework for Action

The World Conference on Disaster Reduction was held from 18 to 22 January 2005 in Kobe,
Hyogo, Japan and adopted the present Framework for Action (2005-2015) on Building the
Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters: The Conference provided a unique
opportunity to promote a strategic and systematic approach to reducing risks and vulnerabilities
to hazards.
r

Kyoto Protocol

At the Earth Summit in 1992, the World agreed to prevent 'dangerous' climate change. The
first step was the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which has come into force in 2005. Kyoto Protocol
is an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
an International Treaty on Global Warming. Countries, which ratify this Protocol, commit to
reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and other green houses gases such as chloro-fluoro-
carbons. Around 180 countries are the signatories of Kyoto Protocol, which imposes cuts on I

emissions in 2008-2012.
I 1
Development of Physical and Economic Infrastrzicture 89

La Nina

It is characterised by unusually cold ocean temperatures, cooler than normal, in Equatorial

Pacific Ocean, as compared to El Nino.

Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone is a form of oxygen, but unlike oxygen, it is a poisonous gas. The action of sunlight on
oxygen constantly produces small amounts of ozone in the stratosphere. At the same time,
ozone is being broken down by natural processes. Till now, the total amount of ozone has
usually stayed constant because its formation and destruction has occurred at about the same
rate. Human activity has recently changed that natural balance.

We are producing certain substances such as chloro-fluoro- carbons and hydro chloro-fluoro-
carbons at a rate, which is destroying the stratospheric ozone much faster than it is formed.
These ozone-depleting substances are long-lived because it takes them several years to drift
up into the stratosphere. When they arrive, they are broken apart by exposure to ultraviolet
radiation and that releases the chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms react with ozone to form
chlorine monoxide. These chlorine and bromine containing compounds are real ozone-killers,

Sustainable Development

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) defines "sustainable
development as the Right to Development which must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet
development and environment needs of the present and future generations" UNCED's objectives
underline that in order to achieve sustainable development, environment protection shall constitute
an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.

6.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Ananthakrishnan, G, 2005, "Alas! Our shrinking Wetlands?'in The Hindu, December 4.

Asian Development Bank Report, 1991, "Disaster Mitigation in Asia and the Pacific", ADB,
Manila.

~ r o w n Lester
, R et al., 1997, Vital Signs: The Environlnental Trends that are Shaping our
Future, Worldwatch Institute, USA.

Singh, Shekhar and P. Banerji (Eds.), 2002, Large Dams in India: Environmental, Social and
Economic Impacts, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi.

Sinha, U.P, 1985, Planned Development of Resocirces in a Developing Region: An

Economical and Geographical Analysis, Inter-India Publications, New Delhi.

World Development Report, 1992, "Development and the Environtnent", Oxford University
Press, New York.

Websites:

[Link]-Ereibur~.de/intro/about42005 .html
90 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction a'nd Recovery

1) If possible, you along with other learners who are studying this Post Graduate Diploma Programme,
divide yourselves into two groups. (If you do not know the other learners, then you may form two
groups with your friends and colleagues). Allow each group to think of the infrastructure needs
of a community vulnerable to disasters.

2) On the basis of Activity One, prepare two separate lists and then make a comparative analysis of
the different infrastructure requirements mentioned in the two lists. a

3) Take the case -of any recent disaster and try to pen down as many infrastructure needs as
possible, which if fulfilled, have the potential of mitigating the adverse consequences of a disaster.