 Comparative public administration is the study of two or

more public administration systems, and then drawing

parallels from them. It has to do with an analysis of the
operations of the system , for the purpose of finding the
strengths and weaknesses.
 Through the study, new ideas are generated thus according
new solutions to existent problems on the basis of an
analytical approach. As the society is dynamic, it becomes
imperative to reinterpret and re-evaluate administrative
structures to be in line with the ever changing trends in life.
This is best done through Comparative Public Administration.
A comparative study is usually done on an interdisciplinary
format, thus encouraging more analysis on social
phenomena.

1
 Public Administration is the act of implementing public
policies, as feedback is relayed to the policy makers. It is
government in action, a collective effort of getting things
done in accordance with the laid down procedures and within
the legal framework.
 Corson and Harris define public administration as "… decision
making, planning the work to be done, formulating objectives
and goals… establishing and reviewing organizations,
directing and supervising employees … exercising control
and other functions performed by government executives and
supervisors. It is the action part of government: the means by
which the purposes and goals of government are realized"
(Harris and Corson 1963)

2
 The comparative perspective in any branch of social science is not
very old. Although in ancient times Aristotle initiated a comparative
discussion between the city-states of Greece. Nevertheless, it can be
said that this view did not become very popular in later discussions
of political science.
 Comparative Public Administration started off as a topibc of interest
post the Wilson. He comparatively studied the political syStem of
USA.
 The real discussion of comparative governance began in the
aftermath of World War II, especially in the 1950s. Almond, Powell,
Coleman, Apter, Lucian Pye, etc., present comparative analysis in a
larger field of comparative politics.
Undoubtedly, this view of comparative politics has encouraged the
interpretation and analysis of comparative public administration. Many
countries gained independence after the Second World War.

3
 Emerging nations of Asia and Africa tried to develop their
economy and political system and achieve their goals through
public administration .
 The first challenge of those newly independent countries was
rapid socio-economic development. This requires a
development administration.
 A clear comparative discussion between the administrations
of different countries in a particular environment was needed
to dispel doubts about what that development administration
would look like. Because the administrative model of the West
can never be applied to these newly independent countries to
get good results. As a result of comparative public
administration, it is possible to arrive at what kind of
administration is most conducive to the environment of those
countries.

4
 After the World War II, there was a misconception
that public administrative system could be applied
uniformly across the world. However, this was not
the case as the western kind of weberian
bureaucracy could not apply in some areas. This
then brought a need for a comparative study,
considering the environment that the system is to
apply, a study of which brought the advent of
Comparative Public Administration. This is the
study and analysis of different administrative
systems from different social, geographical and
cultural backgrounds, then putting them on a
balance.
5
 (1) The World War II brought about radical changes in academic and
other fields and comparative public administration is one of them.
During and after the War many eminent political scientists and
administrators were appointed to the policy determination
department of US government and especially in the public
administration department. They observed that the public
administration with which they are well acquainted and the public
administration they have taught in colleges and universities has very
little relevance to the practical side of public administration. They
desired to formulate new policies of public administration and
studied the administrative systems of different countries. These two
provided solid bases for a new approach to public administration
which later on came to be called comparative public administration.
These did not entirely provide the materials for comparative public
administration, but major parts came from this new change.

6
 (2) And its aftermath when there came the end of imperialism and
colonialism and emergence of many independent states , a joint initiative by
the developed countries under the United Nations aegis to refurbish the
developing an third world countries as well as to develop their own war
damaged national economies.
 3) Beginning of Cold War between the two superpowers USA and Soviet Union
played a big part in this moment. USA took the lead herein administrative
studiesand also in providing financial as well as technical help on the
developing nations.
 4) We know that World War II completely devastated the economic and social
basis of Western European states and their rebuilding was badly needed. But
at the same time it was felt that the existing structure of public
administration was incapable in meeting this necessity. A new type of public
administration must be built up. At the same time America came forward
with large amount of financial help under the Marshall Plan. The authorities
of these states with the existing system of public administration could not
handle the aids under Marshall Plan and its proper utilization was beyond its
capability. The planners and administrators proceeded to reformulate the
general principles of public administration and this supplied materials for a
new public administration.
7
 5) Under the pressure of new circumstances created by World War II
and modernization of economy caused by the War it was strongly
felt that the existing form of public administration shall be changed
to meet the needs of the new era. The old system of public
administration was not aware of the modernization of economic
system and the advent of new economic principles. The new
situation called for a new structure and principles of public
administration.

8
 The comparative public administration became highly popular in the high
tide of cold war period. The top administrators of White House and other
offices of Washington thought that the public administration must be made
appropriate to meet the challenge posed by Cold War.
 As a result of the revised thinking, courses in comparative public
administration began appearing in university catalogues, and by the early
1950s the American Political Science Association, the American Society for
Public Administration, and the Public Administration Clearing House were
forming special committees or sponsoring Conferences on Comparative
Public Administration. The real impetus came in 1962 when the Comparative
Administration Group (CAG founded in 1960) of the American Society for
Public Administration received financing from the Ford Foundation.
 on theoretical discussions or new theories.

9
 Comparative public administration gained prominence in 1962 when the
Ford Foundation received significant funding to run the Comparative
Administrative Group (CAG) within the American Society for Public
Administration.
 Throughout the sixties, the CAG organized many research, essays,
experimental lectures, and special seminars with administrators.
 This CAG was led by Fred Riggs. He gave a theoretical form to comparative
public administration.
 He spreads the discussion of public administration outside the United States,
especially in Third World countries. And facilitates the path of comparative
analysis within the administrations of Third World countries. That is why Fred
Riggs has been called the father of comparative public administration for his
outstanding contributions.
 The other contributors to this field are Leonard White, Robert Dahl, Feral
Heady, Ramesh Arora, Paul Mayer, etc.
 But in 1971 the Ford Foundation stopped funding because they felt that field
surveys, identification of various real problems, and their solutions were not
important in the CAG’s research. Their complaint was that the CAG was more
inclined to focus on theoretical discussions or new theories.
10
 It is because the erstwhile Soviet Union took special interest in the political
and economic affairs of states and the clash of interest and ideologies was
aggravating day-by-day. So we find that Cold War was substantially
responsible for the growing interest in comparative public administration and
Comparative Administration Group. American administrative system in
general and the Ford Foundation in particular were responsible for the
renewed interest in comparative administrative system.

 The Comparative Administration Group emphasized the following fields

which are closely related with comparative public administration.
Comparative Administration Group says that research work in comparative
public administration and other related fields should be encouraged. In the
second place there must be elaborate arrangement for teaching the various
fields of comparative public administration.
 Thirdly, the principle devised or suggested shall have ample scope of
application in practical fields. Finally, the Comparative Administration Group
emphasized the building up of theory. We have already noted that the
primary objective of Ford Foundation was to encourage the public
administration research and investigation of the Third World states.

11
 The authority of the Ford Foundation reminded the
Comparative Administration Group of this purpose.
It has been found that Comparative Administration
Group sent number of researchers to the practical
field to gather knowledge about the nature of
public administration of the developing nations. By
doing this Comparative Administration Group
established a fruitful link between the public
administrative of industrially developed nations
and the developing states of Asia and Africa.

12
 But in 1971 the Ford Foundation stopped funding because they felt
that field surveys, identification of various real problems, and their
solutions were not important in the CAG’s research. Their complaint
was that the CAG was more inclined to focus on theoretical
discussions or new theories.

13
 The fate of comparative public administration was faced with a
problem towards the first years of the seventies. In 1963 the
Comparative Administration Group was formed and both
comparative public administration and Comparative Administration
Group made joint efforts for the progress of the former. But the
comparative public administration “does appear to have reached a
critical point of development. In 1973 the Comparative
Administration Group was disbanded” .

 The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) thought that

the separate existence of CAG was unnecessary and it was merged
with ASPA. The separate existence and importance was felt
unnecessary or it was made superfluous. The persons who were
once interested in comparative public administration after the mid-
seventies they lost their interest. In the seventies many persons were
eager to have degrees in comparative public administration and by
the end of 1990s only few persons displayed interest.

14
 From the above discussion, some features of comparative public
administration can be identified. They are –
 1. This is a relatively new topic in public administration.
 3. The application of the scientific method in the discussion of comparative
public administration is particularly noteworthy.
 4. Since the Ford Foundation of the United States contributed financially to
its development, U.S. researchers and administration experts dominated this
particular discipline.
 5. Comparative public administration has been interested in theory building
and moving towards the administrative problems of the developing state and
its possible solutions.
 6. Apart from these, it makes students, teachers, researchers, administrators,
and experts aware of the public administration of other states. In addition,
another state can be established by bringing administrative institutions and
administrative procedures from other states and this is possible only through
comparative public administration.

15
 Attempts have been made at setting the scope, with scholars arguing that it studies
public administrative system of a country or a culture and of different countries and
cultures.

Includes various types of studies:

Intra-National : Comparison between administration of the same countries, like
administration of Chittagong and Dhaka.

Inter-Institutional : Comparison between institutions of the same country like Ministry of

Finance and Ministry of Industry in Bangladesh .

Cross- National : Comparison between administration of the different countries, like

administration of India with USA or France. Cross cultural in case of comparing countries
with different culture, like China with UK.

Cross-Temporal : Comparing different phases of time. Administration during British rule of

India with the present Indian administration .

16
 Comparative public administration studies the democratic
institutions and systems of different countries, the causes of
success or failure of distinct democratic institutions, how the
concept is applied and the level of success of a democratic
system. Political systems are also studied, as of the working
of a parliamentary system in one country, as compared to
another with the same system or different like the
presidential in the United States.

 The different methods of controlling administration are also

studied. Different political systems have different ways of
administration. The way administration in a unitary
totalitarian regime works is different from the way operations
of administration are run in a decentralized liberal
democracy. The workings of the three traditional arms of
government also vary with the political system in place
17
 Control and management of human resources is
also within the scope of the study. It does not only
consider methods of employee administration but
also individual employees in their social life. Thus
problems and grievances are addressed in
Comparative Public Administration. In the
developing world, there are often cases of
industrial action on the base of working conditions
and remunerations, issues which are not
pronounced in the affluent societies. Work place
discipline is also relatively higher in the developed
world as opposed to the least developed countries
which wallow in the miasma of poverty, corruption
and political impunity.
18
 Comparative Public Administration studies institutions at
international levels. The changing paradigms in international
relations brought about by globalization, terrorism, piracy,
global warming, etc all are within the scope. It studies the
operations of local self institutions in different countries, as
well.

 As the study intensifies, the scope of study widens. With

globalization developing at an ever faster rate, so is the
exchange of ideas on public administration reforms.
International conferences and seminars have been organized
around the world to have a way for public administration and
has worked to widen the scope of study.

19
 The main objective of comparative public administration is the classification
of administrative systems. In the question of classification, there is cause-
and-effect research to know the administrative similarities and differences of
different countries based on experience.
 With Farrell Heady’s analysis in mind, the objectives of comparative public
administration can be listed in the following points.
 1. One of the aims of this is to build an enlightened knowledge by changing
the previous statements about public administration.
 2. Public administration research should be expanded with development
administration in mind. The nature of development administration will be
determined by a precise comparative discussion of the administration in
different countries.
 3. One of the purposes of comparative public administration is to build a
general management model.
 4. A comparative analysis will be done on the ongoing problems of public
administration.
 5. Another important objective is to search for theory by doing comparative
research of public administration in different countries and to put those
theories into practice.
20
 Born on 1916 Missouri,USA. Ferrel Heady served in
the US navy during second world [Link]
graduation from Washington University and also in
PhD. Ferrel believed that student of public
administration should have knowledge of other
countries apart from USA [Link] his
life time continued to work for CPA. For that he
took bureaucracy as a variable throughout the
world to compare. Books written by him Public
Administration : A Comparative perspective, Papers
on Comparative Administration .

21
 According to him political system of these countries are two
types :
 Bureaucracy Prominent Political Regimes:

In these countries bureaucracy occupies the central position in

the power game.
Most of the powers are concentrated into its hands and all the
decisions at the political level are taken by it.
He further divided these into four types :
1) Traditional Elite Systems : These are two:
A) Orth Traditional : The Monarchial system, weak or no
pressure group, based on military, eg, Saudi Arabia.
B) Neo Traditional : Democracy with Theocracy ( Authorities are
derived from religion ) Dominated by religious leaders, UAE,
Iran.

22
2) Personalist Bureaucratic Elite Systems :
The power is concentrate in one person.
This is called “Caudillo” ( Spanish mean Chief, Strong Man) like Congom, Sudan.

3) Collegial Bureaucratic Elite Systems:

Power is concentrated in a collegial body.
Mostly from military background.
Most of the members have similar ranks.
Generally power occupied by military coup.
Absence of public participation and opposition. Like Myanmar, Nicaragua.

4) Pendulam System Bureaucracy Prominent political Regimes:

Oscillation between a military type administration and polyarchal competitive
system.
Political instability.
Law and order problem.

23
2) Party Prominent Political Regimes : Four types :
A) Polyarchal competitive System:
Multi –Party system
Public Participation
Pressure Groups
Diverse Ideology
Party may not be able to acquire a complete majority, Pakistan.

B) Dominant Party Semi Competitive System:

Monopolized power by single dominant political party.
Other party exist but have very nominal [Link], India

24
C) Dominant Party Mobilization System:
Single party acquires power.
The party eliminates the opposition through authority and technicality.
Opposition very weak and absent.
Opposition get only some legal power so that they can not be
challenge the state., Bolivia, Ghana and many West African countries

D) Communist Totalitarian System:

Many of the East European countries.
Existence of single party influenced by Marxist Leninist ideology.
No open opposition or rival idealogy allowed.
Bureaucracy dominated by the communist party and its ideology.

25
 Ferral Heady has categorized Comparative
Public Administration into four.

 The first category is the modified traditional

focus of research, and has to do with
administrative institutions and organizations,
organizational structure, local administration
and administrative system of public sector
industrial units. This is characterized by a
comparison of administrative functions and
systems in the west on the basis of their civil
service
26
 The second focus is on the development oriented research.
The concept of development administration which focusses
on the goal oriented of administrative system. This deals with
the omnipresent socioeconomic and political changes. Due to
the current trend of globalization, these changes have to find
a way of being harnessed for the better of society: public
administration has to provide a solution for this.
 Change Oriented
 Goal oriented
 People oriented
 Planning as the key
 Participation
 Motivated Personnel

27
 General system model building is the third
focus. It has no specific area or system of
focus, but rather the whole complexity of
Public Administration. It studies the whole
administrative system relative to the
environment in place.


 The middle range theory is then the last

focus and this considers a particular
administrative system. It is the mirror image
of the general system model building.
28
 Fred Warren Riggs(1917-2008) born in Kuling,China, Professor of Political
Science has laid three trends he believes are taking place in the study of
Comparative Public Administration.
 1. Normative to Empirical
 Traditional studies of Public Administration were very much influenced by
the classical approach. These studies emphasized upon ‘ good
administration’ which was based on following certain ideal principles .
Efficiency and economy were considered to be the primary goals of all
administrative system and there were certain principles of formal
organization which helped in the achievement of the goals. Therefore a few
models for administration , primary for the western democratic world, were
considered to be useful for all other administrative systems. It became clear
that a limited culture bound normative approach to the study of public
administration was not adequate. But after the world war, public
administration focused on empirical reality. On the basis of that reality,
public administration would be set up. So it was more focused on context
rather than the norm.
 The empirical studies were more interested to finding out facts about
structural patterns and behaviour of administrative system rather than in
describing as to what was good for each system.
29
 2. Idiographic to Nomothetic Idiographic means an understanding
of a specific situation and identifies the unique characteristics of a
particular administration e.g a historical event , study of single
agency, single country or even a single cultural area. . Instead of
finding the uniqueness of a particular administration now, the focus
is more on generalization. So that we can understand reality from a
very abstract point of view. The second shift is one from ideographic
to nomothetic orientation. Ideographic concentrates on
particularities or unique cases, as opposed to nomothetic which
focuses on generalities and regularities. This approach seeks to
develop generalisations and theories which are based on analysis of
regularities of behaviour od administrative systems. Thus earlier
studies of CPA which were ideographic in character focused on the
study of individual nations or institutions and their approach was
primarily descriptive. No serious attempt was made to compare
various nations and systems

30
 3. Non-Ecology to Ecology Instead of only focusing on
administration it needs to be understood with the reference of
social, political, and cultural context. Unless or until you know the
ecology (Social, economic and cultural environment), it is very
difficult to understand the nature of the administration. Initially,
administration did not consider environment in its study. There is
always interaction between the people and the environment, and so
a society cannot be understood without regard to environments,
thus the need for the shift.
 # Environment and its environment influence each other.
 #Understanding of this dynamic process is necessary to understand
the administration.
 #Ecology of Public Administration is the interaction between the
administration and its concerned environment.
 #Relationship between the administration and economic social ,
technological, political and communication factors.

31
 The time-old concepts of political science such as
government, administration, sovereignty etc. had a meaning
and significance in the developed nations. But these
conceptions lost some of their relevance when they travelled
to the new states of Asia and Africa. But these new states
were administered and governed according to local systems,
culture, customs and procedures. In this background some
political scientists started to think of comparing political
systems of different countries.
 They deliberately avoided the terms such as state,
sovereignty etc. They also thought that for a comprehensive
and fruitful analysis of the various aspects of state
administration it was necessary to compare the political
systems of different states and from this approach emerged
the conception- “comparative government” or “comparative
politics”. The term “comparative politics is the study of
political systems, not as isolated cases, but through 32
 If the political and governmental structures of countries are different
the administrative systems or structures are supposed to be
different. The public administration of USA and that of the most
undeveloped regions of Africa can never be of the same type or
character. The developed and undeveloped states are administered
but the methods of administration are not same and here we are
confronted with the term comparative administrative systems or,
specifically, the comparative public administration.

 In this regard the considered opinion of a large number of scholars

is if we do not compare the administrative systems of different
countries. We will fail to reach a definite opinion and conclusion.
Towards the end of forties of the last century Robert Dahl said: “as
long as the study of public administration is not comparative, claim
for a science of a public administration sound rather hollow” quoted
by Ramesh K Arora-Comparative Public Administration.

33
 Comparative government and comparative public
administration are not same. Comparative public
administration focuses its attention on administrative
structure, bureaucracy patterns of administration,
decentralization of administration, civil service system and
recruitment of government employees.

 The public administration is a part of government and so also

the comparative public administration is a part of
comparative government. But administration and government
are not identical concepts. The public administration is a part
of government. The public administration is according to the
type of government. For example, we say capitalist state, we
also say capitalist administration

34
 The study of comparative public administration has gained
momentum in recent years because of the fact that the
emerging nations of Asia and Africa are trying hard to
develop their economy and political system. The simple
objective is to meet the growing needs of people. The Great
Depression of the thirties of the last century drastically
changed the entire administrative system of USA.

 In the same way the challenges posed by the attainment of

political freedom of the Third World states force the leaders
and administrators to bring about necessary changes in the
colonial administration. There is no such term like indigenous
administration. But every administrative system must be
tuned to the local needs and aspirations’ of the people.

35
 It is not our concern here to discuss various models used in
comparative public administration and its several uses. The
general use of models are discussed. Our strategy shall be to
look at seven models that are frequently used or referred to
in studying comparative and development administration.
Max Weber's bureaucratic model has the most popular use in
comparative study of bureaucracies. The model advanced by
Down emphasized the importance of career interests as
determinants of administrative process. Rigg's 'prismatic-
sala' model is an intellectual creativity of the model building
clan in comparative public administration, particularly with
reference to third world governments. Dorsey's information-
energy model, the developmental model and Mathur's, model
do represent distinctly different and yet in broad sense
intellectually compatible models, each of which has proved to
be useful in studying comparative administration.
36
 Max Weber (1864-1920) presents an 'ideal type' of bureaucracy, which is capable of
attaining the highest degree of efficiency and the most rational form of administration.
His ideas about bureaucracy first published in 1921 based on legal-rational authority
was destined to dominate all other forms of bureaucracy because of its technical
superiority over others. Weber's model of bureaucracy was based on the political
questions that dominated the nineteenth century scholars. He had integrated
bureaucracy into the larger scheme of the three ideal types of authority. It is legal in the
sense that it is based on a style of authority that is legitimated through legal processes.
It is rational in the sense that it controlled on the basis of knowledge. It is learnt that
Weber was firmly committed to parliamentary democracy. He supported strong
leadership and expected the leaders to protect the mass against its own irrationality,
and the individual against mob psychology.
 The identifying characteristics of bureaucracies were: 1. Fixed and official jurisdictions
areas, controlled and . Ordered by written rules and regulations,
 2. Clear division of labor with authority and responsibility equally clearly designated,
maximizing specialization and expertise,
 3. The arrangements of all positions into a hierarchy of authority,
 4. All officials appointed on the basis of qualifications,
 5. Work viewed as a vocation, a full time occupation, and
 6. Uniformity and impersonality "without regard to persons."

37
 Downs explains the lifecycle of bureaus by first specifying the four
ways in which bureaus are created. In his explanation he refers to
the reutilization of charisma as one of the type of bureau-genesis.
Thus, according to Anthony Downs bureaucracy is the result of the
common consequences of reutilization of charisma. Secondly, he
mentions about the creation of bureaucracy by social groups in
order to perform specific functions. The third kind of bureaus is due
to splitting of the existing ones and the last kind of bureau as a
result of entrepreneurship of a few zealots. His central hypothesis is
that bureaucrats are motivated by self-interests. He goes on to list
the various functions performed by nonmarket-oriented
organizations, namely, those social functions incurring external cost
of benefits, the allocation of resources to collective good which
provide indivisible benefits, the implementation of polices dealing
with redistribution of incomes, the regulation of monopolies and the
maintenance of framework of law and order in the society

38
 Contemporary studies in comparative public administration made use of the
ecological model developed by Riggs. This model can be used in cross-
cultural analysis. He has been concerned primarily with conceptualizing on
the interaction between administrative system and their environment. His
main focus was on 'developing' institutional [Link] Riggs further
developed prismatic-sala model. The most prominent model builder in the
comparative administrative movement is Fred W. Riggs. In fact, as his
thinking evolved' Riggs a series of overlapping and inter-related models
extending Sutton's two ideal models of agraria and industria to illustrate the
relationship between societal structure and whole cultures. Riggs set forth
his first major model in a lengthy way entitled agral'ia and industria towards
a typology of comparative administration. He suggested illustrative typology
of comparative administration systems in 'agraria' and 'industria' and claimed
that similar types could be constructed at various transitional stages between
the two with similar categories illustrating the interdependence of
administrative systems and societies. As his conceptualisation proved too
abstract to apply he turned away from general systems models to middle
range theory based on his empirical research in South-East Asia.

39
 Another prominent source of comprehensive model building was equilibrium
theory by Dorsey postulating as system with inputs and outputs as basis of
analysis. He believed that it might be useful in the analysis of social and
political system in general as well as for a better understanding of
administrative system. It is popularly known as 'Information-Energy Model.'
Johan F. Dorsey's Information-Energy Model is based on a synthesis of
concepts of general system theory of communications and cybernetics and of
energy and energy conversion. Dorsey's model conceptualizes individuals,
groups, organizations and societies as complete informationenergy
converters. Energy is defined as the ability to affect some change of form,
time of space in physical relationships, that is, to do work. Energy
conversion, conversely, is the manifestation of this capacity or the process of
affecting such changes. Information can be viewed as energy in certain forms
or configurations. A system converts inputs such as demands and
intelligence through various conversion processes of screening, selecting and
channelizing into outputs. Generally, high levels of information input,
storage and processing permit a high energy output. An administrative
system produces outputs in various forms, for example, regulation of
services for sub-systems and systems forming part of its environment.

40
 Mathur in his study analyzed Block Development Officers (BOOs) of two
different states in India Before the analysis, he first dearly identified certain
geographical, socio-economic and political factors which present a different
background for the BOOs of the two sates. Employing 'factor analysis'
technique, he developed the major dimension of bureaucratic thinking and
perceptions so as to establish an empirical pattern of the reactions of the
bureaucrats to the changing environment. Thereby, he developed a typology
and a profile of the local administrators in a near similar cultural pattern to
find out the differences in the perceptions and reactions of the bureaucrats
of one state from the other and correlate such differences. In this study, the
inferences drawn are as follows: 1. The same class of officials (BOOs) of
different environmental settings are different. 2. Such differences are due to
their different socioeconomic and political background. 3. Their behavioral
patterns are different because of their different environment settings, 4. Such
behavioral pattern differences are also due to their differences in education,
recruitment and training .methods.

41
 Closely related to the study of comparative public administration an
indispensable tool in the attainment of the goals of the I good' society has
attracted the mainstream of comparative administrators seeking ways and
means to improve administrative performance and to strengthen the
planning and execution of developmental programs. The idea has its origins
in the desire of wealthier countries to aid poorer countries and more
especially in the obvious needs of the newly emerging national states to
transform their colonial bureaucracies into more'responsible instruments of
social change. It should be noted, however, the developmental
administration is not the same as administrative development. Essentially, it
is that aspect of public administration that focuses on government
influenced change towards progressive political, economic and social
objectives, once confined to recipients of foreign aid but now universally
applied. Developmental administration thus encompasses the organizations
and development corporations, the reorientation of established agencies
such as departments of agriculture, the delegation of administration powers
to development agencies and the creation of cadre of administrators that can
provide leadership in stimulating and supporting programs of social and
economic development.

42
 Traditional approaches Public Administration is a generalized human
activity concerned with the ordering of men and materials required
to achieve collective social ends. Since its birth, the study of Public
Administration has been growing in different directions and today it
involves complex concerns and functions. There have been
numerous attempts by different scholars to explain the different
aspects of public administration. The result is that public
administration consists of relatively distinct approaches that grow
out of the different perspectives that shape its structures and
functions. Each approach gives a particular point of view of
administrative activity. In a broad sense, one can divide the
approaches into normative approach and empirical approach. The
normative approach concentrates on what public administration
should be, while the empirical approach analyses the actual
administrative situations.

43
 The traditional approaches include
 Classical approach,
 Philosophical approach,
 Historical approach,
 Institutional approach,
 Legal approach comparative approach.

44
 Emphasis on division of labour and
specialization , Structure, Functional process
and Span of Control.
 Emphasis on organization structure for
coordination of various activities while
ignoring the role of human element.
 Organizations are treated as closd system.
 Efficiency of the organization are increased
by making each individual efficient.
 Centralization of authority.
 Economic reward as a source of motivation.
45
 Like all other social sciences, philosophical approach is perhaps the
oldest approach in the study of public administration. Santhiparva of
Mahabharata. Plato’s republic Hobbe sleviathan, Locke’s treaties on
government are examples of the approach This approach takes
within its perview all aspects of administrative activities. Further it
enunciates the principles or ideals underlying those activities.

 It includes all administrative activities and government functions.

 This approach mainly focused on human behaviour in administrative
activities.
 This ids old approach.

46
 The historical approach seeks to recreate achapter of history as it
attempt to study the public administration of the past within
particular timespan and interpret the organization and information
in chronological order.

 Historical approach explain the administrative institutions in the

light of their past.
 It analyses the administrative institutions by tracing their
development within a particular time span.
 Woodrow Wilson emphasis on historical method to study Public
Administration.
 Historical approach will benefit in understanding administrative
system existed in the past , how it could be implemented present
and how could be used in future.

47
 Woodrow Wilson has examined the methods best suited for the
study of administration. He rejected the philosophical method and
emphasized the historical and comparative methods. According to
him, nowhere else in the whole field of politics, one can use these
methods more safely than in the province of administration. Without
comparative studies in government, we cannot rid ourselves of the
misconception that administration stands upon different bases in
democratic and other states. A comparative approach to public
administration structures of differentiations with different cultural
settings. The Comparative Administrative Group (CAG) has defined it
as the public administration applied to diverse cultures and national
setting and the body off actual data by which it can be examined
and tested. The purpose of such comparisons is to find out the
universal elements in public administration and build a theory of
public administration.

48
 1. Marxist Approach Karl Marx, the father of scientific socialism,
never attempted a full length discourse on public administration or
bureaucracy. His interests were largely peripheral in the sense that
he dealt with public administration only as complementary to
capitalism. Yet, as a keen observer of the European Public
administrative systems of his times, Marx could not ignore the
significance of bureaucracy in the society.
 Marks points out that bureaucracy arose with Capitalism and the
nation state in Western Europe around the sixteenth century.
 Thus the governmental bureaucracy performs the important
function of maintaining and developing capitalism .
 The government provides protection and assistance to private
industry and trade in many ways.
 These administrative officers of the government then constitute the
bureaucracy their function is to control the workers on behalf of he
government .

49
 2. Ecological Approach Administration and its environment influence
each other and the understanding of the dynamics of this process is
necessary to understand administration. This approach is known as
ecological approach. The word ‘ecology’ is borrowed from biology
where it suggested the interdependence between an animal species
and its natural environment. The Ecological approach to the study of
public administration was initiated (in the order) by J.M. Gans
(1947), Robert. A. Dahl (1969), Roscoe Martin (1952) and FW. Riggs
(1961). Fred W . Riggs is currently the fore most exponent of the
ecological approach in public administration.
 The ecological approach views public bureaucracy as a social
institution which is continuously interacting with the economic,
political and socio-cultural sub systems of a society. Bureaucracy is
not only affected by these environmental systems but also affects
them in turn. Thus, this approach emphasizes the necessary
interdependence of public bureaucracy and its environment.

50
 In the opinion of Riggs, administrative institutions
are shaped and affected by their social, economic,
cultural and political environment. Therefore, he
emphasizes that in order to understand better the
real nature, operations and behavior of a particular
administrative system, one should identify and
understand deeply in various environmental factors
influencing it. The ecological approach determines
how an administrative system operates in practice.
Thus it is useful to understand administrative
realities.

51
 #Environment and its environment
influence each other.
 #Understanding of this dynamic process is
necessary to understand the administration.
 #Ecology of Public Administration is the
interaction between the administration and
its concerned environment.
 #Relationship between the administration
and economic social , technological,
political and communication factors.

52
 This approach argues that one cannot understand the actual
functioning of organizations without understanding why
people act as they do. Hence, the behaviorists have come to
apply the knowledge of social psychology, anthropology,
psychology and many other disciplines in an effort to secure a
better understanding of the actual human behavior within
organization.
 The main aim of this approach is to establish a body of
knowledge that facilitates understanding, explaining and
prediction of human behavior in administrative situations. It
attempts to build descriptive and analytical generalizations
about organizations and administrations.
 One of its normative assumptions is that it is possible to
build an administrative science through careful research on
organizations and the behavior of those who work in them.
Herbert Simon and Robert Dahl have been among the
pioneers of the approach to the study of public 53
 The term ‘developmental administration’ popularized by scholars
like Riggs, Edward W. Weidner, Joseph La Palombara and Albert
Waterson. Weidner was the first to introduce the concept of
development administration. Edward Weidner defined development
administration as an “action-oriented, goal – oriented administrative
system”. It is the process of guiding an organization towards the
achievement of progressive political, economic and social objectives
that are authoritatively determined in one manner or another. The
term development administration has been used in two inter related
senses.
 First, it refers to the administration of development programs, to the
methods used by large scale organizations, notably governments, to
implement policies and plans designed to meet their developmental
objectives.
 Second, it indirectly involves the strengthening of administrative
capabilities.

 To Riggs, “development administration” and ‘administrative

54
 Characteristics of development administration
 1. Change-orientation- The distinctive feature of
development administration is its central concern with socio-
economic change.
 2. Result-Orientation:- Development administration has to be
result-oriented
 3. Commitment to work – In development administration the
organizational role expectation involves commitment to
socio-economic change and concern for completing time
bound programs.
 4. Innovativeness: Development administration focuses on
replacing or improving the existing governing structures and
norms with the ones that suit the changing political and
social environment. In other words, development
administration is one that is dynamic and progressive in
thought and action.
55
 5. Client orientation:- Development administration is positively oriented
towards meeting the needs of marginal farmers, landless agricultural
labourers and rural artisans in developing countries.
 6. Citizen-participative orientation:-. Here people are taken as active
participants in the formulation and execution of developmental plans,
policies and programs.

 7. Temporal dimension:- Since socio-economic changes have to be brought

about as quickly as possible, time assumes considerable importance in
development administration.
 8. Effectiveness of co-ordination:- Since development implies increasing
specialization and professionalization, a number of agencies and
organsiations involved in development tasks has considerably gone up. Co-
ordination between various administrative units and activities is essential for
attaining the maximum benefit.
 9. Ecological perspective:- Development administration shapes the political,
social and economic environment and also gets affected by it in turn. It is not
a closed system. It receives feedback from the social system and responds to
the demands put on it by the system.
56
 Decision making approach is generally associated with the pioneering
contribution of Herbert Simon. The decision making approach usually
equates administration with decision making. Decisions are made at every
stage of the organization and are considered as fundamental steps in the
process of policy formulation. Decision making is a complex process
involving several steps. They can be sequenced the following manner:-
 1. Identification of or locating the problem.
 2. Getting related information and data and figuring out tentative options.
 3. Weighing the tentative steps by seeking the opinion of the subordinates.
 4. Choice in on a particular option.
 5. Evaluate the efficiency of the decision reached at.
 6. Getting the feed back and make necessary modification if situation so
demands.
 Hence decision making requires a total team work starting right from the
chief executive down to the personnel stationed at the ground level. Then
only the objective of the organization can be achieved in a satisfactory
manner.

57
 F.W. Riggs mainly used structural-functional approach in analyzing
the administrative systems.
 This approach envisages that in every society certain important
functions have to be carried out by a number of structures with the
application of certain specified methods.
 To Riggs, in every society five important types of functions are
discharged, viz. economic, social, communication, symbolic and
political functions.
 In the field of public administration, it was first suggested by Dwight
Waldo in 1955. Waldo’s suggestion was first followed by F.W. Riggs
when he came out with his The structural functional approach
“agrarian-industria” (that is, agricultural and industrial societies)
typology in 1956. These models were developed keeping in view the
societies of imperial China and the United States. According to him,
all societies transform from ‘agraria’ to ‘industria’ at a given point of
time

58
 Later in 1957, he developed an intermediate model named
“transition” which represented the transforming societies and
possessed the characteristics of both “agrarian” and ‘industria” But
the typology of ‘agrarian-transitia – industria” was criticized as
having many limitations.

 Agraria-industria model of analysis Riggs developed the agraria-

industria topology in 1956. In this model, he distinguished between
two types of societies dominated by agricultural institutions and
societies dominated by industrial institutions. These two polar types
represented the Imperial China and contemporary USA.

 According to him, all societies move from agraria stage to industrial

stage. This is an unidirectional movement. he identifies the
structural features of the agrarian and industrial societies.

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 Features of Agraria:
 [Link] dominated. 2). Ascriptive values that is people
are placed in social classes based on birth or other factors.
2. Particularistic norms 3. Diffuse patterns 4. Stable local
groups and limited spatial mobility 5. Simple and stable
occupational differentiation 6. Deferential stratification
system

 Features of Industria
 1. Achievement values 2. Universalistic norms 3. Specific
patterns 4. High degree of social and spatial mobility 5. Well-
developed occupational system 6. Egalitarian class system 7.
Prevalence of associations which are functionally specific and
non-ascriptive

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 Soon after its formulation, the agraria-industria model met
with criticism as it had the following limitations:
 1) It does not help in examining the transitional societies. The
intermediate model (transitia) is less developed than the two
polar types.
 2) It does not provide sufficient mechanism to study mixed
type societies. Critics argue that the modern industrial
societies will always have some agraria features.
 3) It assumes a unidirectional movement from an agraria
stage to an industria stage.
 4) It is too general and abstract with little resemblance to
concrete reality. Consequently, Riggs abandoned this
topology of agriara transitia-industria and formulated
another improvised fused prismatic-diffracted model.

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 Riggs created models on the basis of the structural
– functional approach. In his view, in a fused
society, a single structure carries out various
functions. Contrary to this, in a diffracted society
separate structures are created to carry out specific
functions. But between the two, there exist a
number of societies in which the characteristics of
both fused and diffracted societies exist side by
side. These are called prismatic societies. The
focus of Riggs’s analyses is the study of certain key
elements of the social structures in a prismatic
society and their interaction with “sala”, ie, the
administrative sub-system in such a society
62
 Later, Riggs developed another set of models to analyse the
administrative systems in developing countries.
 The ideal models of Riggs administrative systems – fused, prismatic
and diffracted are hypothetical assumptions aimed at analysing pre-
historic developing and developed societies. The fused-prismatic-
diffracted (refracted) model represents the underdevelopment,
developing and developed societies respectively.

 "Traditional agricultural and folk societies approximate the fused

model, and modern industrial societies (industria) approach the
defracted model.

 The former is 'functionally diffuse', the latter 'functionally specific'.

Intermediate between these polar extremes is the prismatic model,
so called because of the prism through which fused light passes to
become refracted.

63
 Fused Society:
 Based on experiences in Imperial China and Thailand.
 Dependence on agriculture with no industrialization and
modernization.
 In these societies have no classification of functions and , a single
structure carries out a number of functions.
 Economic system is based on laws of exchange and barter system.
 Administrative, economic and other activities carried out by the
king and royal family members and officials nominated by the king.
 The Royal family plays a very important role in the administration of
the country.
 Administration in these societies strive to protect the special interest
of the family.

 Dominance of old customs, beliefs, faith and traditional ways of

living.
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 Diffracted Society
 Riggs used American society as a model of diffracted society.
 Each structures carried out a specialized function (
Specialization). There is high degree of specialization and
each structure carries out a specialized function.
 All organizations and structures of the society are created
and based on scientific rational.
 Their economic system is based on market mechanism.
 Ascriptive values ( values linked with our birth like cast, class)
do not exist.
 Governance are responsive towards the need of the people
and protection of human rights. People may pressurize
government to get their demands fulfilled.
 Economic system based on demand and supply.

65
 Focal point of prismatic society:
 Thus, a fused society is one in which a structure performs a limited
number of functions. In between these two polar types, comes the
category of prismatic society. It is a transitional society and hence
combine the features of both. It refers to a society that is semi-
differentiated, standing midway between an undifferentiated fused
society and a highly differentiated diffracted society

 The society which have achieved a certain level of differentiation ,

specialization of roles that is necessary for dealing with modern
technology bur failed to integrate these roles.

 Shared the value patterns of both prismatic and diffracted societies.

66
 Prismatic-sala model of analysis Riggs was mainly interested in analysing the
interaction of the administrative system and its environment in prismatic
societies. For this purpose, he constructed the 'prismatic-sala' model in
which 'prismatic' represents the prismatic society (transitional or developing
society) and 'sala' represents the administrative sub-system of a prismatic
society. He identified the following three features of prismatic-sala model-.

 Heterogeneity :
 A prismatic society has a high degree of heterogeneity, that is, the
simultaneous presence, side by side, of quite different kinds of systems,
practices and viewpoints.

 Due to this differences the social change in prismatic society would be

inconsistent, incomplete and irresponsive.

 Difficult to formulate policies, diffused goals, tough adjustments in structure

and practices.

67
 There are intellectual class, western style offices amd modern
gadgets of administration.
 Well developed communication system and specialized agencies.

 Political influence in there.

 The sala is also heterogeneous as it combines the elements of

'chamber' of a fused society and 'bureau' of a diffracted society.
 Great diversity, contradictions and differences in socio economic
conditions, practices .There is a lack of integration.

 Problem arises in poly communal society where there are different

interests of different communities.

 This will create a revolutionary atmosphere in society.

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 Formalism : In formalistic situation , values and norms may receive
lip service but ignored in real practice.
 A prismatic society has a high degree of formulism, that is, a
degree of discrepancy or incongruence between the formally
prescribed and the effectively practiced, between norms and
realities.
 it refers to the gap between theory and practice.
 Rules regulations imported and imposed from western influence do
not have roots in socio cultural environment.
 Constitutional formalism, that is gap between constitutional
provisions and actual political and government practice.

69
 Functional Overlapping
 Similar function are performed by different institutions. This features shows
that differentiated structures co-exist with undifferentiated structures. It has
5 aspects :

 Nepotism: Caste, religion , family etc are the deciding factors of recruitment.

 Poly-Communialism : Existence of various ethnic , religious and racial groups

within a society which remain quite hostile to each other while existing.

 Poly-Normativism: Co-existence of modern and traditional norms.

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 Bazar-Canteen model:
Economic subsystem of prismatic society.

Price determined not by invisible hand of market ( supply vs demand) but socio-political
relationship, social status, traditional norms and other non economic factors.

Canteen features : Subsidized price for dominant and privileged group and above normal
price for the under –privileged .

Market economy of differected society and traditional economy of fused society.

Result in price in inditerminancy ( unstable price of goods and services) not only for goods
and services but for all factors of production .

Marketisation without any corresponding increase in capital formation .

Sectoral, sectional and regional disparities in development .

Non administrative factors affects administrative decisions.

71
 Separation of authority and control : The upper hand of bureaucrats
in the exercise of power make the political process weak and the
administration becomes unresponsive in prismatic societies. This
results in nepotism in recruitment, corruption and inefficiency of
administration of laws.

 Authority is highly centralized.

 Control is localized and dispersed.
 Administrators dominate the politico administrative system.
 Street level bureaucracy –each public official interpret rules by his
own convenience.
 More discretionary power of bureaucracy. Ritualization of
procedures-insistence of complex and unnecessary procedures.

72
 Later on in his book “Prismatic Society Revisited “
(1973), Riggs revised his prismatic theory. He
replaced the ‘one dimensional approach’
(differentiation) with “two dimensional approach’
(differentiation and integration).
 Thus, he reconceptualised diffracted societies as,
“co- diffracted”, “Ortho diffracted’ and ‘new
diffracted’ and prismatic societies as ‘co-
prismatic’, ‘ortho-prismatic’ and ‘neo prismatic’.
His analysis of the process of administrative
development can provide guidelines to the policy
makers in different nations.

73
 Change in a prismatic society According to Riggs, the pace of
development in any society is related mainly to the sources of
change.
 Consequently, these societies experience less heterogeneity,
formalism and overlapping than the contemporary developing
(transitional) societies. In a prismatic society, the pressure for
change is external as well as internal. When it is external, it is
called 'exo-genous' change and when internal, it is called
'endo-genous' change. Further, when the change is caused by
both external and internal pressures, it is called 'equi-genetic
change’.
 Riggs stated that greater heterogeneity, formalism and
overlapping are likely to exist in an 'exo-prismatic' society
(the society where the pressure for change is primarily
external) than in an 'endo-prismatic' society (the society
where the pressure for change is primarily internal).
74
 The contingency or situational approach attempts to bridge the gap
between management theory and management practice. Mary Parker
Follet used the phrase “Law of the situation” in 1919 to emphasise
that different situations require different kinds of leadership. But the
contingency approach developed mainly during 1970’s. After a
review of leadership studies, Ralph Stogdillconcluded that the traits
and skills required in leadership are determined by the situation in
which an individual is exercising leadership. The basic premise of
the contingency approach is that managerial actions and
organizational design must be appropriate to the given situation and
a particular action s valid only under certain conditions. There is no
one best approach for all situations. In other words, managerial
action is contingent upon external environment. Thus the
contingency approach takes into account not only the given
situations but the influence of given situations on behavioral
patterns of organization.

75
 The rational choice theory, also known as choice theory or
rational action theory, is a theory for understanding and often
modeling social and economic as well as individual behavior.
It is the main paradigm in the currently-dominant micro
economics school of thought. Becher (1976) recorded that
“the rational choice theory was early popularized by a 1992
Nobel Memorial Prize Laureate in Economics Science, Gary
Becker, who was one of the first to apply rational actor
models more widely”. Elster (1989) stated the essence of
rational choice theory when he said that “when faced with
several courses of action, people usually do what they believe
is likely to have the best overall outcome”. The “rationality”
defined by the rational choice theory adopts a more specific
and narrower definition, which simply means that “an
individual acts as if balancing costs against benefit to arrive
at action that maximizes personal advantage”.
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 A great landmark in the evolution of Public Administration was the
emergence of ‘public choice’ approach. Since the early 1960’s the public
choice school has been developed by a number of eminent scholars in a
variety of ways. Essentially a critique of the bureaucratic model of
administration, the public choice approach deals with the possibility of
institutional pluralism in the provision of public goods and services. Plurality
of governments and public agencies is supported on the grounds of
consumer preferences. Vincent Ostrom, the chief protagonist of the public
choice school, has developed a concept of “democratic administration’
alongside the conventional idea of bureaucratic administration. The
bureaucrats, in his view, prefer self-interest to public interest. Ostrom says,
bureaucratic structures are necessary but not sufficient for a productive and
responsive public service economy”. Ostrom’sdemocratic administration
paradigm earned popular acceptance because of its forceful emphasis on
democratizing administration. He argued the need for diverse democratic
decision making structures, popular participation in administration and
dispersed administrative authority.

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