Module 1: Western Philosophy: around deep self-reflection and pursuit of

wisdom. Here's a breakdown of key

Lesson 1: Philosophy concepts:

Defining Philosophy: 1.​ Socratic Method: Asking deep,

-​ Pursuit of wisdom probing questions to help people
“Philosophy is simply the love of think critically and discover truth.
wisdom” -Cicero 2.​ Socrates' Trial: Using his defense in
-​ Begins with wonder court to demonstrate his values and
“All philosophy has its origins in beliefs about ethics and justice.
wonder” -Plato 3.​ Socrates' Ethos: The goal of life is to
-​ Is a dynamic process "know thyself" and improve the soul
“The beginning of [philosophy through virtuous living.
is….the conflict between opinions” 4.​ Socrates' Death: Dying for his
-Epictitus beliefs, refusing to compromise his
-​ Ultimate aims/truth values, and becoming a martyr for
“Philosophy is the science that wisdom and virtue.
considers the truth” -Aristotle
2. Plato
Important Philosophers: “Education is reminiscing; that is, learning
is a matter of extracting from our mind that
1.​ Socrates which is already there”
“The unexamined life is not worth living” -​ Plato's definition of the self revolves
-​ Socrates' philosophy emphasizes around the idea that knowledge is
the importance of using intellectual already inside us, and learning is
tools to think critically and make just a process of "remembering" or
enlightened choices. Philosophy retrieving that knowledge. This
allows us to evaluate our past connects with Socrates' idea of
decisions and guide future actions. "know thyself," suggesting that
Socrates believed that failing to introspection helps us understand
think philosophically leads to a the world and ourselves better.
diminished life. Essence and Forms:​
-​ He saw a deep connection between - Plato believed that the world around us is
goodness and wisdom, with filled with "forms"—perfect, unchanging
philosophy focusing on the soul or ideas. Everything in the physical world (like
psyche—our true self. The soul is a chair) is just a temporary, changing
unique to each person, where example of that perfect "form." The form of
thoughts, dreams, and aspirations a chair is the idea of a chair itself, eternal
arise. Socrates believed the soul is and unchanging, no matter how many
immortal and continues after death. different shapes or sizes a chair may take.
-​ For Socrates, happiness is attained The Soul:​
through virtue and wisdom, Plato saw the soul as the key to
achieved by reflecting on life and understanding both ourselves and the
behaving justly. Those who cultivate world. He believed the soul has three parts:
virtuous, wise, and courageous 1.​ Reason: Our rational side, which
souls lead the most fulfilling lives. makes decisions based on logic and
Virtue comes from knowledge, and wisdom.
understanding the right standards of 2.​ Spirit: The energetic, driven part of
conduct is essential to the soul’s us that motivates us to act.
excellence. 3.​ Appetite: The desires and impulses,
Philosopher’s Way like hunger or the urge to relax.
The "Philosopher’s Way" refers to the path These parts are like a chariot drawn by two
Socrates laid out for living a life of horses—one wild and unruly (appetite) and
intellectual and moral integrity, centered the other manageable (spirit). Reason is the
charioteer, trying to control the horses and ○​ Nutritive Psyche: The basic
steer us toward our goals. life functions seen in plants,
Example: If you're trying to excel
like nourishment and
academically: reproduction.
●​ Your spirited side wants to push you ○​ Sensitive Psyche: The soul
to study hard. function found in animals,
●​ Your appetite wants to distract you responsible for movement
with fun activities. and perception (like seeing,
●​ Your reason (the rational part) helps hearing, etc.).
you balance these forces and stay on
○​ Rational Psyche: The human
track to reach your goal.
capacity for reasoning and
intellect, the highest form of
3. Aristotle the soul.
“Having a soul means being alive, and only 5.​ The higher functions (like reasoning)
living things have a soul” depend on the lower ones (like
Aristotle's definition of the self revolves perception), and humans have all
around the idea that the soul (or psyche) is three functions—meaning we share
what makes a living being alive, and it’s basic life traits with plants and
inseparable from the body. He believed that animals but also have the unique
all living things have a soul, but unlike ability to reason.
Plato, he didn’t think the soul exists
separately or eternally from the body. For 4. Plotinus
Aristotle, the soul and body are linked and Perception:​
cannot exist without each other. This is when the soul directs its
Key Concepts: consciousness outward to an object. It’s
1.​ Vitalistic Soul:​ about experiencing and sensing the world
The soul is what makes matter alive. around us.
It’s what distinguishes living things Reflection:​
from non-living things. But, unlike Here, the soul turns inward. It becomes
Plato, Aristotle didn’t believe the aware of itself and its own thoughts,
soul was a separate, eternal separating the subject (the self) from the
"form"—it’s tied to the physical object (what is being perceived). This is
body and the individual being. when we become conscious of our own
2.​ Hylomorphism:​ awareness.
Aristotle’s idea that everything is Contemplation:​
made of both matter (the physical In this higher activity, the soul transcends
substance) and form (the essence or the changing, impermanent world and
idea). Both are inseparable; an connects with the unchanging, eternal
object can’t have one without the truths. It’s a state of deep thought or
other. In other words, the body and spiritual insight that reaches beyond the
psyche (soul) are connected and physical world.
can’t exist independently.
Neoplatonism
3.​ Body and Self:​ “The soul is but a prisoner of the body”
For Aristotle, the body is essential to -​ Roman philosophers Plotinus
the self. Without the body, there’s (204-270 CE) and St. Augustine are
no "self" to experience anything. aligned with this ideology
The self is intertwined with the body, -​ Plotinus is the founder of this
and the two together create the ideology, Plato’s ideas were strongly
living experience. influenced by this
-​ Plotinus pushed for the freeing of the
4.​ The Three Types of Psyche (Soul
person from this bondage and to
Functions):​
move towards perfection.
Aristotle categorized the soul into
-​ Although the soul and body are
three hierarchical functions, each together, they are not necessarily
building on the other:
 fused or combined. The soul is
focused on personal interests, pride,
merely coexisting with the body and worldly demands, must be
therefore making it at the same time transcended in order to achieve a
independent from it (superiority of connection with God. True union
soul over body) with God can only be achieved by
-​ This school of thought is often linked moving away from selfish desires
to religious thinking. and focusing on love for God and
-​ Major religions like Islam, Christianity,
others.
and Judaism are said to be
influenced by Neoplatonism
- For Augustine, the self is often a barrier to
spiritual fulfillment. The worldly, "Earthly
5. St. Augustine City" represents self-interest and pride,
“The soul is given primacy over the body” while the "Heavenly City" represents a life
- St. Augustine's view of the self is deeply focused on God and helping others. The
rooted in his Christian philosophy, self must transcend selfishness to unite
influenced by Neoplatonism, especially the with God, a process that requires both faith
teachings of Plotinus and Plato. For and reason.
Augustine, the self is not just about
personal identity or ego but is connected to 6. St. Thomas of Aquinas (1225-1274CE)
a larger spiritual journey, where the soul -​ Rose to prominence in his
seeks unity with God. contributions to philosophy and
religion
1.​ Unity with God:​ -​ Employs Aristotelian thought
Augustine believed that the soul -​ The person is both body and soul
must seek to unite with God, and -​ The human soul continues to exist
this is achieved through both faith even in death
and reason. The self, in its worldly -​ A human soul that is separated from
form, is full of distractions and its body is said to be incomplete
desires, but it must transcend these and finds its completion again only
in order to truly connect with the when it animated a body once more,
divine. such as its resurrection during the
2.​ Two Cities in City of God:​ second coming of Christ
In his work City of God, Augustine -​ Aquinas does not adhere to the idea
describes two cities or realms that that the soul is imprisoned in an
represent two different kinds of love: imperfect body or that it is inside the
○​ Earthly City: This city is body as a kind of punishment
driven by the love of self and -​ The soul’s presence in the body is in
seeks personal gain, pride, fact what can only be described as
and vanity. It represents the good, as well as natural
self focused on material -​ Aquinas paved the way in
desires and self-interest, harmonizing bodily and soulful
often leading people away needs or desires in the same way as
from God. he reconciled faith and reason. “The
○​ Heavenly City: This city is body, therefore, is not something to
driven by the love of God be abhorred or rejected, but rather
and contempt of self. It desired and appreciated when it is
represents a higher calling, in union with the soul.
where the self serves a
greater good, glorifying God 7. Rene Descartes
and helping others. “There is a need to doubt in order to know
3.​ Transcending the Self:​ what one is certain”
Augustine saw the self, as it is “Primacy to one’s capacity to think”
usually experienced, as a barrier to “One’s reasoning prowess sets the base for
spiritual growth. The self, when acquiring knowledge”
 1.​ Doubt as a Foundation:​ and divine laws, while the body follows
Descartes believed that doubt was natural laws. Descartes emphasized that
the right starting point for building a self-awareness is key to understanding
solid system of knowledge. By one's personal identity.
questioning everything, a person 8. John Locke
can strip away false beliefs and ‘Ides of self is founded on consciousness”
arrive at what is certain and -​ English philosopher and an
indubitable. empiricist for posting the primary of
2.​ Cogito Ergo Sum ("I think, therefore sense experience in acquiring
I am"):​ knowledgeAll knowledge is derived
Descartes’ most famous principle from sensory experience
asserts that the very act of thinking -​ “Tabula Rasa”
proves one’s existence. If a person
is able to doubt or think, it means 9. David Hume
they exist in some form. “There is NO self”
Consciousness of self—being aware -​ Scottish philosopher is an avid
of your own thoughts—is the empiricist
foundation of personal identity. -​ Disagrees with the idea of a
3.​ Mind-Body Dualism:​ continuing identity
Descartes introduced the idea of a -​ He hypothesizes that after a person
mind-body split: examines sense experience, the
○​ The Mind (Soul): The individual will arrive a the conclusion
thinking, conscious self, of the absence of the self
which is eternal, spiritual, -​ believed that the self is not a fixed,
and not governed by unified entity but rather a bundle of
physical laws. The mind or perceptions.
soul is independent and -​ According to Hume, when we look
immortal, governed by inward, we don’t find a stable "self"
reason and divine laws. but a collection of fleeting thoughts,
○​ The Body: The physical self, sensations, emotions, and
which is governed by natural experiences. These perceptions
laws and is mortal. constantly change, and there is no
4.​ While Descartes saw the mind and underlying, permanent "I" behind
body as separate entities, he them.
acknowledged that they are still
closely connected and interact with Impressions
each other. -​ The basic constituents of our
5.​ The Self and Consciousness:​ experience upon which ideas are
For Descartes, the key to derived
understanding the self lies in the -​ These impressions are more vivid
ability to be conscious of one's own than ideas since ideas are just
thoughts. This self-awareness is derivatives and copies of
what gives rise to personal identity. impressions
Without the capacity to think and -​ Ideas are farther from reality than
reflect, a person would have no what comes as impressions
sense of self. -​ However, no impressions persist for
- Descartes believed that the self is they are always in constant motion
primarily defined by the ability to think. His and flux. This means one cannot
famous statement "I think, therefore I am" find a sensation of a constant self
means that consciousness is proof of that makes up the identity of the
existence. He saw the mind (the thinking, person simply because impressions
eternal self) and the body (the physical, are fleeting
mortal self) as separate but interacting
entities. The mind is governed by reason
10. Immanuel Kant both types of knowledge work together to
While he agreed with David Hume that form a coherent understanding of the
sensory experience plays a crucial role in world. The self, for Kant, is not just a
how we know the world, Kant disagreed passive receiver but an active organizer of
with Hume’s view that experiences are experiences.
disjointed and fleeting. Instead, Kant
argued that the mind actively organizes and
structures sensory experiences, making
Summary:
them more stable and coherent.
Socrates: The self is the soul, and true
1.​ Organized Sensory Experience:​ happiness comes from self-reflection and
Kant believed that the mind plays an living virtuously through wisdom and
active role in organizing sensory understanding.
Plato: The self is the soul, and knowledge
data. Rather than just receiving
is a process of recalling eternal truths
fragmented, disconnected through introspection, where the soul is
sensations (as Hume suggested), the key to understanding both oneself
the mind structures these and the world.
experiences to create a more stable Aristotle: The self is inseparable from the
and unified understanding of the body and soul, with the soul’s
world. functions—nutrition, perception, and
reasoning—linked together to create a
2.​ A Priori vs. A Posteriori Knowledge:
unified living being.
○​ A Priori: Knowledge that is Plotinus: The self is a soul that moves
independent of sensory from perception to reflection to
experience and is derived contemplation, seeking to transcend the
through reason or logic (e.g., physical world and connect with eternal
mathematical truths). truths.
St. Augustine: The self is a soul that must
○​ A Posteriori: Knowledge
transcend earthly desires and self-interest
based on sensory
in order to unite with God, achieving
experience, which depends spiritual fulfillment through faith and
on empirical data. reason.
3.​ For Kant, knowledge involves both a St. Thomas Aquinas: The self is both
priori concepts (things we know body and soul, and the soul’s union with
without direct experience) and a the body is natural and essential for the
person’s complete existence.
posteriori experiences (things we
René Descartes: The self is defined by
learn through our senses), blending the ability to think and doubt, with the
the two in ways that make it hard to mind (thinking self) separate from the
distinguish between them. body, which is governed by physical
4.​ Self as Active Organizer:​ laws.
Kant’s view of the self emphasizes John Locke: The self is founded on
that it is not just a passive receiver consciousness and memory, where
personal identity is tied to the continuity
of sensations but an active agent
of experiences and self-awareness over
that organizes and gives meaning to time.
the raw data it receives from the David Hume: The self is a bundle of
world. The self is both shaped by fleeting perceptions and experiences with
and shapes its understanding of no underlying, permanent identity, as
reality. impressions are always changing.
Immanuel Kant: The self actively
organizes and makes sense of sensory
Kant believed the self actively organizes
experiences, blending reason and
and makes sense of sensory experiences, sensory data to create a stable, coherent
unlike Hume, who saw them as understanding of the world.
disconnected and fleeting. He distinguished
between a priori knowledge (based on
reason) and a posteriori knowledge (based
on sensory experience), suggesting that
Module 2: Self in Eastern and Western -​ There is no self in the sense of a
Thought permanent, integral, autonomous
being within an individual existence.
1.​ Confucianism What we think of as our self, the me
-​ The self is something that is formed that inhabits our body, is just an
through upbringing and the ephemeral experience.
environment. Personality is achieved
through moral excellence
Summary:
There are 5 important relationships:
a.​ King to subject Confucianism: The self is shaped by
b.​ Father to son upbringing and moral excellence,
c.​ Husband to wife developing through harmonious
d.​ Older brother to younger brother relationships and the cultivation of virtue.
Taoism: The self is a transient
e.​ Friend to friend
manifestation of the Tao, with the ideal
being selflessness and transcending
2. Taoism personal identity.
-​ The ideal is thus selflessness Hinduism: The self, or atman, is the
-​ The self is but one of the countless eternal soul that is part of the universal
manifestations of the Tao. it is an essence, either reincarnating or achieving
extension of the cosmos liberation (moksha).
Buddhism: The self is an illusion, as there
-​ The perfect man has no self
is no permanent, independent identity,
-​ The spiritual man has no only transient experiences that form a
achievement false sense of self.
-​ The true sage has no name

Module 3: Self: Collectivism and

3. Hinduism
Individualism
-​ The universal self is the atman
“breath or soul” identical with the
a.​ Individualism
eternal core of the personality that
-​ Concept of giving priority to one’s
after death either transmigrates to a
own goals over group goals and
new life or attains release “mosha”
defining one’s identity in terms of
from the bonds of existence
personal attributes rather than group
identifications
Four pillars of Indian Psychology
a.​ Dharma = rules that describe
Independent self-construal
goodness and appropriate behavior
-​ Construing one’s identity as an
b.​ Karma = refers to the movement
autonomous self.
from past incarnations that affect
-​ Emphasis on:
the present and future
1.​ Internal abilities, thoughts
c.​ Maya = distorted perceptions of
and feelings
reality and experiences that can be
2.​ Being unique and expressing
identified as such only with direct
the self
attention to our own processes of
3.​ Realizing internal attributes
awareness that come about through
and promote one’s own
internal concentration or meditation
goals
d.​ Atman = concept of universality in
4.​ Being direct in
which the self is seen not as
communication
individual but as part of the entire
b.​ Collectivism
cosmos
-​ Giving priority to the goals of one’s
group (often one’s extended family
4. Buddhism
or work group) and defining one's
-​ The doctrine of anatman is the core
identity accordingly
teaching of Buddhism
Interdependent Self-Construal 2.​ Erikson’s Psychosocial
-​ Construing one’s identity in relation Theory
to others ■​ The self develops
-​ Emphasis on: through 8 stages of
1.​ External, public features psychosocial
such as status, roles, and development (e.g.,
relationships identity vs. role
2.​ Belonging and fitting-in confusion in
3.​ Occupying one’s proper adolescence).
place and engaging in 3.​ Carl Rogers’ Humanistic
appropriate action Theory
4.​ Being indirect in ■​ The self is based on
communication and reading an individual’s
others minds perception and
self-actualization
(achieving one’s
potential).
■​ Distinction between
real self vs. ideal
self—the greater the
gap, the more
distress.

●​ The Social Self:

○​ The self is not fixed; it
develops through social
Purpose of Language interactions and reflections.
1.​ Western Philosophy ○​ Influences from family,
-​ Allows self-expression culture, peers, and media
2.​ Eastern Philosophy shape our self-concept.
-​ Allows communication with others ●​ Key Theories:
Cooley’s Looking Glass Self:
●​ Definition of the Self in Psychology: ●​ We develop our self-image based
1.​ The self is a mental on how we think others perceive us.
construct that influences ○​ Three steps:
thoughts, emotions, and ■​ We imagine how
behaviors. others see us.
2.​ Psychologists study ■​ We interpret their
self-concept, reactions.
self-awareness, and ■​ We develop our
self-esteem. self-concept
●​ Major Psychological Theories on the accordingly.
Self: ●​ Mead’s Theory of the Social Self:
1.​ Freud’s Psychoanalytic ○​ The self emerges through
Theory socialization.
■​ The self is shaped by ■​ Two components:
unconscious desires ■​ “I” (subjective
and early childhood self):
experiences. Spontaneous,
■​ Id (instincts), Ego unique
(rational self), and identity.
Superego (moral self) ■​ “Me” (social
regulate behavior. self): Shaped
 by societal self-awareness and
expectations. decision-making.
●​ Role of Social Media in Modern ●​ Nurture (Environmental Aspects):
Self-Identity: ○​ Socialization affects
○​ Social platforms influence personality development.
self-presentation. ○​ Cultural values, family
○​ Increased self-comparison upbringing, and life
and validation-seeking experiences shape identity.
behaviors. ●​ Interaction of Both:
○​ Twin Studies show that both
●​ Individualistic vs. Collectivistic genes and environment
Cultures: contribute to self-concept.
●​ Western (Individualistic) ○​ The balance of biological
○​ Self is independent (focused predispositions and social
on personal achievements). conditioning determines
○​ Self-worth is based on personality and identity.
individual success.
●​ Eastern (Collectivistic) independent interdependent
○​ Self is interdependent
Identity is Personal, Social, defined
(connected to
defined by by
family/society). individual traits connections
○​ Emphasis on harmony, duty, and goals with others

and relationships over What matters Me-personal We-group

personal goals. achievements goals and
and fulfillment solidarity
●​ Markus & Kitayama’s Theory of
Self-Construals: Disapproves of conformity egotism
○​ Independent Self-Construal
Illustrative To thine own No one is an
(Western) motto self be true island
■​ Defines self through
Cultures that Individualistic Collectivistic
personal traits. support western asian and third
■​ Values autonomy and world
uniqueness.
○​ Interdependent
Self-Construal (Eastern)
■​ Defines self through
relationships.
■​ Values conformity
and group harmony.
●​ Effects on Personality & Behavior:
○​ In individualistic cultures:
high self-esteem,
assertiveness, personal
success.
○​ In collectivistic cultures:
strong social roles, respect
for authority, humility.

●​ Nature (Biological Aspects):

○​ Genetics influence
personality traits and
temperament.
○​ The brain (prefrontal cortex)
plays a role in
Module 4: The Physical Self Ways on how to cultivate a positive body
image
What shapes body image?
1.​ Educate oneself
a.​ The environment/social factors 2.​ Highlight positive goals
b.​ Family 3.​ Limit exposure to media
c.​ Personal self 4.​ Watch what you say

- body image, which is central to an

individual’s body, involves a
multidimensional concept including
cognitive, behavioral, and affective
components.

1.​ Cognitive component

-​ Conscious intellectual activities such
as thinking, reasoning, and
remembering
-​ Provides knowledge to the body
2.​ Behavioral component
-​ Actions performed by the individual
in order to conceptualize what
he/she thinks is society’s perception
of a body
3.​ Affective component
-​ Includes feelings, emotions, and
attitudes of an individual about one’s
body

Body dissatisfaction = component of body

image where one may be dissatisfied what
one part of the body or with the body of the
whole
​ ​ = subjective negative
evaluation of a person’s body, which often
leads to negative consequences

Cultural factors impacting body

dissatisfaction

1.​ Ethnic Identity = one’s sense of

belongingness and attachment to
their ethnic group, including
dedication, commitment, and
participation in the group
2.​ Acculturation = This is the
maintenance of cultural processes
and contact participation of
members of two cultures. For this to
occur, two cultures must be present:
a native culture in contact with a
more dominant culture (e.g. Native
Mexican culture of
Mexican-Americans comes into
contact with the dominant U.S.
culture)