Control of electric motors.

12/01/2024

Final project:
Reduced voltage starting with resistors on a three phase motor.

Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro.

San Juan del Río.

Career:
Electromechanical engineering.

Subject:
Control of electric motors.

Student:
Ismael Pacheco Villeda - 308477.

Professor
Dr. Juan Pablo Amézquita Sánchez.

December - 01 - 2024.

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I. OBJECTIVE.
Create and simulate the force and control diagrams for a three-phase motor at reduced voltage with the help
of calculated resistors, contactors and timer, in addition to physically implementing the control system, to
reduce the current consumed during motor start-up.

II. INTRODUCTION.
Reduced voltage starting in three-phase motors is a technique used to reduce the starting current, protecting
both the motor and the electrical network from high current peaks. One of the simplest ways to implement
this starting is by using resistors in series with the motor windings. By including these resistors, the voltage
applied to the motor at the time of starting is reduced, which in turn reduces the starting torque and current.

The system is complemented by the use of contactors and timers. Initially, a contactor connects the resistors
in series with the motor, thus limiting the voltage at start-up. As the motor accelerates and stabilizes its
speed, a timer acts to disconnect the resistors and connect the motor directly to the full power line through
another contactor. This stepwise process allows the motor to reach its rated speed gradually, reducing
mechanical and thermal impact.

Advantages:
● Reduction of the starting current, avoiding peaks that could damage the motor or the electrical
network.
● Simplicity of the system, easy to implement and maintain.
● Relatively low cost compared to other methods such as star-delta starting or variable frequency
drives.
● Less mechanical stress on the motor and the connected equipment, due to a smoother start.

Disadvantages:
● Energy losses in resistors during start-up.
● Limited efficiency, as it does not regulate current or torque optimally under all conditions.
● Increased heating in resistors, which may require additional dissipation.
● Less control over start-up time and torque compared to more advanced methods such as variable
frequency drives.

Fig. 1. Current-speed, Torque-speed graphics [1].

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III. MATERIALS, INSTRUMENTS, TOOLS AND RESOURCES.

A contactor is a special type of relay used to make or break an electrical circuit. They are most commonly
used with electric motors and in lighting applications. Using a contactor provides a level of isolation, away
from the high electrical currents associated with those applications, protecting workers and equipment [2].

Fig. 2. Contactor.

The thermal relay is a device designed to protect motors and electrical installations from overloads and
excessive heating, which can cause damage to the equipment and also cut off and damage the supply. It is a
way to keep your motor or electrical installation in good condition, prolonging its life and providing peace
of mind to your home [3].

The operation of the electrical thermal relay is based on a bimetallic plate (usually iron, nickel and brass are
used). This plate identifies possible internal fluctuations in electricity and temperature, as it reacts by
expanding [3].

When the plate expands, the electric current is automatically cut off. Until the plate cools down and
recovers its position, the supply is not enabled again [3].

Fig. 3. thermal relay.

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A multimeter is a measuring instrument used primarily in electronics and electricity to measure magnitudes
such as voltage and resistance [4].

Voltage: It allows the measurement of the potential difference in electrical circuits, both in direct current
(DC) and alternating current (AC) [4].

Resistance: It measures the opposition offered by a material to the passage of electric current, expressed in
ohms (Ω) [4].

It is an essential tool for diagnosing, repairing and designing electrical circuits [4].

Fig. 4. Multimeter.

Timer or time-controlled contactor: is an electrical device that allows the switching on or off of electrical
circuits based on a preset time [5]. This type of contactor integrates a timer that determines when a load,
such as a motor, lighting, or any electrical equipment, should be switched on or off without constant
manual intervention [5].

The timer works by setting a time interval during which the contactor (an electrically controlled switch)
closes or opens its contacts [5]. Depending on the configuration, the timer can:

● Delay connection (ON delay): The contact closes after a predetermined time from the moment the
activation signal is applied [5].
● Delay disconnection (OFF delay): The contact opens after a predetermined time from the moment
the activation signal is removed [5].
● ON/OFF cycle: Automatically alternates between switching on and off a load in repeated cycles,
according to a time set for each state [5].

Fig. 5. Timer or time-controlled contactor.

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An oscilloscope is an instrument used to display and analyse electrical signals as a function of time. Its
main function is to graphically show how an electrical signal varies [6].

Voltage: Allows the measurement of potential differences as a function of time [6].

Frequency: Helps to determine the periodicity of signals, especially in alternating or pulsed current circuits
[6].

Fig. 6. Oscilloscope.

A clamp meter is an instrument designed to measure electric current without having to interrupt the circuit.
It works by detecting the magnetic field generated by the current [7].

Electric current (AC/DC): It measures the intensity in amperes in a non-invasive manner [7].

Voltage: Some models also allow voltage measurement [7].

Fig. 6. Clamp meter.

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High wattage resistors are electrical components designed to dissipate large amounts of power in the form
of heat without being damaged. They are used in applications where high currents or significant voltages
are required [8].

Key Features: They have larger physical size and thermal capacity, and are usually made of ceramic or
metallic materials to withstand high temperatures [8].

Common Applications: Power supplies, test loads, and power circuits in industrial equipment [8].

Fig. 7. High voltage resistance.

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Materials:
● Banana-Alligator clips.
● Banana-Banana clips.
● 2 contactors.
● 1 Thermal relay.
● 1 Push Button NO.
● 1 Push Button NC.
● 1 multimeter.
● Variable resistors, high power.
● PC.
● Oscilloscope.
● Ammeter clamp.
● Three-phase motor 220V, 60Hz.
● Multimeter.

Software:
● SolidWorks Electrical.
● CADe_SIMU.

IV. METHODOLOGY.
Simulation:

● Design the control system to generate the interlocking system.

● Recreate the force diagram.
● Verify the operation of the system.

Physical assembly:

● Check the continuity of the cables to be used.

● Check the continuity of the components and their connections.
● Recreate the control system with the real elements.
● Check the operation of the system.

Numeric:

● Obtain the motor information.

● Compute the starting current at full voltage.
● Define the limitation of the starting current.
● Compute the voltage per phase and at the motor terminals.
● Compute the voltage drop across the motor resistance.
● Compute the voltage drop across the motor reactance.
● Compute the resistor voltage.
● Compute the resistor impedance.
● Compute the power absorbed by the
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V. EXPERIMENTATION.
Simulation:
The simulation section is divided into two parts: the CADe_SIMU part and the SolidWorks Electrical part.
The first part shows the control diagram and the force diagram in operation. In SolidWorks Electrical, the
force diagram is shown to adapt the elements and connections to the specifications of the standard used
(IEC).

CADe_SIMU:

Fig. 8. Control diagram. Fig. 9. Force diagram.

Figure 8 and 9 shows the control and force diagrams for the proposed project, where Q refers to the thermal
magnetic switch that protects the power line, F the thermal relay that protects the motor, Stp the stop
button, Str the start button, T1 the timer 1, T2 the timer 2, and KM1, 2 and 3 the three contactors used.

The operation is as follows: Once the power lines are energized, pressing Str activates KM2 and maintains
the lock with the CNO of KM2, at the same time, the count of T1 starts, which, when reaching the
configured time, changes its contacts, which opens the CNC of T1, deactivating KM2.

After this, the second line that feeds KM1 is closed due to the enclave generated by the CNO of T1, which
closes upon reaching the scheduled time, and the CNO of KM1 also starts the count of T2, which, upon
finishing the count, opens its CNO to stop feeding KM1, which completely de-energizes the system and
stops the motor.

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SolidWorks Electrical:

Fig. 10. Force diagram in SolidWorks Electrical.

Figure 10 shows the force diagram adapted to the symbols and colors dictated by the standard provided by
the IEC, with the color for neutral being blue, and for the different lines being brown, black and gray.

In addition to this, the elements present in the system are also shown, such as the thermal magnetic switch
Q1, the contactors K1 and K2, the thermal relay is F1, in addition to the motor M.

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Physical assembly:

Fig. 11. control stage, connected, section a).

On figure 11 the boxes represent the following components:

● White: KM2.
● Pink: KM1.
● Yellow: Thermal relay.
● Blue: Timer 1.
● Green: Control buttons (Start and Stop).

Fig. 12. control stage, connected, section b).

On figure 12 the boxes represent the following components:

● Black: Timer 2.
● Orange: Resistors.

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Protections for the motor and the electric line:

To obtain the protections of the power line and the motor, it is necessary to know the currents in the system,
these being the following:

I: Maximum starting current.

I = 11.872 A

To select a thermal magnetic switch and a thermal relay, the current must be multiplied by 125%, which
results in:

Idesign = 14.84 A

For the power line switch, the thermal relay uses the maximum design starting current. The suggested
protections are:

Fig. 13. Thermomagnetic switch suggested.

Fig. 14. Thermal relay suggested.

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Numeric:
To carry out the corresponding analyses, some values are taken from the motor data plate:

Fig. 15. Motor data plate.

Fig. 7 shows the motor data plate in order to obtain the necessary values to compute the resistors values.

● Engine power (P): 0.5 Hp ≅ 0.37285 kW.

● Supply voltage (SV): 220 V.
● Rated current (IN): 1.6 A.
● Phases: 3.
● Frequency (F): 60 Hz.
● Speed: 3450 min-1.
● Increase in the number of times the nominal current (NT): 7.42 times.
● Starting current limitation (IL): 90%
● Power factor (FP): 0.88

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The starting current at full voltage for the motor in question is given by:

𝐼𝐴 = 𝑁 𝑇 · 𝐼𝑁 (1)

𝐼𝐴 = 7. 42 · 1. 6 𝐴

𝐼𝐴 = 11. 872 𝐴

The start-up current limitation will be 90%:

𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐴 · 90% (2)

𝐼𝐿 = 11. 872 𝐴 · 90%

𝐼𝐿 = 10. 6848 𝐴
The voltage per phase is obtained:
𝑆𝑉
𝐸 = (3)
3

220 𝑉
𝐸 =
3

𝐸 = 127. 0170 𝑉

Voltage at motor terminals:

𝐸𝑀 = ( )(
90%
𝑁𝑇 )
𝐸𝐿 (4)

𝐸𝑀 = ( 90%
7.42 )(127. 0170 𝑉)
𝐸𝑀 = 15. 4063 𝑉
And also we have:

−1
θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐹𝑃) (9)
−1
θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (0. 88)

θ = 28. 3576°

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The voltage drop across the motor resistance is calculated from the triangle relationship of the vector
diagram as follows:

𝐸𝑅𝑀 = 𝐸𝑀 · 𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ) (10)

𝐸𝑅𝑀 = 15. 4063 𝑉 · 𝑐𝑜𝑠(28. 3576)
𝐸𝑅𝑀 = 13. 5576 𝑉
In a similar way that, for the voltage drop across the motor resistance, the voltage drop across the motor
reactance is calculated as follows:

𝐸𝑋𝑀 = 𝐸𝑀 · 𝑠𝑖𝑛(θ) (13)

𝐸𝑋𝑀 = 15. 4063 𝑉 · 𝑠𝑖𝑛(28. 3576)

𝐸𝑋𝑀 = 7. 3176 𝑉

The resistor voltage is calculated from the trigonometric relationship in the vector diagram:

𝐸𝑅 = (𝐸𝐿)2 − (𝐸𝑋𝑀)2 − 𝐸𝑅𝑀 (14)

2 2
𝐸𝑅 = (127. 017 𝑉) − (7. 3176 𝑉) − 13. 5576 𝑉

𝐸𝑅 = 113. 2482 𝑉

To know the impedance of the resistor, from Ohm's law:

𝐸𝑅
𝑅= (15)
𝐼𝐴

113.2482 𝑉
𝑅=
11.872 𝐴

𝑅 = 9. 539 Ω

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The power absorbed by the resistance will be:

( )2 · 𝑅
𝑃 = 𝐼𝐴 (16)

2
𝑃 = (11. 872 𝐴) · 9. 539 Ω

𝑃 = 1. 344 𝑘𝑊

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VI. RESULTS.
Simulation:

Fig. 16. Motor initially powered by the resistors lines by pressing Str.

Fig. 17. Motor supplied with full voltage after the timer countdown is complete.
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Fig. 18. T2 with the account completed and opening the second power supply line.

Fig. 19. Thermal relay operation test.

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Physical assembly:

The figure 22 shows the entire circuit connected:

Fig. 22. complete connected system.

Fig. 23. Timer 1 during the test.

Fig. 24. Resistors in operation during the test.

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Fig. 25. Measure of the current on the oscilloscope.

Figure 25 shows the current measurement obtained by the ammeter clamp and the oscilloscope, as the
clamp was configured to 100mV per Ampere, the resulting current, making the conversion, is 12.8 A.

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Numeric:

P = 1.344 kW

R = 9.539 Ω

Starting from the following values:

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 13. 428 𝐴

𝐼𝑟 = 12. 8 𝐴

Where:

Imax: Maximum starting current at full voltage.

Ir: Reduced starting current at reduced voltage with resistors.

To know the reduction, simply obtain the percentage that the reduced current represents with respect to the
maximum starting current at full voltage:

(12.8 𝐴)(100%)
% = = 95. 32%
13.428 𝐴

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VII. DISCUSSION.
In figures 22, 23 and 24 all the components are connected and working. It is important to note that, as can
be seen in Fig. 22, it is necessary to have all the exposed cables properly insulated. This was done with
insulating tape. The clamp meter must be used on only one line.

In addition to this, it is important that the resistors are correctly connected (Fig. 24), since otherwise the
voltage would not be reduced in the necessary proportion. Also, it is necessary to maintain a safety
perimeter, since these resistors are dissipating a lot of energy, so caution must be taken to avoid accidents.

Figure 25 shows the resulting measurements with the oscilloscope, with a maximum of 12.8 A, which
represents a consumption of approximately 95% with respect to a full voltage start. Although the
calculations were made to reduce it by up to 90%, the 5% variation may be due to the fact that the
components are not ideal, mainly the resistors, so a small variation when testing the system introduces
these changes.

However, the reduction could be observed and was close to the one proposed by the calculations made. For
future tests, the result could be improved by better controlling all the variables that modify the tests, such as
the temperature in the resistors, the connections made and even their quality, since for this practice the
resistors used were not the best.

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VIII. DESIGN CONSEQUENCES.

Reduced voltage starting with resistors presents a series of consequences and particular characteristics that
affect both the behavior of the motor and the electrical system. Below, I will detail some of the most
important ones:

Characteristics:

● Reduction of the starting current: During starting, the resistors limit the current that flows to the
motor. This helps to reduce the initial impact on the electrical network, avoiding current peaks that
could cause voltage drops or protection trips.

● Reduction of the applied voltage: By inserting resistors in series with the motor, the voltage that
reaches the motor windings is reduced. This makes the motor start more smoothly, reducing
mechanical stress.

● Progressive increase in speed: As the motor accelerates, the resistors are removed from the circuit,
allowing the motor to gradually receive the nominal voltage and reach its normal operating speed.

● Simple control: Using resistors for starting is a simple and relatively inexpensive technique,
making it suitable for applications where basic motor control is required without the complexity of
other methods such as starting with variable frequency drives.

Consequences:
● Loss of energy in the resistors: A disadvantage is that part of the energy is dissipated as heat in the
resistors during starting. This implies a loss of energy efficiency, since that energy is not used to
move the motor, but is lost.

● Greater mechanical wear than in other methods: Although starting is smoother than direct
starting, there may be greater stress on the system compared to other methods such as starting with
variable frequency drives or autotransformers, especially if the resistors are not well calculated.

● System heating: The resistors must be designed to dissipate the heat generated during starting,
which may require additional ventilation elements or cooling systems to avoid overheating.

● Limited use in large motors: For large motors or in applications where speed control during
starting is crucial, resistor starting may not be the best option, as the number of resistors required
may be considerable, and energy losses would be high.

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IX. DIVISION OF ACTIVITIES.

Table 1. Schedule of activities.

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X. CONCLUSIONS.

Reduced voltage starting with resistors is a classic solution used in electric motors to mitigate the adverse
effects of full voltage starting. This method seeks to limit the initial current drawn by the motor, reducing
the impact on the electrical network and decreasing the mechanical stress on the machine components and
the connected load. To carry out this type of starting, both an adequate design of the electrical circuit and a
detailed analysis of the operating parameters of the motor and resistors are required.

One of the fundamental pieces in this system is the force diagram, which describes how power components,
such as contactors and resistors, are interconnected to handle the electrical energy flowing to the motor. In
this diagram, resistors are placed in series with the motor phases during starting and are removed from the
circuit once the motor reaches a speed close to the nominal speed. Contactors play a crucial role, as they
control the insertion and disconnection of the resistors at the right time. This design ensures that the system
is safe and efficient during the starting process and transition to the normal operating state.

The control diagram, on the other hand, is responsible for managing the logic behind the operations of
contactors and other circuit elements. Through devices such as timers, auxiliary relays, and pushbuttons,
this diagram ensures that resistors are kept in the circuit only for as long as necessary, preventing
overheating and ensuring that the motor receives full voltage when appropriate. Coordination between the
power and control diagrams is essential to ensure proper operation and avoid electrical or mechanical
failures.

The calculation of the resistors plays a critical role in this method. Their value must be designed to provide
the desired current reduction without compromising the motor's ability to start with the load connected. In
addition, these resistors must be able to dissipate large amounts of energy in the form of heat during
starting, which requires specific materials and designs to handle high temperatures and prevent premature
failure. It is important to consider not only the necessary resistive value, but also the power rating of the
resistors, as an inadequate design can lead to safety or efficiency issues.

Some important features of this method include its simplicity, as it uses standard components such as
contactors and resistors, and its low initial cost compared to more advanced technologies. However, it has
significant disadvantages, such as low energy efficiency due to high heat dissipation and lack of precise
control over the starting process. This can be a drawback in modern systems that demand greater efficiency
and flexibility.

In conclusion, reduced voltage starting with resistors is a useful technique in industrial applications where
budget constraints or design simplicity are determining factors. Although it is less efficient than modern
options such as soft starters or variable frequency drives, it is still a valid solution in systems where
operating conditions are stable and control complexity is not a priority. Its implementation requires careful
design of the force and control diagrams, as well as precise calculation of the resistors to ensure safe,
efficient operation adapted to the needs of the motor and load.

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XI. NORMATIVE REFERENCES.

IEC 60947 covers resistor-based reduced voltage starting for motors, focusing on control and protection
devices such as switches, contactors and starters. Below is a breakdown of the key features that this
standard regulates for resistor-based starting:

● Utilization Categories: IEC 60947-4 defines several utilization categories depending on the type of
load and its behavior when connected. For motors with resistor-based reduced voltage starting,
categories AC-1 (resistive loads) and AC-4 (squirrel-cage motor starting and braking) are mainly
used. These categories define the devices' ability to withstand currents during starting and
operations under load.

● Overcurrent Protection: The use of resistors implies that the protection device must be able to
withstand the high initial starting current without tripping prematurely. The standard establishes
how the device must be selected to avoid overcurrent faults during starting.

● Switching Capacity: Switching devices must be able to handle both the starting current and
switching operations when the motor is running. Switching characteristics fit into the categories
mentioned and must meet the values ​defined for each type of load.

● Resistors and Current Limiting: Reducing the voltage during starting using resistors helps limit
the starting current and reduces the mechanical stress on the motor. The regulations specify how
these resistors must be sized and placed to meet starting requirements without compromising the
safety of the equipment.

● Safety Considerations: Emphasis is placed on safety measures when implementing this type of
starting, ensuring that protective devices, such as overload relays, are correctly configured to
prevent damage to both the motor and the electrical system.

This approach ensures that reduced voltage starting with resistors is effective and safe, protecting both the
equipment and the electrical infrastructure, complying with international standards.

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REFERENCES.

[1] Chapman, S. J. (2005). Electric machinery and power system fundamentals (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill.

[2] c3controls. (2024). Los conceptos básicos de un Contactor y diferentes tipos de Contactores. c3controls
line of IEC Contactors are ideal for motor, actuator, solenoid, and other power switching applications.
[Link]
s-de-contactores/

[3] ENDESA (2023). Protege tu instalación eléctrica con el relé térmico.

[Link]

[4] Malvino, A. P., & Bates, D. J. (2015). Electrónica: Principios y aplicaciones. McGraw-Hill.

[5] Petruzella, F. D. (2011). Electric Motors and Control Systems. McGraw-Hill.

[6] Boylestad, R. L., & Nashelsky, L. (2020). Electrónica: Teoría de circuitos y dispositivos electrónicos
(13.ª ed.). Pearson.

[7] Hambley, A. R. (2017). Electrónica (2.ª ed.). McGraw-Hill.

[8] Horowitz, P., & Hill, W. (2015). The Art of Electronics (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

[9] International Electrotechnical Commission (2024). IEC 60446:2007. Basic and safety principles for
man-machine interface, marking and identification - Identification of conductors by colors or
alphanumerics. [Link]

Project annex:

Video with explanation of the project:

[Link]

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