SOIL SAMPLING MANUAL

Chapter : 1
Introduction
1.1 Soil Introduction
Soil is "the summation of natural bodies in the earth's surface, which contain living matter and supports or
capable of supporting plants out-of-doors”. To sum it up, it can be understood as a layer of earth crust that is thin
and serves as a natural nutrient medium for the plant growth. One should study soil as it is being used as a rich
medium responsible for the growth of plants and trees that provides a niche for biotic as well as abiotic
interaction. Such study of soil profile from silviculture and crop husbandry point of view is important as, it reveals
the characteristics of surface and sub-surface as also different qualities of soil namely, depth, texture, structure,
drainage conditions and soil moisture relationship directly affecting the plant growth.
Soil is also an unconsolidated mineral matter that is inveigled by genetic and environmental factors like-parent
material, climate, organisms and topography all acting over a period of time.
Soil properties differ in various ways such as physical, chemical, biological and morphological properties from the
parent material. Based on the differences in genetic and environmental factors, there are different types of
modified soils present such as red, black, deep shallow, coarse textured and fine textured. Soil provides water as
well as a reservoir of nutrients in variety of crops, which are helpful in providing mechanical anchorage and
favorable tilt. The different components of soils such as matrix of mineral, water, organic matter and air, vary in
proportions for the growth of plant.

1.2 Soil profile of Gujarat

Gujarat is located on the west coast of India
bounded by the Arabian Sea in the West,
Rajasthan in the North and North-East,
Madhya Pradesh in the East and
Maharashtra state in the South and South
East. It is situated between 20°1' and 24°7'
north latitudes and 68°4' and 74°4'east
longitudes. The State has the longest
coastline of about 1600 km that has
attracted seafarers through the ages, lured
by the rich prospects of trade. [1]
The state is endowed with a wide range of
macro and microclimates, physiography,
landforms, geology and vegetation that
have an influence on the genesis of soil. Soil
systems have developed over many
millions of years. The soil characteristics in
a given area at a given point of time are a
function of both natural influences and
human activities. Figure 1.1 Soil profile of Gujarat
Source: (Narmada, Water resources, Water supply and Kalpsar department, 2015)]

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Table 1.1 Soil profile in Gujarat depending upon amount of rainfall received
Type of Soil Agro Climatic Zone Rainfall (mm)
Sandy and saline North West Zone 250-500
Shallow medium black North Saurashtra 400-700
Shallow medium black calcareous South Saurashtra 625-750
Medium black, poorly drained and saline Bhal and coastal area 625-1000
Sandy loam to sandy North Gujarat 625-875
Deep black, medium black to loamy sand Middle Gujarat 800-1000
Deep black clayey South Gujarat 1000-1500
Deep black with few patches of coastal South Gujarat (Heavy Rain Area) 1500 and more
alluvial, laterite and medium black
Source: Solanki, 2015

1.3 General Terms Used in Describing Soils

There are various terminologies used to describe different types of soil, some of them are described in following
section.
Soil profile can be studied vertically through the soil area. It is normally regarded as a plane at right angles to the
surface. In practice, a description of a soil profile comprises soil properties that can be determined only by
examining volumes of soil. A description of a pedon is normally based on examination of a profile, and the
properties of the pedon are expected from the properties of the profile. The width of a profile ranges from a few
decimetres to several meters or more. It shall be adequate to include the largest structural units. A soil horizon is a
parallel layer to the soil surface which can be distinguished by the adjacent layers through a characteristic set of
properties, which is produced by the processes of soil formation.
The Solum (plural, sola) of a soil consists of a set of layers that are associated through the pedogenic cycle of
processes like humification, weathering, leaching and calcification. A Solum consists of A, E, and B horizons and
their transitional horizons. O horizon is also encompassed with an additionof carbonates or more soluble salts. It
includes a bisequum(two sequences of soil horizons, each of which consist of illuvial horizon overlying eluvial
horizon), it does not comprise a buried soil or Practically, for some soils, digging deep enough to reveal all of the
[2]
relationships between soils and plants is not possible.
A Sequum (plural, sequa) is a B horizon which is also called as illuvial horizon, if it is together with any overlying
eluvial horizons. A single sequum is considered to be the product of a specific blend of soil-forming processes.
Most soils have a single sequum, but some have two or more.

1.4 Formation of Soil

Soils are developed from the principal source of the parent material called Rocks. Mainly there are three kinds of
rocks which are as follows:
1. Igneous rocks- These are formed by the solidification of molten materials, which originates from the
earth. Granite, syenite, basalt, andesite, diabase, and rhyolite are the examples of Igneous Rocks.
2. Sedimentary rocks- These are composed of sediments present during previous geological ages.
Limestone, sandstone, shale, and conglomerate are the main groups of Sedimentary rocks. These broad

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classes of sedimentary rocks include many varieties like chalk and marl are soft varieties of limestone
and many intermediate types between the broad groups, such as calcareous sandstone. Also deposits of
diatomaceous earth are included which are formed, from the siliceous remains of primitive plants called
diatoms.
3. Metamorphic rocks- Metamorphic rocks resulted from profound alteration of igneous and
sedimentary rocks by heat and pressure. General classes of metamorphic rocks important as parent
material are gneiss, schist, slate, marble, quartzite, and phyllite.
As soil is formed from the process of weathering of rocks, its properties may differ on the basis of chemical
composition of rocks.
n Weathering may occur physically or chemically in nature. The agents causing physical weathering include
water, temperature, wind, plant and animals while the chemical processes which influence weathering are
hydrolysis, hydration, carbonation, oxidation and reduction.
n A matured soil has a well-defined profile, seen in a vertical section of the soil at different horizons right up to
the parent materials.
n Soils differ from the underlying rock material as it provides a niche for biotic as well as abiotic interaction. At
certain depths soil has horizons with thin cemented layer impermeable to roots. The soil at such places is as
deep as the deepest horizon. Common soil grades at lower margin to hard rock or having earthy materials that
are virtually devoid of roots, animals, or marks of other biological activity. Lower limit of biological activity
results into the lower limit of soil that generally coincides with the common root depth of native perennial
plants; Different horizons of the soil profile can be categorized by the morphological characteristics including
texture, color, structure etc. The soil profile is differentiated into 3 mineral horizons- A, B and C.
n 'A' horizon may consist of sub-horizons which are rich in organic matter and are intricately mixed with mineral
matter. 'B' Horizon is below 'A' horizon which is rich in clay, iron, aluminum and humus but excludes the
bedrock from which horizon A and horizon B are formed.
n Soil depth either can be measured by the surface of soil, which is the top of the mineral soil; or, from the soils
with an O horizon, that is at least slightly decomposed. Fresh leaf or needle fall that has undergone substantial
decomposition is not part of the soil which is separately described. The top surface horizon also called as an O
horizon, whether Oi, Oe, or Oa, is considered the soil surface.

1.5 Constituents of Soil

A. Solid phase
The solid phase of soil comprises of the following:-
n Mineral constituents including weathered rock fragments.
n Organic matter, both dead and living micro and macro organisms.
The mineral constituents in the soil are as given below:-
n Large sand particles which are coarse and individual particles that can be easily visible to the naked eye
(0.02–2 mm in diameter). The most common mineral component is Silica (SiO2)
n Medium-sized silt particles which are 0.002-0.02 mm in diameter.
n Small clay particles which are less than 0.002 mm in diameter are referred to as soil colloids (by definition,
particles larger than sand are not soil).

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B. Liquid phase
The liquid phase of soil comprises of the following:-
n Soil water which occupies the pore spaces (between mineral particles) carries the plant nutrients to the roots.

C. Soil air
Empty spaces present between the soil particles which is occupied by air and water are termed as pore spaces.
Clay soil has a high percentage of micro pores as compared to sandy soil which hence are susceptible to water
logging which in turn adversely affect microbial activity and root respiration.
Characteristics of soil air given below:-
n It occupies pore spaces similar to soil water. It fills these voids when soil water is absent.
n It carries respiratory products to roots and soil-organisms.
n It has a higher concentration of carbon dioxide than atmospheric air.

1.6 Characteristics of Soil

Following the physical, chemical and biological properties, the study of soil provides a full picture of soil fertility
and productivity.
Physical properties of soil comprises of water holding capacity, structure, plasticity, density, texture, aeration,
color etc. Chemical properties refer to the composition and the type of mineral content such as Illite, Kaolinite,
and Montmorillonite, humus, base saturation, and organic matter content. The biological properties refer to the
content and extent of the types of microbes in the soil which include fungi, bacteria, worms and insects.

1.6.1 Soil Structure

n Soil Structure is the arrangement of and relation between soil particles
n Roots of crops move between these aggregates of soil particles.
n A compact soil will resist this root movement.
n The organic matter content helps the soil aggregation process.

1.6.2 Soil Fertility

The capacity of a soil to supply an adequate amount of nutrients to plants to facilitate its optimum growth and to
obtain the potential of crop yielding. It is the soil property, which determine the availability of plant nutrients.

1.6.3 Soil Color

Soil color is a visual depiction to know type or profile of soil, soil with reddish to brownish color shows well-drained
conditions in it. Degree of yellowness and mottling in a soil profile show poor drainage in it; whereas gray to dark
color of a soil profile indicates the presence of organic material in it.

1.6.4 Soil Depth

It is the distance between the lowest and upper most horizon of the soil and it also refers to the root space to
which the plant roots can penetrate into the soil.

1.6.5 Soil Texture

Soil texture act as an important part in management of nutrients because it impacts retention of nutrient, for
example, soils with fine texture tend to have greater ability to store soil nutrients. The simplest method of

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determining the type of soil is by simply feeling it to determine texture and predicting about primary makeup of
the soil is. To perform the task, a baseball size portion of the soil is grabbed in hands and wetted with water, while
working the moist soil with hands. The stickier it is, the more clay there is. The soapier the soil feels, the higher the
silt content. Grittiness is representative of sand. The soil texture triangle to the right shows the 12 major soil
texture classes and what percent of each type soil makes them up, Figure 1.2 [3]

Figure 1.2 Soil texture triangle

Particle size distribution has an important impact on permeability of soil or water intake rate, water storage
capacity ability to aggregate, crushing and the chemical makeup of the soil. The value of land, land use capability
and soil management practices are largely determined by the texture.[4]
The size limits for different fractions according to International system of classification (ISSS) is as follows-
a) Gravel Greater than 2 mm diameter
b) Coarse Sand 2.0 to 0.2 mm diameter
c) Fine Sand 0.2 to 0.02 mm diameter
d) Silt 0.02 to 0.002 mm diameter
e) Clay Less than 0.002 mm diameter

1.6.6 Bulk Density

Bulk density is defined as the weight of the soil in a given volume. It is an indicator of soil compaction. A compact
soil has a higher value of bulk density, while an organic soil has a lower value. Bulk density also affects water
holding capacity of the soil.

1.6.7 Field Capacity

Field capacity denotes the content of water or moisture that remain in soil for few days after being wetted and
after free drainage gets stopped i.e. after the loss of gravitational water. Succeeding this water is held in the soil
micro pores, which is available to plant roots, until the water content becomes low. Slowly the water stored in the

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soil is taken up by the plant roots or evaporated from the topsoil into the atmosphere. In the absence of additional
water, the soil slowly dries out. The dryer the soil becomes, the more tightly the remaining water is taken and
ultimately more difficult it is for the plant roots to extract it. At a definite stage, the uptake of water is not adequate
to meet the plant's needs, in turn the plant loses freshness and wilts; the leaves change colour from green to
yellow leading to death of the plant. The content of soil water at the stage, where the plant dies is called
permanent wilting point. The soil still contains some water, but it is too difficult for the roots to suck it from the
soil.

1.6.8 Soil pH
The soil pH is a measure of the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity of the soil solution or we can say
that it is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a soil.

1.6.9 Soil Acidity

It is one of the essential parameter for soil which in turn affects the growth of plant. Plant growth and most soil
processes, plus nutrient availability and microbial activity, are favored by a soil pH range of 5.5 – 8. Acid soil,
particularly in the subsurface, will also limit root access to water and nutrients. Fertilizers based on Ammonium
are major contributors for soil acidification. Ammonium nitrogen is readily transformed to nitrate and hydrogen
ions in the soil. If plants do not take nitrate, it can leach away from the root zone leaving behind hydrogen ions
thereby increasing soil acidity. [5]
Change in Soil Acidity is caused by many factors such as:-
n Excessive rain which leaches the basic cations (Ca, Mg, K)
n Use of nitrogenous fertilizers like urea, ammonium sulphate etc.
n Oxidation of minerals containing iron pyrite

1.6.10 Salinity and Alkalinity

Salinity and alkalinity in soil happens in arid and semi-arid regions, where precipitation is inadequate to meet
evapo-transpiration needs of plants, and the salts move up to the surface. Salt affected soils are present inside
irrigated lands. Salt accumulation happens through irrigation water and over-irrigation. The salt content in soil is
measured in terms of electrical conductivity (EC).A saline soil has a pH value of less than 8.5, but the soils are well
flocculated. Its EC is more than 4 deci-Seimens per meter (4dS m-1). Soil which is saline causes difficulties to crops
during dry weather. Loss of crop produce from poor growth is common. Alkaline soils have high pH values (more
than 8.5) and a high concentration of sodium in them. Alkaline soils are deflocculated, drainage is poor and
growing plants is difficult due to high pH values and higher content of sodium in the soil. Draining, flushing after
ploughing and addition of organic matter and gypsum can help in correcting these problems.

1.6.11 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

CEC is defined as the sum of cations held by a kilogram of soil. It is expressed in Cmo/Kg soil. It is a quantity of the
soil's ability to hold positively charged ions. It is a very important soil property prompting soil structure stability,
nutrient availability, soil pH and the soil's reaction to fertilizers and other ameliorants. Soil colloids of clay and
organic matter have this property due to the presence of negative charges at the surface. Clays like Kaolinite have
low CEC and organic matter has a large CEC but both factors are pH dependent.

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1.6.12 Soil Organic Material (SOM)

Accumulation of organic matter occurs in wet places where its deposition is fast as compared to its decomposition
rate. The deposits formed are called peat, which in turn may become parent material for soils.
The principal general kinds of peat, according to origin are:
n Sedimentary peat- It consists mostly the remains of floating aquatic plants, such as algae, and also the remains
(faecal material) of aquatic animals, including coprogenous earth.
n Moss peat- the remains of mosses, including Sphagnum.
n Herbaceous peat- the remains of sedges, cattails, reeds, and other herbaceous plants.
n Woody peat- the remains of shrubs, trees, and other woody plants.

Many deposits of organic material are mixtures of peat. Some organic soils shaped in discontinuous layers of
different kinds of peat. In places peat is varied with deposits of mineral alluvium and/or volcanic ash. [6]
Organic material should comprise the origin and the botanical composition of the material to the degree that
these can be reasonably inferred.
n The soil organic matter consists of living organisms, dead plant and animal residues. It is the most chemically
active portion of the soil and serves as a reservoir for various essential elements. It promotes good soil
structure.
n SOM contributes to CEC and buffers the soil pH.
n It also promotes good air and water relations in plants.

1.7 Soil Nutrients

There are in all 16 elements that are identified and established to be essential for the growth of plant. They are
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), Potasium (K), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium
(Mg), Iron (Fe), Sulphur (S), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu), Boron (B), Molybdenum (Mo) and Chlorine
(Cl).
These are classified as major and micro nutrients, and are further classified as follows:
Major Nutrients
Group 1: Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
Group 2: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potasium
Secondary Nutrients: Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur
Micro Nutrients: Iron, Manganese, Boron, Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum and Chlorine

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Table 1.2: Nutrients Essential for plant growth and forms in which taken up by plants
Nutrient Chemical symbol Form taken up by plant
Primary Nutrients
1. Carbon C CO2, HCO3
2. Hydrogen H H2O
3. Oxygen O H2O, O2
+ -
4. Nitrogen N NH4 , NO3
- -2
5. Phosphorous P H2PO4 , HPO4
6. Potassium K K+
Secondary Nutrients
Calcium Ca Ca2+
Magnesium Mg Mg2+
Sulphur S SO42-
Micro Nutrients
Iron Fe Fe2+, Fe3+, chelate
Zinc Zn Zn2+, Zn(OH)2, chelate
Manganese Mn Mn2+, chelate
Copper Cu Cu2+, chelate
Boron B B(OH)3
Molybdenum Mo MoO4-
Chlorine Cl Cl-

1.8 Classification of Soil

n Red Soil: Red colour is due to presence of various oxides of iron. The soils are poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
and Potassium and with pH of 7 to 7.5. The red color is due to the diffusion of iron in soil profile. These soils are
light textured with porous structure. Lime is absent with low soluble salts. Examples are Alfisol, Inceptisol and
Ultisol
n Lateritic Soil: This type of soil is seen in those areas which have high rainfall. Under high rainfall conditions
silica is released and leached downwards and the upper horizons of soils become rich in oxides of iron and
aluminium. It is comprised of a mixture of hydrated oxides of aluminum and iron with small amounts of
manganese oxide. The texture is light with free drainage structure. Clay is predominant and lime is deficient.
pH ranges from 5 to 6 with low in base exchange capacity, contained more humus and are well drained.
Examples are Alfisol, Ultisol and Oxisol
n Black Soil: Black soil is characterised by dark grey to black colour with high clay content, the soils are neutral to
slightly alkaline in reaction. It has a high proportion of calcium and magnesium carbonates and has a high
degree of fertility. There are occurrences of deep cracks, which are developed during summer; the depth of
the soil varies from less than a meter to several meters. This type of soil is rich in lime and potash and hence
has high pH, examples are Vertisol, Inceptisol and Entisol
n Alluvial Soil: This type of soil is considered as the most important soil from the agriculture point of view. The
soils range from sandy loam to clay loam with light grey colour to dark colour; structure is loose and more
fertile. But the soils are low in Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium and Humus. Alluvial soil is considered as the
largest and the most important group of [Link] soil is well supplied with lime and pH ranges from 7 to 8,
examples include Entesol, Inceptisol and Alfisol

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n Desert Soil: The soils are mostly sandy to loamy fine sand with brown to yellow colour; it contains large
amounts of soluble salts and lime with pH ranging 8.0 to 8.5. Nitrogen content is very low. The presence of
Phosphate and Nitrate make the desert soils fertile and productive under supply of water. They occur mostly in
dry areas and their important content is quartz. Examples are Entisol and Aridisol
n Forest and Hill Soils: Soils are dark brown with more sub-soil humus content. They are more acidic. It has high
organic [Link]-Alfisol
n Problem Soils: The soils which owe characteristics that they cannot be economically used for the cultivation of
crops without adopting proper reclamation measures are known as problem soils.

1.9 Functions of Organic Matter in the Soil

The functions of the Organic Matter in the soil are as given below:-
n Organic matter supplies Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulphur and other secondary and micro-nutrients for plant
growth.
n It has large surface area and has high CEC.
n It holds upto twenty times their weight of water.
n It holds cations and anions and releases them slowly.
n The ratio of C:N:P:S is [Link].1
n It affects the breakdown of pesticides and weedicides.
n It chelates micronutrients such as Zn, Mn and Cu making them more available to plant roots.
n It buffers extreme acidity, salinity and alkalinity.

1.10 Nitrogen cycle

Various kinds of micro flora inhabit the soil which decompose organic matter, cause denitrification and fix
atmospheric Nitrogen. The nitrogen cycle commences with the element nitrogen in the air. Two nitrogen oxides
which are found in the air are as a result of interactions with oxygen. Nitrogen will only react with oxygen in the
presence of high temperatures and pressures that are found near lightning bolts and in combustion reactions in
power plants or internal combustion engines. Nitric Oxide (NO) and Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) are examples of the
same. Eventually Nitrogen Dioxide may react with water in rain to form nitric acid, HNO3. The nitrates thus formed
may be utilized by plants as a nutrient.
In biological fixation process, Nitrogen which is present in the air becomes a part of biological matter generally
through the actions of bacteria and algae in a process known as nitrogen fixation. Plants belonging to leguminous
family such as Soyabeans, Alfalfa and Clover form nodules on the roots where nitrogen fixing bacteria take
nitrogen from the air and convert it into Ammonia (NH3). In turn the ammonia is further converted by other
- -
bacteria first into Nitrite ions (NO2 ), and then into Nitrate ions (NO3 ), plants consume the nitrate ions as a nutrient
or fertilizer for growth. Nitrogen is incorporate in many amino acids which are further reacted to make proteins.
Nitrogen also occurs in form of ammonia which can be made through a synthetic process called the Haber process,
wherein Nitrogen and hydrogen are reacted under great pressure and temperature in the presence of a catalyst to
make ammonia. Ammonia is frequently used as fertilizer and may be directly applied to farm fields. Ammonia may
be further processed with oxygen to make nitric acid. Ammonia when reacted with nitric acid produces
ammonium nitrate which may then be used as a fertilizer for farm fields. Animal wastes can also act as a source of
nitrates, when decomposed they return to the earth as nitrates. Generally, all the nitrogen-fixing organisms

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belongs to the group prokaryotes (Bacteria, Table 1), out of which some live independently of other
organisms–termed as free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Others live in intimate symbiotic associations with
plants or with other organisms (e.g. protozoa).

Table 1.3: Nitrogen fixing Bacteria (* Photosynthetic bacterium)

Free Living Symbiotic with plants

Aerobic Anaerobic Other plants Legumes
Beijerinckia Azotobacter Desulfovibrio Clostridium Frankia Rhizobium
Klebsiella (some) (some) Purple sulphur/ Azospirillum
Cyanobacteria (some) non Sulphur bacteria*
Green Sulphur bacteria*

To complete the Nitrogen cycle other

bacteria present in soil carry out a
process known as denitrification
which converts nitrates back to
nitrogen gas, Figure 1.3 and 1.4 N2O,
Nitrous oxide which is also known as
"laughing gas" - mild anaesthetic, is
produced as a side product in
Nitrogen cycle. It is mild anaesthetic,
and also a greenhouse gas which
[7]
contributes to global warming.
Figure 1.3 Nitrogen fixation
Source: Internet Image

Figure 1.4 Nitrogen Cycle

Source: Internet Image

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