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SOME MEMORIZATION IS REQUIRED FOR CHAPTER 1
SOME SUPPLEMENTARY RESOURCES ARE AVAILABLE IN BLACKBOARD
Check Course Documents Folder
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SECTIONS 1.1-1.3 ARE NOT
PRESENTED IN LECTURE
You will need to read Sections 1.1-1.3 on your own. There are problems assigned for
these sections in the homework, and they will be covered on quizzes and midterms.
There is a video in the Chapter 1 folder on Blackboard that goes over much of this.
Chapter 1
• Measurement
• Significant Figures
• Scientific Notation
• Unit Analysis (aka factor label method)
• Metric System
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Measurement: An experimental process by which some
property of a system is quantified.
Measurements come in two types:
Exact Measurement:
Inexact Measurement:
(cm)
Measurement: An experimental process by which some
property of a system is quantified.
Measurements come in two types:
Exact Measurement:
Need to be able
to characterize
the error here.
{ Inexact Measurement:
(cm)
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Characterizing a Measurement:
Accuracy: How close to the true value a
measurement is.
Precision: How reproducible a measurement is.
Example: Two thermometers
Example: Two thermometers
Average human body temperature: 98.6oF
Does the child have a fever?
Thermometer #1: Thermometer #2:
95.6oF 96.6oF
98.6oF 96.5oF
101.6oF 96.7oF
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Example: Two thermometers
Average human body temperature: 98.6oF
Does the child have a fever?
Thermometer #1: Thermometer #2:
95.6oF 96.6oF
98.6oF 96.5oF
101.6oF 96.7oF
Go to doctor, get checked
“True” value is 98.6oF
Should we throw away the thermometers?
Example: Two thermometers
Go to doctor, get checked
“True” value is 98.6oF
Should we throw away the thermometers?
Thermometer #1: Thermometer #2:
95.6oF 96.6oF
98.6oF 96.5oF
101.6oF Accuracy: How close to the true value a 96.7oF
measurement is.
Precision: How reproducible a measurement is.
Thermometer #1 is Thermometer #2 is
accurate but not precise but not
precise. accurate.
Understanding the problems lets us correct them.
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Example: Two thermometers
Average human body temperature: 98.6oF
Does the child have a fever?
Thermometer #1: Thermometer #2:
95.6oF Thermometer #1 is 96.6oF Thermometer #2 is
98.6oF accurate but not 96.5oF precise but not
o
101.6 F precise. 96.7oF accurate.
Average: 98.6oF 96.6oF
To use the thermometer, make multiple To use the thermometer,
measurements and take the average. make one measurement and
add 20F (calibration).
More generally: Counter poor precision with multiple measurements.
Counter poor accuracy with calibration.
Quick and dirty way to handle error: Significant figures
Convention: When measuring an object, report the
value such that the last digit is an estimate
(cm)
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Chapter 1
• Measurement
• Significant Figures
• Scientific Notation
• Unit Analysis (aka factor label method)
• Metric System
Quick and dirty way to handle error: Significant figures
Convention: When measuring an object, report the
value such that the last digit is an estimate
Correct
values:
6.2 cm
(cm)
6.3 cm
6.24 cm
6.25 cm
6.26 cm
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Mathematics with Significant Figures: Addition & Subtraction
Challenge: Once you have an estimate of error included in significant
figures, you need to preserve that information when you do math.
If one pencil is 6.24 cm long and another is 3.2 cm long, how long
would they be if you placed them end to end?
6.24 cm 3.2 cm
Error in measurement +/-0.01 cm Error in measurement +/- .1cm
Mathematics with Significant Figures: Addition & Subtraction
Challenge: Once you have an estimate of error included in significant
figures, you need to preserve that information when you do math.
If one pencil is 6.24 cm long and another is 3.2 cm long, how long
would they be if you placed them end to end?
6.24 cm 3.2 cm
Error in measurement +/-0.01 cm Error in measurement +/- .1cm
Can’t suddenly know the length more accurately after adding them
– have to preserve error.
Most important error is the larger error.
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Mathematics with Significant Figures
6.24 cm 3.2 cm
Error in measurement +/-0.01 cm Error in measurement +/- .1cm
Can’t suddenly know the length more accurately after adding them
– have to preserve error.
Most important error is the larger error.
Add numbers and stop at last digit they have in common:
6.24 cm
+3.2 cm
9.44 cm mathematical answer
9.4 cm correct answer including error
Mathematics with Significant Figures: Addition & Subtraction
6.24 cm 3.2 cm
Error in measurement +/-0.01 cm Error in measurement +/- .1cm
Can’t suddenly know the length more accurately after adding them
– have to preserve error.
Most important error is the larger error.
Add numbers and stop at last digit they have in common:
6.24 cm
+3.2 cm
9.44 cm mathematical answer
9.4 cm correct answer including error
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A Note on Rounding Off (from Flowers):
If the digit to be dropped (the one immediately to the right of the digit to be retained) is
less than 5, “round down” and leave the retained digit unchanged; if it is more than 5,
“round up” and increase the retained digit by 1; if the dropped digit is 5, round up or
down, whichever yields an even value for the retained digit. (The last part of this rule
may strike you as a bit odd, but it’s based on reliable statistics and is aimed at avoiding
any bias when dropping the digit “5,” since it is equally close to both possible values of
the retained digit.)
A Note on Rounding Off (from Flowers):
If the digit to be dropped (the one immediately to the right of the digit to be retained) is
less than 5, “round down” and leave the retained digit unchanged; if it is more than 5,
“round up” and increase the retained digit by 1; if the dropped digit is 5, round up or
down, whichever yields an even value for the retained digit. (The last part of this rule
may strike you as a bit odd, but it’s based on reliable statistics and is aimed at avoiding
any bias when dropping the digit “5,” since it is equally close to both possible values of
the retained digit.)
Indicating sig figs in numbers ending in 0
100 100 100. 100.0
+/-10 +/-1 +/-1 +/-0.1
Won’t have to worry about this when we get to scientific notation!
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Mathematics with Significant Figures: Multiplication & Division
Need to be able to count the number of significant figures.
Product of two numbers has the same number of sig figs as the multiple that has
the least sig figs.
126 x 0.33 = 41.58 = 42
3 s.f. 2 s.f. math ans 2 s.f. (correct)
Same rule for division
126/12 = 10.5 = 10.
3 s.f. 2 s.f. math ans 2 s.f. (correct)
Mathematics with Significant Figures: Multiplication & Division
Need to be able to count the number of significant figures.
Product of two numbers has the same number of sig figs as the multiple that has
the least sig figs.
126 x 0.33 = 41.58 = 42
3 s.f. 2 s.f. math ans 2 s.f. (correct)
Same rule for division Need to be able to count s.f.
126/12 = 10.5 = 10.
3 s.f. 2 s.f. math ans 2 s.f. (correct)
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Counting Significant Figures:
1) All nonzero numbers are significant
2) Zeroes between significant digits are significant
3) Leading zeroes are not significant
4) Zeroes that fall at the end of a number after a decimal are significant
5) If a number ends in a decimal, all numbers (including zeroes) to the left
of the decimal are significant. But this is true only when the decimal
point is actually written.
6) When a number ends in zero but has no decimal, zeroes may or may not
be significant. Do not write numbers this way!
167 3 s.f.
167.0 4 s.f.
1.05 3 s.f
1050 AMBIGUOUS! DO NOT WRITE NUMBERS THIS WAY
1050. 4 s.f.
1050.0 5 s.f.
Counting Significant Figures:
1) All nonzero numbers are significant
2) Zeroes between significant digits are significant
3) Leading zeroes are not significant
4) Zeroes that fall at the end of a number after a decimal are significant
5) If a number ends in a decimal, all numbers (including zeroes) to the left
of the decimal are significant. But this is true only when the decimal
point is actually written.
6) When a number ends in zero but has no decimal, zeroes may or may not
be significant. Do not write numbers this way!
Product of two numbers has the same number of sig figs as the multiple that has the
least sig figs.
2.000 x 4.0 = 8.0 1.0 x 4.0000 = 4.0 2.00 / 4.0000 = 0.500
4 s.f. 2 s.f. 2 s.f. 2 s.f. 5 s.f. 2 s.f. 3 s.f. 5 s.f. 3 s.f.
2.0 x 4.0 = 8.0 0.0 x 4.0000 = 0.0 20.0 / 4.0000 = 5.00
2 s.f. 2 s.f. 2 s.f. 2 s.f. 5 s.f. 2 s.f. 3 s.f. 5 s.f. 3 s.f.
2 x 4.0 = 28s.f.
1 s.f. 2 s.f.
2 x 0.0
1 s.f.
=0
2 s.f. 1 s.f. 1.000 / 2.00 = 0.500
4 s.f. 3 s.f. 3 s.f.
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FINAL NOTE: EXACT NUMBERS HAVE INFINITELY MANY SIG FIGS
There are exactly 10 bowling pins at the end of an alley.
If each pin weighs 1.53 kg, then the total mass of pins is:
1.53 kg x 10 = 15.3 kg (treat 10 as 10.0000 because it is exact)
There are exactly 12 mints in a container. If each mint weighs 1.5g, what is
the mass of exactly 30 containers of mints?
30 containers x 12 mints = 360 mints (exact)
360 x 1.5g = 540g
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Current population:
8.20 billion
Awkward way to write numbers
8,200,000,000
Still awkward, and we need that silly overline
8.20x109
Inexact number Rule: Prefactor is always written so there
Information on sig figs here Exact number
is 1 digit to the left of the decimal.
Handles magnitude
This is a convenient way to do things: 16.0 x103
• Every digit in the prefactor is significant Becomes
• Exponential handles the magnitude 1.60x104
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Chapter 1
• Measurement
• Significant Figures
• Scientific Notation
• Unit Analysis (aka factor label method)
• Metric System
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Current population:
8.20 billion
Awkward way to write numbers
8,200,000,000
Still awkward, and we need that silly overline
8.20x109
Inexact number 109 = 10x10x10x10x10x10x10x10x10
Information on sig figs here Exact number = 1,000,000,000
Handles magnitude
This is a convenient way to do things:
• Every digit in the prefactor is significant
• Exponential handles the magnitude
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From Flowers, 2e
General rules for exponents:
(an)(am) = an+m 103 x 105 = 103+5 = 108
a-n=1/(an) 10-3 = 1/103 = 1/1000 = 0.001
ao=1 10o=1
an/(am)=an a-m = an-m 103/104 = 103-4 = 10-1 = 1/10 =0.10
(3.2x1012) (4.1x103) = (3.2 x 4.1)x1012+3 = 13x1015 = 1.3x1016
(3.2x1012)/(4.1x103) = (3.2/4.1)x1012-3= 0.78x109 = 7.8x108
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General rules for exponents:
Adjusting prefactors:
(3.2x1012) (4.1x103) = (3.2 x 4.1)x1012+3 = 13x1015 = 1.3x1016
You cannot change the value of the number, but you can change the way it is written.
Getting from 13x1015 to 1.3x1016 means making the prefactor smaller and the exponent larger
Try thinking of it this way:
(13x1015)x1 = 13x1015 No real information here
Just rewriting 1=10/10
Distributing 10 in a way that is convenient
Adjusting prefactors:
0.0300x10-7 Not good scientific notation – need prefactor to be larger and exponent term to be smaller
(0.0300x10-7) x 1 Again, just multiplying by 1. This time, we need to write 1 as 102/102
Just rewriting 1=102/102
Distributing 102 in a way that is convenient
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Chapter 1
• Measurement
• Significant Figures
• Scientific Notation
• Unit Analysis (aka factor label method)
• Metric System
Chapter 1
• Measurement
• Significant Figures
• Scientific Notation
• Unit Analysis (aka factor label method)
• Metric System
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What Should a Good System of Units Look Like?
Units are designed, they serve a purpose
What should the goal be for the designers?
System of units should do 3 things:
1) Be indestructible
2) Be reproducible anywhere in the world
3) Be flexible: Same system should allow you to measure the weight
of a ship, a cannonball, and a feather
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The French Revolution!
Liberte!
Egalite!
Fraternite!
Prefix Value Symbol
Giga 109 G
Mega 106 M
Kilo 103 K
deci 10-1 D
centi 10-2 c Know the ones in red!
milli 10-3 m
micro 10-6 μ
nano 10-9 n
pico 10-12 p
femto 10-15 f
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How the French National Academy Defined the Meter
North Pole
Goal: Distance from North Pole to
Equator = 10,000,000 m by definition
Equator
Method: Measure one arc very
precisely, get latitude, estimate from
that.
This is not how the modern metric system is defined!
The Plan:
1) Send 2 members of the academy to find the distance from
Dunkirk to Barcelona – one goes north, one goes south
2) Measure latitude at ends very precisely
3) Estimate the distance from North Pole to Equator, define meter
4) Wait for a grateful World Republic to acknowledge their
contribution to the Liberation of Man
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From: K. Alder, “The Measure
Of All Things,” The Free Press,
New York, 2002.
Went north from Paris Went south from Paris
From: K. Alder, “The Measure
Of All Things,” The Free Press,
New York, 2002.
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The Outcome:
1) Survey took seven years to complete
2) Funny thing: Earth not as round as they thought – Defeats the
whole purpose!
3) World Republic fails to materialize
The Outcome:
1) Survey took seven years to complete
2) Funny thing: Earth not as round as they thought – Defeats the
whole purpose!
3) World Republic fails to materialize
4) Over 7 billion people cannot buy water without paying homage
to two hapless ideologues.
Only the US, Myanmar, and Liberia don’t use the metric system!
Modern definition of the meter:
Length traveled by light in vacuum
during 1/299,792,458 of a second.
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Prefix Value Symbol
Giga 109 G
Mega 106 M
Kilo 103 K
deci 10-1 D
centi 10-2 c Know the ones in red!
milli 10-3 m
micro 10-6 μ
nano 10-9 n
pico 10-12 p
femto 10-15 f
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