Study Notes

Seed Production & Details

Seed Production & Details

Seed & Details

What is seed?

• Seed is a fertilized matured ovule together covered with seed coat is called seed or it is
a propagating material.

Acc to The Seeds Act 1966

• “seed” means any of the following classes of seeds used for sowing or planting-
- (i) seeds of food crops including edible oil seeds and seeds of fruits and
vegetables;
- (ii) cotton seeds;
- (iii) seeds of cattle fodder;

and includes seedlings, and tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings, all types of grafts
and other vegetatively propagated material, of food crops or cattle fodder

Seed Production

• Any material used for planting or propagation, it may in the form of seed (grain)
seedlings, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings, grafts or any other vegetative
propagated material.

Generation system in Seed

• Nucleus Seed
• Breeder Seed
• Foundation Seed
• Registered seed
• Certified Seed

In India, three generation system of seed multiplication is followed

• Breeder Seed- Foundation Seed- Certified seed

S No Seed Class Tag color Genetic Purity Physical Purity

1 Breeder Seed Golden yellow 100% 100%

2 Foundation seed White 99.5% >95%

3 Certified seed Azar blue 99% >90%

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Seed Production & Details

Nucleus Seed
• Produced from basic nucleus stock.
• Produced by the original breeder/Institute/State Agriculture University (SAU) - Small
scale multiplication.
• Pedigree Certificate issued by Breeder.

General Standards

Genetical Purity 100%

Physical Purity 100%

Min. Germination 100%

Max. Inert Matter 0%

Breeder seeds

• Progeny of Nucleus Seed.

• Multiplied in large area as per indent of Department of Agriculture and Cooperation
(DOAC), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, under supervision of plant breeder
/ institute / SAUs and monitored by a committee consisting of the representatives of
state seed certification agency, national / state seed corporations, ICAR nominee and
concerned breeder’.
• Golden Yellow color certificate is issued.

General Standards:

Genetical Purity 100%

Physical Purity 100%

Min. Germination 100%

Max. Inert Matter 0%

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Seed Production & Details

Foundation Seeds

• Progeny of Breeder Seed.

• Introduction to Seed Science
• Produced by Recognized Seed Producing agencies in public and private sectors under
the supervision of Certification agencies.
• Large Scale Multiplication.
• White Color certificate is issued.

General Standards:

Genetical Purity :- 99.5% Isolation:

Physical Purity :- >95% Self-Pollinated= 50-150 m

Min. Germination :- 70-85% Cross Pollinated = 600-1200 m

Max. Inert Matter :- 2%

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Seed Production & Details

Registered seed
• Registered seed shall be the progeny of foundation seed that is so handled as to
maintain its genetic identity and purity according to standard specified for the particular
crop being certified.
• A purple color certificate is issued for this category of seed.

Certified Seed
• Progeny of Foundation Seed.
• Produced by registered seed growers under the supervision of Seed Certification
Agencies.
• Meant for Distribution to the Farmers for commercial cultivation.
• Azur Blue color certificate is issued.

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Seed Production & Details

• Large Scale Multiplication

General Standards

Genetical Purity 99%

Physical Purity >90%

Min. Germination 60-80%

Max. Inert Matter 2%

Isolation Distance

Self-Pollinated 50-300 m

Cross Pollinated 600-1600 m

• Information on the Label

• Species (botanical name)
• Cultivar name
• Category
• Reference number
• Date of issue of certificate

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Seed Production & Details

Classification of seed on the basis of storage

• Two types of seeds according to freezing
- Orthodox Seeds
- Recalcitrant Seeds (Unorthodox Seeds).
- Intermediate Seeds

Orthodox seeds

• Seeds which can be dried down to a low Moisture Content of around 5% to 10% and
successfully stored at low or sub- freezing temperatures for long periods.
• Orthodox seeds are seeds which will survive drying and/or freezing during ex-situ
conservation.
• Most orthodox seeds come from annual temperate species adapted to open fields. At
physiological maturity they contain moisture content of 30 – 50%

Examples

• Pea, Tomato, Corn, Guava, Sapota, Banana, Apple, Cherry, etc.

Recalcitrant seed

• Seeds which cannot survive drying below a relatively high moisture content (30–50%)
and which cannot be successfully stored for long periods.
• Recalcitrant seeds are seeds that do not survive drying and freezing during ex-situ
conservation.

Examples

• Jamun, Jackfruit, Mango, Litchi, Mangosteen, Durian, Avocado, Citrus, Rambutan, etc.

Intermediate seeds

• Which exhibit the drying tolerance characteristic of the orthodox seeds but are sensitive
to low temperature storage like the recalcitrant seeds.

Examples

• Papaya, Macadamia nut

Isolation Distance

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Seed Production & Details

• Isolation distance is the minimum separation required between two or more varieties of
the same species for the purpose of keeping seed pure.

Crop Minimum isolation distance (m)

Foundation seed Certified seed

Hybrid maize 400 200

Hybrid jowar -other jowar 300 200

400 400

Hybrid bajra 1000 200

Wheat 3 3

Rice 3 3

Cotton 50 30

Soybean 3 3

Rapeseed and mustard 400 200

Peas 20 10

Cowpeas, Sem, Rajma 50 25

Tomato 50 20

Bhindi 400 200

Chilies 400 100

Brinjal 200 100

Carrot 1,000 400-800

Cucurbits 800 400

Radish and turnip 1,600 1,000

Cauliflower 1,600 1,000

Seed Multiplication Ratio

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Seed Production & Details

Number of seeds to be produced from a single seed

Crop Seed Multiplication Ratio

Wheat 1:20

Paddy 1:80 (Varieties)

1:100 (Hybrids)

Maize 1:80 (Varieties)

1:100 (Hybrids)

Sorghum 1:100

Bajra 1:200

Ragi 1:80

Gram 1:10

Black gram 1:40

Green gram 1:40

Cowpea 1:40

Horse gram 1:40

Moth bean 1:40

Red gram 1:100

Cole crops 1: 433

Potato 1:4

Groundnut 1:8

Linseed 1:50

Cotton 1:50

Jute 1:100

Mentha 1:40

Sun hemp 1:30

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Seed Production & Details

Berseem 1;10

Lucerne 1:25

Oats 1:15

Bhindi 1:100

Tomato 1:400

Brinjal 1:450

Chilies 1:240

Watermelon 1:100

Pumpkin 1:160

Bitter gourd 1:41

Bottle gourd 1:99

Ridge gourd 1:83

Cucumber 1:200

French bean 1:9

Cluster bean 1:50

Peas 1:19

Onion 1:171

Radish 1:100

Carrot 1:83

Mustard and rape 1:100

Soybean 1:16

Sunflower 1:50

Sesame 1:250

Safflower and castor 1:60

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Seed Production & Details

Lucerne 1:25

Difference between certified seed and truthful labeled seed

Certified seed Truthful labelled seed

Certification is voluntary. Quality Truthful labelling is compulsory for notified kind

guaranteed by certification agency. of varieties. Quality guaranteed by producing
agency

Applicable to notified kinds only Applicable to both notified and released varieties

It should satisfy both minimum field Tested for physical purity and germination
and seed standards

Seed certification officer, seed Seed inspectors alone can take samples for
inspectors can take samples for checking the seed quality.
inspection

Seed Processing
• After harvest the seeds need to be processed by various methods in order to maintain
the physical purity and also to increase the shelf life. This should be done before seeds
are taken for storage.
▪ Cleaning
▪ Winnowing
▪ Sieving
▪ Drying

Seed Village

• A village, where group of farmers are trained and included in production of seeds of
various crops to cater the needs of themselves, fellow farmers of the village and farmers
of neighboring villages at appropriate time and at affordable cost is called “a seed
village”.

Concept of Seed Village

• To organize seed production in clusters or a compact area

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Seed Production & Details

• To replace existing local varieties with new high yielding varieties

• To increasing the seed production
• To meet the local demand, timely supply of seed at reasonable cost
• To ensure social and economic self-sufficiency and self-reliance of the village ∙ To
increase the seed replacement rate (SRR)
• The implementing agencies are State Departments of Agriculture, State Agriculture
Universities, Krishi Vigyan Kendra’s, State Seeds Corporation, National Seeds
Corporation, State Farms Corporation of India (SFCI), State Seeds Certification
Agencies, and Department of Seed Certification.
• State Government and the implementing agencies will have to identify the areas of
better seeds production and a compact area approach needs to be followed under this
programme.
• Suitable responding/willing minimum 50 farmers for same crop will be identified/selected
preferably in compact area/cluster approach in consultation with the concerned State
Department of Agriculture by the implementing agencies.
• The number of farmers may be more than 50 also subject to a maximum of 150.

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 Study Notes
Seed Certification, Seed
Testing & Seed Storage
Seed certification, seed testing and seed storage

Seed Certification

• Seed certification is a legally sanctioned system for the quality control of seed during
seed multiplication and production.
• As per Indian Seed Act, seed certification is voluntary and it is not compulsory.
• The seed that is sold in the market is of 2 types certified seed and truthfully labelled
seed.
• The seed, which is being certified by seed certification agency, is called as certified seed.
• The certification agency is a separate organization meant for certifying the quality of the
seed and it has nothing to do with seed production.
• The seed certification agency maintains certain strict standards before issuing the
certification tag or label whereas truthfully labeled seed is one which is being produced and
marketed by the producing company by maintaining the labeling standards.
• The farmer or the user of the seed does not know the pedigree of the truthfully labeled seed
and he has to rely on the seed producing company, whereas the certified seed has to
maintain both field and seed standards and if the seed lot meets both the field and seed
standards then only the certification tag or label is issued.

Procedure for seed certification: -

Seed certification is voluntary and that too for the kind and variety notified by the government of
India. It can be completed in six phases.

1. Receipt and scrutiny of the application.

2. Verification of seed source, class and other requirements.

3. Field inspection should be conducted to see that fields are up to the prescribed field
standard.

4. Post-harvest inspection, including processing and packing.

5. Seed sampling and testing to confirm that seeds are up to the prescribed seed
standards.

6. Grant of certificate, tagging and sealing.

Receipt and scrutiny of the application:

• Those who are interested in seed certification should submit an application form to the
concerned seed certification officer with the prescribed fees.
• The fee is for one season for a single variety and for an area up to 25 acres (10 ha.).
• If the area is >25 acres or if more than one variety is planted separate applications
should be made for each variety.
• If an area is <25 acres under one variety but if the fields are scattered and separated by
more than 50 meters, again separate applications should be made.

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Seed certification, seed testing and seed storage

• On receiving the applications, the seed certification agency verifies for the following
conditions:

a) Eligibility of the variety: Only those varieties that are notified by the central govt. are
eligible for certification.

b) Establishing the seed source: The seed producer should submit the tag, in-voice, and
a copy of form.

c) There should not be any difficulty in reaching the field for carrying out timely field
inspection.

d) Whether the required isolation and land requirement is followed or not.

e) Whether the processing plant facility is available to the applicant.

f) Whether the applicant has paid the requisite registration fee or not.

If all the above 6 conditions are fulfilled then seed producer has to pay the field
inspection fees according to the prescribed certification charges.

Verification of seed source, class and other requirements: -

• The seed should be from authentic source and from appropriate class and should be in
accordance with Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards.

Inspection of Seed Fields: -

• The certified seed producers should grow and harvest the crop as per the guidelines
issued by the seed certification agency.
• They must carefully carry out the rogueing and other operations as per the directive of
the certification agency.
• The certification staff conducts the field inspections at appropriate stages of crop growth
to ensure that minimum standards of isolation, preceding crop requirement, rogueing
and other special operations are maintained at all times.
• The inspection of seed crop is done at different stages of crop growth such as at the
time of sowing (when new crop is introduced), vegetative stage or pre-flowering
stage, flowering stage, post-flowering or pre-harvest stages and at the time of
harvest.
• The contaminants to be observed during field inspections are off types plants, pollen
shedders, shedding tassels, inseparable other crop plants, objectionable weed
plants and diseased plants.
• The field inspections are designated to ensure that the crop is up to the prescribed field
standards.
• All the seed fields, which do not meet the required field standards, are eventually
rejected.

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Seed certification, seed testing and seed storage

Method of taking field counts: -

The method of taking field counts involves following steps: -

1. Determine the number of field counts: - For all crops, minimum of 5 counts are to be
taken for an area up to 2 hectares and an additional count is to be taken for each additional
2 hectares or part thereof is given below.

Area of the field in hectares Minimum number of counts to be taken

Up to 2 5

2-4 6

4-6 7

6-8 8

8-10 9

Above 10 10

• In any inspection, if the first set of count shows that the seed crop does not confirm to
the prescribed standards for any factor, a second set of count should be taken for that
factor.
• In hybrid seed production plots, the number of counts must be taken separately for both
the parents.

2. Number of plants to be observed for completing one count: - The number of plants to
be observed for completing a single count varies from crop to crop.
Crops Number of
plants/heads per count

Wide spaced crops: Bhindi, brinjal, Bulb crops, 100 plants

Chillies, Cole crops, Cotton, Cucurbits, Groundnut,
Maize, Potato, Red gram, Tomato, root crops, etc.

Medium spaced crops: Beans, cowpea, gram, 500 plants

leaf crops, moong, urad, mustard, peas, sesame,
sun hemp, etc.

Thickly sown crops: Paddy, wheat, sorghum, 1000 plants

berseem, jute, lucerne, Mesta, soybean, bajra, etc.

• The required number of field inspections specified in the seed certification standards
should be conducted.

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Seed certification, seed testing and seed storage

• The purpose of these field inspections is to properly guide and advise the seed
producer, but at the same time to do the necessary inspections so that the ultimate
buyer can be assured that the seed crop has met all the necessary standards.

3. Rejection of seed fields: - All the seed fields, which do not confirm to the minimum
required standards for any of the factors should be rejected.
• The rejection letter should be immediately communicated to the seed grower stating the
reasons for the rejection.
• As far as possible the seed growers should be convinced for rejecting the seed fields by
showing the contaminants.

Post-harvest inspection: -

• The personnel from the seed certification agency should inspect the fields during
harvesting or post harvesting, so that there are no mechanical mixtures and seed is not
handled badly during threshing or afterwards.
• Then the seed is sent to seed processing plant with a threshing certificate.
• The personnel from the seed certification agency will be inspecting the seed processing
plant to avoid mechanical mixtures and damage caused to the seed during processing.

Seed sampling and testing: -

• The representative from seed certification agency draws a representative sample from
the seed lot at the time of processing or after processing and sends the sample to official
seed testing laboratory for evaluation.
• In the seed testing laboratory, the samples will be evaluated for seed standards such
as pure seed, inert matter, other crop seed, weed seeds, germination percentage
and moisture percentage, etc.

Grant of certificate, tagging and sealing: -

• After receiving a satisfactory report from the seed testing laboratory, tagging and sealing
of bags will be done under the supervision of seed certification agency.
• Under special circumstances, advance tags will also be issued to the extent of 75% of
the seed lot.
• Tags and seals should be in accordance with general seed certification requirements.
• Affixing of tags and seals on the containers completes the process of certification of
seeds.

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Seed certification, seed testing and seed storage

Control Plot testing: -

• The seed certification agency should arrange for a post season grow-out test for all
hybrids as prescribed in the standards.
• Randomly samples should be drawn from certified seed lots and sent to grow-out test
to check the efficiency and accuracy of the work done.

Validity period: -

• The seed is initially valid for a period of nine months from the date of testing the
samples.
• If the seed is not sold within the stipulated period, it can be revalidated for a period of six
months, if the seed lot meets the required seed standards.
• The seed can be revalidated as long as it meets the prescribed seed standards and for
each revalidation the validity period will be extended for six months.

Revocation of certificate: -

• If the certification agency is satisfied that the certificate granted by it has been obtained
by misrepresentation of essential facts, or the holder of the certificate has failed to
comply with the conditions subject to which the certificate has been issued, can revoke
the certificate.
• The certificate can be revoked only after giving a show cause notice to the holder of the
certificate.

Appeal against seed certification agency: -

• If any certified seed grower is not satisfied by the decision taken by the seed certification
agency (in rejecting the seed plot), he can make an appeal to the appellate authority
specified by the state government.
• The appeal should be made within 30 days from receiving the rejection letter.
• The appeal should be made in written along with a copy of the rejection letter and a
treasury fee.
• The application should be submitted personally or it should be sent through registered
post.
• The decision of the appellate authority will be final and it is binding on the seed
certification agency and the seed grower.

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Seed certification, seed testing and seed storage

Seed Testing

• Seed testing is required to assess the seed quality attributes of the seed-lots which have
to be offered for sale.
• These quality attributes are seed moisture content, germination and vigour, physical
and genetic purity, freedom from seed-borne diseases and insect infestation.
• Standard seed-testing procedures for the evaluation of seeds have been developed by the
International Seed Testing Association (ISTA).
• It is obligatory on the part of the seed analysts to follow rules prescribed by the International
Seed Testing Association (ISTA, 1985) for seed testing if the seed is moving into the
international trade.
• However, if the sale of the seed is regulated in a country by an Act of Parliament, the testing
of seeds for quality-control purposes may be done by the rules prescribed in the country.

Seed testing is the science of evaluating the planting value of seed that has been
developed to achieve the following objectives for minimizing the risks of planting low
quality seeds.

Objectives of Seed Testing: -

• To determine their quality, i.e., their suitability for planting.

• To identify seed quality problem and their probable cause.
• To determine the need for drying and processing and specific procedures that should be
used.
• To determine if seed meets established quality standards or labeling specifications.
• To establish quality and provide a basis for price and consumer discrimination among lots in
the market.

Seed Testing Procedures for Quality Assessment: -

Following guidelines may be used for managing the work in a seed testing laboratory for
efficient handling of seed samples: -

1. Receipt and registration of seed samples: -

• The samples received in the laboratory should be entered in a pre -printed register or forms
and assigned a test number to be used in all the analysis.
• The information like name of the sender, type of sample, kind of tests required, crop,
variety and class of seed, etc. should be properly recorded.
• The samples especially received for moisture test in the moisture-proof containers should be
passed on as such to the moisture test section after assigning the test number.
• For speedy operation it would be desirable to simultaneously prepare separate seed
analysis cards and envelops for working samples.
• The test number would invariably be written on each card and the envelop.
• These are passed on to the person responsible for preparation of the working samples. The
entire work should be so organized that this work is completed in same day.

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Seed certification, seed testing and seed storage

2. Moisture test: -

• The samples intended for a moisture test requires special attention, because it may
otherwise either lose or may absorb moisture from outside.
• These samples after assigning the test no. should be passed on for moisture testing
analysis without unnecessary delay.

3. Working sample: -

• After entering the samples, the next step is to prepare the working sample for various tests.
• To save time taken in completing the seed tests the first objective should be to prepare a
working sample for the germination or viability test so as to limit the seed testing time to the
minimum time required to complete seed germination or viability test, as the case may be.
• The working sample envelopes for the various tests along with the corresponding analysis
card should be serially placed in sample trays for sending to the concerned section.

4. Routine Tests: -

• In a seed testing laboratory, germination test, purity test, test for other seeds and moisture
test are known as routing test.
• For all such crops where the analysis for diseased seeds or other variety seeds is also
desired on the routine basis (as in the case of certified seed samples for the issuance of
seed certification tags) these tests should also be included in the routine tests.

5. Reporting of results: -

• After the tests have been completed the results are reported on a printed form known as
seed analysis certificate in the requisite manner.
• It is important to ensure that there are no undue delays.
• The result of seed samples received from seed inspectors under the provision of Seeds Act
should be communicated within 21 days from the date of receipt but not later than 30
days in any case.

6. Storage of guard samples: -

• The submitted samples received by the seed testing laboratory, on which reports are issued,
should be stored after analysis for one year from the date of issue of reports, in conditions
calculated to minimize any change in quality.

7. Maintenance of records:

• To serve the needs of seed certification, farmers and other applicants, it is essential that
records are immediately available for any sample tested during the current year, season or
at any other specified time.
• The records should be maintained in such a manner that any information needed can be
traced immediately.

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Seed certification, seed testing and seed storage

Seed Storage

• Seed storage is preservation of seed with initial quality until it is needed for planting.
• Storage starts in the mother plant itself when it attains physiological maturity.
• After harvesting the seeds are either stored in ware houses or in transit or in retail shops.
• Seeds are uniquely equipped to survive, as viable regenerative organisms until the time and
place are right for the beginning of a new generation.
• However, they cannot retain their viability indefinitely and eventually deteriorate and die.

Depending on the longevity of seeds during storage, seeds can be divided into two categories;

1. Orthodox Seeds:
• Orthodox seeds are long-lived seeds.
• They can be successfully dried to moisture contents as low as 5% without injury
and are able to tolerate freezing temperatures.
• Most orthodox seeds come from annual temperate species adapted to open
fields.
• At physiological maturity they contain moisture content of 30 – 50%.

2. Recalcitrant Seeds:
• They are short-lived seeds, which cannot be dried to moisture contents below
30% without injury and are unable to tolerate freezing.
• They are difficult to store successfully because of their high moisture content
encourages microbial contamination and results in more rapid seed deterioration.
• Storage of these seeds at sub-zero temperatures causes the formation of ice
crystals, which disrupts cell membranes and causes freezing injury.
• These seeds are from perennial trees in the moist tropics such as coconut,
coffee, cocoa, citrus, etc.
• These seeds mature and exists in their fruits and are covered with fleshy or juicy
ariloid layers and impermeable testa.
• At physiological maturity they contain more moisture content (50-70%) than
orthodox seeds.
• In general, recalcitrant seeds never go into dormancy but instead continue their
development and progress towards germination. Most attempts at storing these
seeds have focused on using endogenous seed inhibitors such as abscisic acid
or replacing the high-water content with other substances such as sugar or
ethylene glycol to permit successful storage even under low temperature
without inducing ice-crystal formation and subsequent seed damage.

General principles of seed storage: -

• Seed storage conditions should be dry and cool.

• Effective control of storage pests.
• Proper sanitation in seed stores.

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Seed certification, seed testing and seed storage

• Before placing seeds into storage, they should be dried to safe moisture limits,
appropriate for storage system.
• Store only high-quality seed i.e., seeds which are well cleaned, treated, with high
germination and vigour.
• Determine seed storage needs in view of period or length of storage time and prevailing
climate of the area during storage period.
• Long-term storage requires more favourable conditions for seed storage than short-
term storage.

Factors influencing the life span of seeds: -

1. Genetic factors: -
• Seeds of some species are genetically and chemically equipped for longer storability
than other under comparable conditions.
• Most long-lived seeds belong to species possessing hard, impermeable seed coat.

2. Initial seed Quality: -

• The physical condition and physiological state of seeds greatly influence their life span.
• Seeds that have been broken, cracked deteriorate more rapidly than undamaged seeds.
• Several kinds of environmental stresses during seed development and prior to
physiological maturity can reduce the longevity of seeds.
• For example: - deficiency of minerals (N, K, Ca), water and temperature extremes.

3. Seed Moisture: -
• Moisture content of the seed influence the viability of seed during storage.
• Over the moisture range, the rate of deterioration increases with increase in moisture.
• Generally, for every 1% decrease in moisture the store potential of the seed doubles
(when the seed moisture is in the range of 4 – 14%).
• The higher the moisture content of seeds, the more they are adversely affected by both
upper and lower ranges of temperature.
• At very low moisture content of 4% seeds may be damaged due to extreme desiccation,
or breakdown of membrane structure hastens deterioration. This may be due to
reorientation of hydrophilic cells membranes due to loss of water molecules necessary to
retain their configuration.
• Since the life span of seeds largely depends on the moisture content it is necessary to
dry it to safe moisture limits before storage.
• Safe moisture content again depends on length of storage, type of storage structure and
kind of the seeds to be stored.
• For cereals in ordinary storage conditions for 12-18 months the seeds should be dried
to 10 – 12 % moisture content.
• However, for storage in sealed containers (Hermetic packing) the seeds should be dried
to 5 to 8% moisture content.

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Seed certification, seed testing and seed storage

4. Relative humidity (R.H.) and Temperature:

• The effects of R.H. and temperature of the storage environment are highly
interdependent.
• According to Harrington, the following thumb rules regarding optimum storage
conditions are as follows:
• For every 1% reduction in seed moisture the storage life of seed doubles
• For every 10°F reduction in temperature doubles the life span of the seed.
• The sum of relative humidity in percentage and temperature in °F should not
exceed 100.
• Thumb rule applies only when the seed moisture is in-between 4 and 14 %.

5. Pre- and post-harvest conditions:

• Environmental variations during seed development usually have little effect on the
viability of seeds, unless the ripening process is interrupted by premature harvesting,
shattering of maturing seeds in the field, particularly in conditions of excess moisture or
freezing temperature results in a product with inferior storage potential.
• Mechanical damage inflicted during harvesting can severely reduce the viability of some
seeds.
• During storage, injured or deeply buried areas over seeds may serve as centers for
infection and result in accelerated deterioration.
• Injuries close to vital parts of the embryonic axis or near the point of attachment of
cotyledons to the axis usually bring about the most rapid losses of viability.
• High temperatures during drying can dramatically reduce seed viability.

6. Effect of storage conditions on the activity of organisms associated with seeds in

storage:
• There are six main types of organisms associated with seeds in storage. They are
bacteria, fungi, mites, insects, rodents and birds.
• Bacteria - probably do not play a significant role in seed deterioration. As germination is
rarely reduced unless infection has progressed beyond the point of decay. Since
bacterial populations require free water to grow, they cannot grow in stored seeds as the
seeds are dry.
• Fungi - Two types of fungi invade the seeds - field fungi and storage fungi.
• Field fungi associated with wheat or barley in the field are Alternaria, Fusarium, and
Helminthosporium spp.
• Storage fungi belongs to the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. They infect seeds
only under storage conditions and are never present before, even in seeds of plants left
standing in the field after harvesting. Major deleterious effects of storage fungi are to
decrease viability, cause discoloration, produce mycotoxins, cause excessive
heat and develop mustiness and caking.

11
 Study Notes
World Trade Organization,
Intellectual Property Right,
Plant Breeder’s Right
World Trade Organization, Intellectual Property Right, Plant Breeder’s Right

World Trade Organization

• CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) is an International Treaty concluded under

the auspices of the United Nations Conference (3-14 June 1992) on Environment and
Development at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on 5th June 1992 and Convention was
participated and signed by 168 countries.
• CBD came into force on 29 December, 1993.
• CBD was developed on recognition of the intrinsic value of biological diversity and of
the ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational
and aesthetic values of biological diversity and its components. And the importance of
Biological Diversity for evolution and for maintaining live supporting systems of the
biosphere.
• Meanwhile the global paradigm shift occurred due to several Asian countries which were
major importers of food grains like India and China with world’s most populated nations
became self-sufficient and shift in agricultural research from public to private sector in
Developed countries having agricultural surplus.
• The setting up of international body-the World Trade Organization (WTO) in January 1995
– was to restructure international institutions in the areas of finance, trade and
economic stability.
• The liberalized trade regime under WTO became operational with the Marrakesh
Agreement, ratified in 1994 at the conclusion of 8th Uruguay Round of Trade talks which
began in 1986. India was one of the 136 member countries and signatories to the
Agreement which altered the whole framework of international trade which has existed
under the earlier General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT).
• Three-fourths of the member countries are developing countries, and together, they account
for over 90% of world trade.
• The issue of Plant variety Protection has been brought into focus under the provisions of
Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPs) Right which is a part of
Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) under World Trade Organization (WTO) for which India is
signatory and a founding member.
• Different forms of Protection of New Plant Varieties have been existing in the developed
countries through the system of Plant Breeder’s Rights (PBRs).
• In order to co-ordinate inter-country implementation of PBRs “International Union for the
Protection of New varieties of Plants” (UPOV) was established by International
Convention for Protection of New varieties of Plants, which was signed in Paris in
1961.
• The purpose of the convention is to ensure that the member states of the union
acknowledge the achievements of breeder of new plant varieties by making available to him
exclusive marketing rights, on the basis of a set of uniform and clearly defined principles.
• As the existing UPOV models of plant variety protection were not suitable for our
requirements, the Government of India enacted our own legislation on the Protection of
Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act (PPV&FR) in 2001 which is a unique model in the
world as it provides equal rights to farmers along with breeders.

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• For the purpose of implementation of this act, central Govt. of India established PPV&FR
authority.

Main objectives of the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act

1. Registration of plant varieties.

2. Characterization and documentation of registered varieties.

3. Documentation, indexing and cataloguing of farmer’s varieties.

4. Providing compulsory cataloguing facility for all plant varieties.

5. Ensuring that seeds of all registered varieties are made available to farmers.

6. Collection of comprehensive statistics on plant varieties.

7. Maintenance of National Register of Plant variety.

Intellectual Property Right

• Intellectual property is an idea, a design, an invention which can ultimately give rise to a
useful product or application.
• For the development of such intellectual property, requires intellectual inputs,
innovativeness, considerable monetary and other resources. Therefore, the inventor would
like to ensure a fair reward for his invention. But the major problem with intellectual property
is that they can be copied, imitated or reproduced, this minimizes the returns to the original
inventor.
• The right on an invention to derive economic benefits for his invention (i.e.,
intellectual property) is called as intellectual property rights (IPR).

Protection of Intellectual Property Rights: –

• The protection of IPR may take several forms depending on the type of intellectual
property and the type of protection sought.
• Each form of protection has its own advantages & disadvantages.
• The main forms of IPR protection are as follows: -

1. Trade secrets

2. Patents

3. Plant Breeder Rights (PBR)

4. Copyright

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Trade secret: -

• When the individual or organization owning an intellectual property does not disclose the
property to any one and keeps it as a closely guarded secret to promote his business
interests, it is called trade secrets. Trade secret may relate to formulae, processes or
parented lines in hybrids, in biotechnology trade secret include cell lines, microorganism
strains etc.

• Advantages:

1. They are for unlimited duration.

2. It is not necessary to satisfy the stringent procedures for patents.

3. The cost of facing, contesting & enforcing patents is saved.

4. The risk of someone improving upon the product etc is reduced.

• Limitations:

1. Maintaining a trade secret itself is a costly affair.

2. It is not protected from independent innovation or invention.

3. non-disclosure of the invention does not give others as chance to improve upon the
original inventions. This prevents or delays the progress in that particular field.

4. It cannot be applied to many inventions e.g., Equipment designs, plant varieties, books
etc.

Patents:

• A Patent is the right granted by a government to an inventor to exclude others from

imitating, manufacturing, using or selling the invention in question for commercial use during
the specified period.
• For granting a patent the main requirements are as follows: -

1) Novelty

2) Inventiveness

3) Industrial application & usefulness

4) Patentability

5) Disclosure

• Novelty: - The invention must be new and should not be already known to public.
• Inventiveness: - The invention should represent an innovation.

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• Industrial Application & Usefulness: - The patent must have an industrial application,
should be useful to the society.
• Patentability: - It must be patentable under the existing law and its current interpretation.
The criteria at present varies from country to country and with time within the same country.
• Disclosure: - The inventor has to describe his invention in sufficient detail so that a person
of normal skill is able to reproduce it. In case of biological entities already known, organisms
may be simply named. But if they have been genetically modified, the nature and the
method of modification has to be described fully.
• A patent may be viewed as a contract between the society and the inventor where in the
inventor discloses his intention in return for the protection granted to him by the society to
control the commercial aspects of his invention to the extent that is not determined to the
society.
• The disclose of an invention gives an opportunity to other inventors to improve upon the
various features of the invention, so that it became more efficient and useful. This in-turn,
results in scientific and economic progress of the society.

Limits of a patent: -

A patent is limited both in time and space

a) Limitation of Time: – A patent is valid for a specified period of time from the date of
award in most countries this period is 15-20 years. However, there is a strong argument for
larger protection as it may take up to 10 years from the time or patent is awarded to the time
the product reaches market.

b. Limitation of Space: – A patent is valid only in the country of its Award and not in other
countries. A group of nations may agree to honour the patents awarded by any member
country e.g., European Economic community. WTO has a similar provision that a patent
awarded by WTO will be valid in all member countries.

Copyright: -

• Certain intellectual properties are not patentable. They are protected by copyright e.g.,
Books, Audio, Video cassettes & Computer software. The copyright is limited both in time
and extent.

Plant Breeder Rights (PBRs): -

• PBRs are the rights granted by the Govt. to plant breeder, or owner of a variety to exclude
others from producing commercially the propagating material or that variety for a period of
15-20 years.
• To qualify for PBR protection a variety has to be novel, distinct from existing varieties and
uniform and stable in its essential characteristics.
• A person holding PBR title to a variety can authorize other organizations to produce and sell
the propagating material of that variety.

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• PBR in India: – India had evolved a sui generis system of PBR, which means a system
of their own.
• The essential features of UPOV - 1978 act are being considered for adoption.

Some important features of the Indian sui generis system are: -

1. Farmers rights

2. Researchers right to use the material for research

3. Protection period of 15 years for annuals and 18 years for fruit trees

4. Compulsory deposit of the material in national gene bank

5. Establishment of National Authority for the protection of Breeders, farmers and researchers
use rights.

Benefits of PBR –

1. Profits obtained by breeders through PBR will act as an incentive in promoting Plant Breeder
research.

2. It encourages private companies to invest in Plant Breeding Research.

3. It will enable access to varieties developed in other countries & protected by IPR laws

4. Increased competitiveness among various organizations engaged in Plant Breeding is likely

to benefit both farmers and the nation

Disadvantages of PBR –

1. PBR will encourage monopoly in genetic material for specific use.

2. It suppress free exchange of genetic material and encourage unhealthy practices.

3. The PBR holder may produce less seed and increase the price for achieving more profit.

4. Farmer’s privilege to resow the seed produced by him may be gradually diluted.

5. PBR may result in increased cost of seed and may be burden for poor farmers.