What are functional and non-functional requirements? What is Architectural Design?

ectural Design? Explain Layered Model and What is Regression Testing? How are test cases designed?
Functional Requirements: These describe the specific actions Client-Server Model. A type of software testing that ensures changes like bug fixes
or tasks the system must perform. They focus on the "what" Architectural Design: This is the high-level structuring of a or new features do not negatively impact the existing
aspect of the software’s functionality. software system, defining the components and their interactions. functionality of the application.
Example: The system must allow users to register and log in. It serves as a blueprint for developers, ensuring the system is
Test Case Design:
Non-functional Requirements: These specify the quality scalable, reliable, and maintainable.
1. Identify areas affected by the code changes.
attributes or constraints of the system, ensuring it operates Layered Model: Organizes the software system into layers,
2. Create or reuse test cases that cover these areas.
effectively under various conditions. where each layer has specific responsibilities and interacts only
3. Include a mix of functional, integration, and system-level
Example: The system should load the dashboard within 2 with adjacent layers.
test cases.
seconds for up to 1000 concurrent users. Layers are explained below: 4. Prioritize based on the criticality of the feature or module.
Explain requirement validation and requirement Presentation Layer: Handles the user interface and user
5. Automate repetitive test cases for efficiency.
specification with examples. interaction.
Capability Maturity Model (CMM) and its levels
Requirement Validation: This process ensures that the Application Layer: Contains business logic and data
The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) is a framework for
gathered requirements align with stakeholder needs and are free processing.
improving and assessing the maturity of software development
from inconsistencies or ambiguities. Data Layer: Manages data storage and retrieval.
processes. It provides organizations with a structured path to
Example: Cross-checking if the login functionality meets Enhances system maintainability.
enhance quality, efficiency, and predictability in software
security protocols like two-factor authentication. Promotes reusability of layers.
delivery. CMM Levels:
Requirement Specification: This involves documenting all Example: A web application with frontend, backend, and
Initial (Level 1): Processes are ad hoc and chaotic, with
requirements in a structured manner for developers and database layers.
unpredictable results.
stakeholders to understand and implement. Client-Server Model: Divides the system into two main
Repeatable (Level 2): Basic project management processes are
Example: An SRS document specifying that the system must entities:
established for tracking cost, schedule, and functionality.
support multilingual users. Client: Requests services or resources.
Defined (Level 3): Processes are standardized and documented,
Ensures stakeholder consensus on requirements. Server: Provides the requested services or resources.
ensuring consistency across projects.
Detects errors early in the development process.  Scalability by adding more servers or clients. Managed (Level 4): Processes are measured and controlled
Uses techniques such as reviews, prototyping, and modeling.  Supports distributed systems with remote access. through quantitative data.
Results in clear, actionable documentation that serves as a Example: A web browser (client) accessing a web server to Optimizing (Level 5): Continuous process improvement is
reference throughout the project. load a website. achieved through feedback and innovation.
What are the various techniques used in requirement Explain User Interface (UI) Design and its principles. What are the different levels of software testing? Explain.
gathering? Explain. UI Design: Focuses on creating visually appealing and user- Software testing is performed at various levels to ensure the
Interviewing: Engaging stakeholders directly through friendly interfaces that enable seamless interaction between quality, functionality, and performance of the system.
structured or unstructured discussions to understand their needs users and the system. 1. Unit Testing
and expectations. Example: Designing a responsive website layout for mobile and Focuses on testing individual components or modules of the
Questionnaires: Distributing surveys to a broader audience to desktop users. software.Ensures that each function or piece of code works as
collect input systematically. Principles of UI Design: intended in isolation.
Prototyping: Creating an early version of the software to gather  Consistency: Ensuring similar elements behave similarly Example: Testing a function that calculates the total price of
feedback and refine requirements. across the system. items in a shopping cart.
Observation: Monitoring users’ interaction with existing  Feedback: Providing clear responses to user actions, like 2. Integration Testing
systems to identify improvements. displaying a success message after form submission.
Brainstorming: Collaborating in group sessions to generate Verifies the interaction between different modules or
 Visibility: Making important features easily accessible, such
ideas and uncover hidden requirements. components.Ensures that integrated parts of the application
as placing a "Help" button in the header.
Use Cases and Scenarios: Developing detailed narratives of work together correctly.
 Simplicity: Avoiding unnecessary elements to enhance
how the system will be used in specific situations. usability. Example: Testing the interaction between a login module
What is an SRS (Software Requirement Specification)  Accessibility: Ensuring the interface is usable by people and a user profile module.
document? Why is it called a black box specification? with varying abilities, such as adding alt text for images. 3. System Testing
Definition:
 Error Prevention: Designing systems to minimize user Evaluates the entire software system as a whole against
SRS Document: This is a comprehensive document that details
errors, like disabling unavailable options in a dropdown specified requirements.Tests all modules and their
all functional and non-functional requirements of the software.
menu. interactions in a complete environment.
It serves as a roadmap for developers and testers.
Discuss the importance of coding standards in software. Example: Testing an e-commerce website for functionality
Black Box Specification: The SRS focuses on "what" the
Coding standards are a set of guidelines and best practices
system should do without explaining "how" it will be like searching, adding items to the cart, and checkout.
followed during software development to maintain uniformity
implemented.Example: The SRS specifies that "users can reset 4. Acceptance Testing
and quality in the codebase.
their passwords" without describing the underlying Conducted to determine if the system meets business
1. Improves Code Readability: Makes the code easier to
implementation process.
understand for all team members, even those not involved requirements and is ready for deployment.Typically
Advantages of SRS:
in its initial development. performed by end-users or clients.
1. Establishes a clear understanding between stakeholders,
2. Facilitates Maintenance: Ensures consistency, making Example: A client verifying that a CRM software fulfills all
developers, and testers.
debugging and enhancements more efficient.
2. Acts as a reference point for project management and agreed-upon functionalities.
3. Promotes Collaboration: Enables seamless collaboration
tracking. 1. Regression Testing
among developers by following a shared coding style.
3. Helps in identifying potential risks and constraints early on. Ensures that new changes or features do not break existing
4. Ensures Quality and Reliability: Reduces errors by
4. Ensures that the development process aligns with business
enforcing standard practices and ensuring uniformity in functionality.Performed after updates, bug fixes, or
goals.
implementation. enhancements.
5. Provides a basis for creating test cases and validation
5. Enhances Code Reusability: Adopting consistent patterns Example: Testing all critical features after adding a new
procedures.
makes it easier to reuse code across different projects. payment gateway.
6. Facilitates better communication across all teams involved
6. Improves Onboarding: Simplifies the process of
in the project. 2. Performance Testing
integrating new developers into the project team by
Define modularization. Differentiate between cohesion and Assesses how the system performs under load or stress.
providing clear coding expectations.
coupling. Includes testing for scalability, speed, and stability.
Explain the relationship between programming languages
Modularization: It is the process of dividing a software system
and development tools. Example: Testing a banking application to handle 10,000
into smaller, manageable, and independent modules. Each
These provide the syntax and semantics required to write concurrent users.
module handles a specific functionality, making the system
software code. Examples include Python, Java, and C++. What is software maintenance? Explain its different types.
easier to develop, test, and maintain.
These are applications or software that assist in the creation,
Example: A web application might have separate modules for Software maintenance refers to the process of modifying and
debugging, testing, and deployment of programs. Examples
user management, payment processing, and reporting. updating software after its deployment to correct faults,
include IDEs (e.g., Visual Studio, Eclipse), debuggers, and
Cohesion coupling improve performance, or adapt it to changing environments.
build tools.
Refers to how closely related Refers to the degree of Types of Software Maintenance:
Development tools are designed to work with specific
and focused the functions dependence between  Corrective Maintenance: Fixing bugs and defects
programming languages to improve productivity. For instance,
within a single module are. modules. an IDE for Java like IntelliJ IDEA provides features such as identified after deployment.
Higher cohesion is desirable Lower coupling is code completion and debugging tailored for Java.  Adaptive Maintenance: Updating the software to work
for better understandability desirable for better Tools streamline the software development process by with new operating systems or hardware.
and maintainability. modular independence. automating tasks like syntax checking, error detection, and code  Perfective Maintenance: Enhancing software
Emphasizes the relationship Focuses on the compilation. functionalities based on user feedback or requirements.
between elements of the same interaction between Tools like Git integrate with programming languages to enable  Preventive Maintenance: Making changes to prevent future
module. different modules. version control and collaboration. problems.
A module handling user A payment module Examples: A C++ programmer might rely on Visual Studio for Discuss the re-engineering process in software maintenance.
authentication only includes does not depend on the debugging and code optimization.
Re-engineering involves analyzing and modifying existing
login, logout, and password internal logic of a Black Box Testing White Box Testing software to improve its structure, performance, or functionality
reset. reporting module. without changing its core purpose.
Testing based on the functionality Testing based on the internal
Enhances module reusability Reduces the risk of of the system without knowing structure, logic, and Steps in Re-engineering:
and reliability. changes in one module the internal code. implementation of the code. Code Analysis: Understanding the existing codebase and
affecting others. identifying areas for improvement.
Explain the concept of abstraction and information hiding Does not require knowledge of Requires in-depth knowledge of
Code Refactoring: Improving the internal structure of the code
in software design. programming or code programming, algorithms, and code
structure. structure. without altering its external behavior.
Abstraction: The process of highlighting essential details while Data Migration: Updating or transferring data to a more
hiding irrelevant details to reduce complexity. Focuses on what the system Focuses on how the system works efficient format or platform.
Example: A user interacts with a "Save" button without needing does (functional aspects). (internal logic and processes). Testing: Ensuring that the re-engineered software performs as
to know the underlying code. expected.
Includes techniques like Includes techniques like code
Information Hiding: Ensuring that internal implementation Deployment: Releasing the improved software to production.
equivalence partitioning, coverage, control flow testing,
details of a module are hidden from other modules to promote boundary value analysis. and path testing.
encapsulation and reduce dependency.
Example: A database module exposes functions like addUser() Performed by testers or Typically performed by developers or
without revealing how data is stored internally. end users. technically skilled testers.
Explain the importance of versioning in software Discuss Risk Mgmt in Software Projects with Diagram. What is Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE)?
development. Risk management in software projects involves identifying, Describe Its Tools and Benefits
Versioning refers to the practice of assigning unique identifiers analyzing, and mitigating risks that may affect project success. CASE refers to software tools that help automate various stages
to different states of a software application, ensuring proper Steps in Risk Management: of the software development life cycle (SDLC), including
tracking and management of changes over time. It is a critical 1. Risk Identification: Recognizing potential risks in the planning, analysis, design, coding, testing, and maintenance.
component of modern software development practices. project. These tools improve productivity, standardize processes, and
Importance: 2. Risk Analysis: Assessing the likelihood and impact of enhance software quality.
Change Tracking: Maintains a record of all updates, additions, each risk. CASE Tools:
and modifications to the software, making it easier to identify 3. Risk Prioritization: Ranking risks based on their 1. Upper CASE:
when and where changes were introduced. severity. Assist in early SDLC phases such as requirement
Collaboration Support: Enables multiple developers to work 4. Risk Mitigation Planning: Developing strategies to analysis and system design (e.g., data flow diagram tools,
simultaneously on the same project by managing changes reduce or avoid risks. ER modeling tools).
effectively and avoiding conflicts. 5. Risk Monitoring: Continuously observing and 2. Lower CASE:
Backup and Recovery: Facilitates reverting to a previous managing risks throughout the project. Focus on later phases like code generation, testing, and
version of the software in case of errors or unintended maintenance (e.g., compilers, debugging tools).
consequences in the current version. 3. Integrated CASE :
Release Management: Helps in categorizing updates into Cover the entire software development process, from
different release types (e.g., major updates, minor fixes, design to deployment (e.g., IBM Rational Suite).
patches) using conventions like semantic versioning (e.g., 2.3.1 Benefits:
for major, minor, and patch updates). 1. Improved Productivity: Automates repetitive tasks.
Quality Assurance: Assists in identifying which changes led to 2. Better Accuracy: Reduces human errors in design and
specific issues by comparing versions, improving debugging coding.
and testing processes. 3. Documentation: Generates detailed project
Transparency for Stakeholders: Provides a clear history of documentation.
software development progress and updates for stakeholders, 4. Consistency: Ensures uniformity in software design and
ensuring confidence and accountability. development.
5. Collaboration: Facilitates team communication through
What is Project Management? Explain Project Planning 6. Explain the Waterfall Model with Its Adv and Disadv integrated platforms.
and Scheduling. The Waterfall Model is a traditional and linear approach to
Project management is the process of planning, organizing, and software development where each phase is completed before
controlling resources to achieve specific goals within a defined moving on to the next. The phases include requirements
timeline and budget. In software development, it involves gathering, system design, implementation, testing, deployment,
managing tasks, timelines, personnel, and technology to deliver and maintenance. It is called "Waterfall" because the process
high-quality software products. flows in one direction, like a waterfall.
Project Planning: Advantages:
Project planning involves defining the scope, objectives, and 1. Simple and Easy to Use: Clear structure makes it easy
procedures for achieving the project goals. Key activities to understand and manage.
include: 2. Defined Phases: Each phase has specific deliverables
1. Identifying project requirements. and review processes.
2. Defining milestones and deliverables. 3. Good for Small Projects: Suitable for projects with
3. Allocating resources and budget. well-defined and fixed requirements.
4. Creating a project timeline. 4. Documentation: Provides comprehensive
Project Scheduling: documentation at each phase.
Scheduling is the process of defining the sequence of project Disadvantages:
tasks and assigning start and end dates. Important techniques 1. Inflexibility: Changes are difficult and costly after the
include: project has started.
1. Gantt Charts: Visual representations of task schedules. 2. Late Testing: Errors are detected late in the
2. Critical Path Method (CPM): Identifies essential tasks development process.
and calculates the longest time path. 3. High Risk: Unsuitable for complex projects with
3. PERT Charts: Used to estimate the time required for evolving requirements.
completing tasks. 4. Customer Involvement: Limited customer involvement
4. after the requirement phase.
Explain the COCOMO Model for Software Cost Estimation. Describe Agile Software Development and Its Benefits
The COCOMO (Constructive Cost Model) is a software cost Agile is an iterative and incremental software development
estimation model developed by Barry W. Boehm. It predicts the approach that focuses on collaboration, customer feedback, and
cost, effort, and development time for software projects based small, rapid releases.
on the size of the project. Benefits:
Types of COCOMO Models: 1. Flexibility: Accommodates changes even in late
1. Basic COCOMO: Provides a rough estimate of project development stages.
effort based on software size. 2. Customer Satisfaction: Continuous involvement of
2. Intermediate COCOMO: Considers additional factors customers ensures alignment with their needs.
such as hardware constraints, team experience, and 3. Improved Quality: Frequent testing and feedback cycles
reliability. enhance software quality.
3. Detailed COCOMO: Incorporates all factors and 4. Faster Delivery: Short development iterations deliver
provides more accurate estimations by dividing the functional software quickly.
project into modules. 5. Better Team Collaboration: Encourages
8. Explain Rapid Application Development (RAD) and Its communication and collaboration within the
Key Characteristics development team.
RAD is a software development methodology that emphasizes What is Extreme Programming (XP)? Discuss Its
quick development and delivery of high-quality applications. It Significance in Modern Software Development
focuses on rapid prototyping, user involvement, and iterative XP is an Agile software development methodology that
development, reducing the time between requirement gathering emphasizes customer satisfaction, flexibility, and high-quality
and product delivery. code through frequent releases.
Key Characteristics: Key Practices:
Prototyping: Continuous creation and revision of prototypes. 1. Pair programming
User Involvement: Users are actively involved in development 2. Test-driven development
and feedback. 3. Continuous integration
Iterative Process: Multiple iterations of design, development, 4. Frequent releases
and testing. Significance in Modern Software Development:
Component-Based Development: Reusing existing software 1. Quality Improvement: Automated testing ensures
components speeds up development. robust and maintainable code.
Time-Boxing: Strict deadlines for project phases. 2. Customer-Centric: Constant feedback keeps
development aligned with customer requirements.
3. Risk Mitigation: Small releases reduce project risks.
4. Efficient Development: Pair programming enhances
teamwork and code quality