The Nature of Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching":

Introduction
- Language teaching methods have historically responded to various issues,
including traditions, classroom realities, and theoretical developments.
- Grammar-Translation Method: Rooted in tradition and scholarly views
on language study, it exemplified a classical approach to teaching.
- Changing classroom goals: In the late 1920s, practical goals like reading
skills became the focus of language education, especially in U.S. schools.
- Theoretical influences: Theories from linguistics and psychology
shaped language teaching, particularly during the 19th century's reform
movements.
- By the late 20th century, applied linguistics focused on developing a
more structured approach to methods and the relationship between theory
and classroom practice.
- The chapter's goal is to clarify the distinction between approach and
method and provide a model for analyzing language teaching methods.

Approach and Method

- In the late 19th century, linguists aimed to improve language teaching by
developing general principles based on theories of language learning,
memory, and language structure.
- Early applied linguists like Henry Sweet, Otto Jespersen, and Harold
Palmer contributed to language teaching design, focusing on selecting and
sequencing vocabulary and grammar.
- These linguists did not find a single method that fully embodied their
theoretical ideals, leaving room for further practical development.

Anthony's Hierarchical Model (1963)

- Three Levels:
1. Approach:
- The most abstract level.
- Defines assumptions and beliefs about language and language
learning.
- Axiomatic in nature (self-evident principles).
2. Method:
- A plan for the structured presentation of language material.
- Based on the approach, focusing on how theory is put into practice.
- Includes choices on skills, content, and order of teaching.
3. Technique:
- Practical implementation in the classroom.
- Specific tricks or strategies to achieve short-term objectives.
- Techniques align with the method and approach.
- Hierarchy: Techniques support a method, and a method is consistent with
an approach.

Practical Examples:
- Reform Movement: Situated at the level of approach.
- Direct Method: A specific method derived from the Reform Movement's
approach.
- Reading Method: Should be understood as multiple methods derived
from a reading-focused approach (e.g., **Coleman Report**).

Other Models
- Mackey's Model (1965):
- Focuses primarily on method and technique.
- Emphasizes the elements of selection, gradation, presentation, and
repetition.
- Primarily concerns textbooks rather than classroom behavior or
approaches.

Limitations of Anthony’s Model:

- While simple and comprehensive, it doesn't fully address:
- The roles of teachers and learners.
- The role and form of instructional materials.
- How approaches translate into methods or how method and technique
interrelate.

Extended Model:
- The authors propose a more comprehensive model by expanding
Anthony's original framework.
- Design: Incorporates objectives, syllabus, content, and specifies
roles of teachers, learners, and materials.
- Procedure: Replaces Anthony's term “technique” to emphasize the
implementation phase.

This model allows for a clearer understanding of the relationship between

approach, design, and procedure in language teaching methods. The
chapter will further compare specific methods and approaches using this
expanded framework.
1⃣ Approach 🔍 :

- Definition: Refers to the underlying theories about the nature of language

and how it is learned. It serves as the philosophical foundation of teaching
methods.
- Theory of Language: Language is a complex phenomenon, studied from
various disciplines (linguistics, psychology, anthropology, etc.), resulting in
different theoretical models that inform teaching methods. These include:
- Cognitive Model: Language reflects mental properties. Notable features
include:
1. Mind as a Computer: Input is processed and output is produced.
2. Representationalism: The mind stores internal representations of
external events.
3. Knowledge Acquisition: Learning involves acquiring abstract
knowledge (e.g., Chomsky’s Universal Grammar).
- Early methods like Grammar-Translation and Cognitive-Code Approach
are examples of cognitive models.

- Structural Model: Language is a system of structurally related elements

(phonemes, grammatical units, lexical items). Focus is on mastery of
structural elements. Methods like Audiolingual Method, Situational Language
Teaching, and Total Physical Response follow this view.

- Functional Model: Language is viewed as a means to express functional

meanings and perform activities. Focus is on communicative competence,
emphasizing the use of language for real-world purposes (e.g.,
Communicative Language Teaching, Competency-Based Language Teaching).

- Interactional Model: Language is seen as a vehicle for social interaction

and interpersonal relations. Learning involves negotiation of meaning and
feedback from communication partners (e.g., Task-Based Language
Teaching).

- Sociocultural Model: Language learning occurs through social

interaction and is influenced by the learner's culture, customs, and
collaborative activities. It underpins methods like Cooperative Language
Learning and Content-Based Instruction.

- Genre Model: Focuses on language use within specific genres (e.g.,

narratives, scientific discourse). Language learning is seen as context-
dependent and socially shaped (e.g., Text-Based Instruction).

- Lexical Model: Emphasizes the role of lexis and lexical chunks. Grammar
and vocabulary are viewed as interrelated, with grammatical competence
emerging from lexical learning. The Lexical Approach embodies this model.
🦋 Theory of Learning 🦋
- Definition: Theories of learning explain the cognitive, personal, and social
processes that learners use in second language acquisition. Different methods
draw from diverse learning theories.

- Behaviorism:
- Focuses on habit formation through repetition and reinforcement. Correct
responses to stimuli lead to learning. This theory underpins the
Audiolingual Method, where language is taught through drilling and
repetition.

- Cognitive-Code Learning:
- Developed as an alternative to behaviorism, this theory views language
learning as a cognitive process that requires both deductive and inductive
reasoning. Students learn grammatical rules and apply them in practice. The
PPP approach (Presentation-Practice-Production) and methods like the
Silent Way align with this theory.

- Creative-Construction Hypothesis:
- Suggests language learning is a creative process, not just reproduction of
input. Errors are seen as part of learning, not failure. This theory underpins
Communicative Language Teaching and Task-Based Language
Teaching, where fluency is prioritized over grammatical accuracy.

- Skill Learning:
- Language learning is seen as the development of integrated skills through
practice, moving from controlled processing (conscious management of
language use) to automatic processing (language use without conscious
attention). Many teaching methods treat language learning as skill-based.

- Interactional Theory:
- Learning happens through interaction and negotiation of meaning. More
competent speakers adjust their language to help learners understand and
learn.

Communicative Language Teaching and Task-Based Language

Teaching emphasize interaction.

- Constructivism:
- Draws on the works of Piaget, Dewey, and Vygotsky, this theory sees
learning as the internal construction of meaning by learners. It emphasizes
student-centered, project-based learning where learners actively create
knowledge. This is seen in methods like Communicative Language
Teaching and Cooperative Language Learning.
- Sociocultural Learning Theory (Social Constructivism):
- Views learning as a process of social interaction and guided participation
with a more knowledgeable person. The concept of scaffolding is central,
where learners are initially supported and gradually guided towards
independence. This theory influences methods like CLIL, Text-Based
Instruction, and Task-Based Learning.

- Individual Factors:
- Learning styles: Preferences like group or independent learning.
- Affective factors: Emotions like anxiety or enthusiasm that influence
learning.
- Motivation: Desire and interest in learning.
- Learning strategies: Ways learners plan and manage their learning (e.g.,
monitoring progress). Methods may address individual factors by matching
strategies to learning styles or content (e.g., Content-Based Instruction,
Cooperative Language Learning).

Summary

Language teaching methods are grounded in various theories of language and

learning, ranging from structural and cognitive views to interactive and
sociocultural approaches. These theories highlight the complexities of
language acquisition, including cognitive processes, social interaction, and
individual differences. Each method draws on one or more theories,
influencing how language is taught and learned.
⚜ Relationship between Language Theory and Learning Theory⚜

1. Natural Affinities:
- There are often natural connections between certain language theories and
learning theories.
- For example, structuralism (language theory) was linked with
behaviorism (learning theory), resulting in Audiolingualism.
- However, these links are not inevitable; alternative pairings of language
and learning theories are possible.

2. Alternative Pairings:
- For instance, Cognitive-code proponents sought to combine a more
advanced form of structuralism with a cognitive and mentalistic learning
theory, rather than behaviorism.

3. Approach:
- At the level of approach, theoretical principles come into play, focusing
on:
- Language theory: Concerned with language competence and the
structure and use of language.
- Learning theory: Concerned with the processes and conditions that
promote effective language learning.

4. Flexibility in Methods:
- Principles derived from language and learning theories do not necessarily
lead to a single, fixed method.
- Teachers may design their own procedures based on their views of
language and learning, adapting them based on learners' performance and
responses.

5. Variability in Implementation:
- Even if a group of teachers shares similar beliefs about language and
learning (same approach), they might still implement these principles in
different ways.
- Approach does not dictate procedure.
- Theory does not prescribe specific teaching techniques.

6. Design as a Link:
- Design is the link between theory and practice (or approach and
procedure). It bridges the gap between abstract principles and concrete
classroom techniques and activities.
2⃣ Design 📊

1. Purpose of Design:
- For an approach to become a method, a design for an instructional
system must be developed.
- Design involves considering:
- (a) Objectives of the method
- (b) Selection and organization of language content (syllabus)
- (c) Types of learning tasks and activities
- (d) Roles of learners
- (e) Roles of teachers
- (f) Role of instructional materials

2. Objectives:
- Theories of language and language learning influence a method's
learning outcomes.
- Learning outcomes are determined by design, not by approach.
- Objectives can vary widely:
- Oral skills might be the focus, with reading and writing considered
secondary.
- Some methods prioritize communication skills, emphasizing
meaningful expression over grammatical accuracy.
- Others emphasize accurate grammar and pronunciation from the
start.
- Some methods focus on basic grammar and vocabulary, while others
focus on learning behaviors rather than linguistic knowledge.

3. Process vs. Product-Oriented Objectives:

- Process-oriented objectives: Focus on learning processes or
developing learning abilities rather than just accumulating knowledge (e.g.,
Gattegno's view of learning as becoming a better learner).
- Product-oriented objectives: Emphasize vocabulary acquisition and
grammatical proficiency.
- The balance between process- and product-oriented objectives affects how
vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation are treated in the method.

4. Hidden Concerns in Process-Oriented Methods:

- Even methods claiming to be process-oriented often reveal strong
concerns with grammatical and lexical attainment, as well as accuracy
in grammar and pronunciation.

5. Chapter Reference:
- Further discussion of the relationship between learning outcomes and
methods is provided in Chapter 21.
✨ Syllabus✨

1. Syllabus and Language Teaching:

- All language teaching methods involve using the target language.
- Methods require decisions about **language content**—what is taught
(subject matter) and how it is taught (linguistic matter).
- Some methods are subject matter-focused (e.g., ESP, content-based
courses), while others are linguistically focused (e.g., Audiolingual
Method, Lexical Approach).

2. Principles of Syllabus Design:

- Content issues involve decisions about selection and sequencing of
language content, shaping the syllabus and materials.
- Young learners: Concrete topics often precede abstract ones.
- Adults: Immediate needs take priority in course topics.
- In grammar-based courses, sequencing is determined by item
difficulty, frequency, and usefulness.
- In communicative or functionally oriented courses, sequencing is
based on learners’ communicative needs (functional focus).

3. Types of Syllabuses:
- Traditionally, syllabuses have been associated with product-centered
methods (e.g., Audiolingual, Structural-Situational, communicative
methods).
- Notional-functional syllabuses: Organize content in terms of
functions, notions, topics, grammar, and vocabulary.
- Text-based syllabuses: Organize around text-types (e.g., reports,
narratives).
- A priori syllabuses: Determined before teaching begins.
- Common syllabus types (Richards, 2001): Grammatical, lexical,
functional, situational, topical/content-based, competency-based,
skills-based, task-based, text-based, integrated.

4. Process-Based Methods and Syllabuses:

- In process-based methods, language content is often secondary, and
the term "syllabus" is less frequently used.
- Example: Community Language Learning (Counseling-Learning):
- No language syllabus specified in advance.
- Learners choose topics, which are then translated and used for
interaction.
- To determine what was covered, one would need to review lesson
protocols (a posteriori approach).
- Similar to Dogme teaching, where syllabus emerges from teacher-student
interaction.
5. Syllabus and Approach Links:
- Different approaches/methods are typically linked to specific syllabuses:
- Oral/Situational: Situational syllabus.
- Audiolingual: Grammatical syllabus.
- Communicative Language Teaching: Functional syllabus.
- Task-Based Language Teaching: Task-based syllabus.
- Content-Based Instruction: Content organization takes priority over
language organization.

6. A Posteriori Syllabuses:
- In methods like Counseling-Learning and Dogme, syllabuses are not
pre-planned but emerge after reviewing what was covered during the course.

1. Types of Learning and Teaching Activities

- The instructional process is key to achieving the objectives of a method,
which may focus on either product (e.g., specific language outcomes like
grammatical accuracy) or process (e.g., acquiring language through natural
interaction).
- Approach influences activities: Different methods, rooted in various
theories, manifest distinct types of classroom activities.
- Grammatical accuracy: Activities might focus on drills and patterns
(e.g., Audiolingual Method).
- Communicative skills: Methods like Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT) emphasize interactive tasks involving "information gaps"
and information transfer.
- Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) focuses on real-world
language use through task-based activities.
- Text-Based Instruction emphasizes interaction with authentic
texts.
- Older methods (e.g., Silent Way**) employ **problem-solving
activities with tools like colored rods.

- Activity Types:
- Dialogues and pattern practices (Audiolingualism).
- Interactive games: Used in CLT and TBLT for interactive exchanges
and in traditional methods as motivational tools.
- Group dynamics: Different methods emphasize distinct learner
groupings (e.g., chorus drilling vs. pair work).

2. Learner Roles
- The role of learners is a reflection of how the method views the learning
process.
- Older methods (e.g., Audiolingualism**) cast learners as **passive
recipients of information.
 - Newer methods, like learner-centered approaches from the 1980s,
focus on learner autonomy and diversity in learner needs and styles.
- Humanistic methods (e.g., Community Language Learning,
**Silent Way**) prioritize learners' self-awareness, emotional growth, and
personal involvement in learning.
- Methods like Task-Based Learning (TBL) and Content-Based
Instruction (CBI) position learners as active processors, using their
prior knowledge and innate cognitive processes to engage with content.
- Learners may act as problem-solvers, initiators, or dialogue
participants, depending on the method's focus.

- Individualized approaches: Focus on personalized learning paths,

where learners set their own goals, often linked to the concept of learner
autonomy.

3. Teacher Roles
- Teacher roles are closely tied to learner roles and the method's underlying
assumptions about language and learning.
- Some methods, like Audiolingualism, place the teacher as the
primary source of knowledge and language input.
- Other methods, such as Task-Based Language Teaching or Text-
Based Instruction, assume a facilitator role for teachers, guiding
interaction and promoting learner autonomy.
- Cooperative Language Learning (CLL) demands that the teacher
step back from teacher-fronted instruction, requiring them to act as a
facilitator rather than a central authority.
- Counseling-approaches (e.g., Community Language Learning**)
envision the teacher as a **psychological counselor, emphasizing
warmth, sensitivity, and acceptance.

- The nature of the teacher’s role varies across methods:

- Control: Some methods require the teacher to have complete control
over content and class dynamics (e.g., Audiolingualism), while others allow
for more shared responsibility between teacher and learners.
- Interaction patterns: Teacher-learner interactions can be
asymmetrical (e.g., conductor to orchestra) or more symmetrical (e.g.,
friend-to-friend relationships in humanistic approaches).

4. Role of Instructional Materials

- Materials support the instructional system by defining the syllabus
content and setting goals for language learning (listening, speaking, reading,
writing skills).
- Materials vary in purpose:
- Some emphasize content presentation and others emphasize
communication facilitation between learners.
 - Some methods use teacher-proof materials, requiring minimal
teacher initiative (e.g., detailed lesson plans).

- Other methods, especially autonomous learning frameworks, require

materials that enable independent study and self-evaluation.
- Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT): Materials are designed to
simulate real-world language tasks or facilitate negotiation of
meaning in the classroom.
- Text-Based Instruction (TBI): Materials model text types that
students will use in creating their own texts.
- CLIL and Content-Based Instruction: Materials are vehicles for
content communication, serving as the foundation for lessons.

- Form of materials: Can range from traditional textbooks to multimedia

(DVDs, software) depending on the method.
- Materials may define interaction patterns (learner-learner, teacher-
learner) or function as self-study resources.
- In functional/communicative methodologies, materials support the
negotiation of meaning and the expression of information rather
than focusing on grammatical structures.

In summary, teaching and learning activities, roles of learners and teachers,

and instructional materials all contribute significantly to shaping the learning
experience in language teaching methodologies. Each of these elements
reflects the method’s underlying principles regarding language acquisition
and the interaction between learners, teachers, and content.
3⃣ Procedure 🗯
1. Definition and Scope
- Procedure refers to the moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and
behaviors used in teaching a language according to a specific approach or
method.
- It operationalizes the approach and design within the classroom setting.
- At this level, we focus on how teaching activities and techniques are
applied in real-time during lessons.

2. Dimensions of Procedure

- (a) Use of Teaching Activities

- Presentation: Introducing new language content (e.g., through drills,
dialogues).
- Clarification and Demonstration: Explaining and showing formal,
communicative, or other aspects of the target language.
- Examples:
- Drills: Often used in methods focusing on accuracy (e.g., Audiolingual
Method).
- Information Gap Activities: Used in Communicative Language
Teaching to engage learners in real communication.

- (b) Practice of Language

- Application: How activities are integrated into lessons to provide
practice.
- Activity Types:
- Controlled Practice: Initial practice under teacher guidance (e.g.,
repetition drills).
- Freer Practice: Activities allowing more personal expression (e.g., role
plays, simulations).
- Examples:
- Task-Based Language Teaching: Tasks designed to reflect real-
world language use.
- Text-Based Instruction: Activities involve working with texts to
reinforce learning.

- (c) Feedback Procedures

- Formative Feedback: Providing responses on learners' language use.
- Types of Feedback:
- Corrective Feedback: Addressing errors and guiding learners to
correct usage.
- Positive Feedback: Reinforcing correct language use and encouraging
learners.
- Examples:
 - Immediate Correction: Instant feedback during activities (e.g.,
correcting pronunciation during drills).
- Delayed Feedback: Addressing errors after a task is completed to
maintain communication flow (e.g., providing overall feedback after a
discussion).

3. Procedure in Practice
- The integration of teaching activities into lessons defines how effectively
a method's approach is implemented.
- Procedures involve balancing the presentation, practice, and feedback
phases to ensure effective learning.

4. Relationship between Approach, Design, and Procedure

- Approach: Theoretical principles guiding what is taught.
- Design: How the method organizes objectives, content, activities, learner
and teacher roles, and materials.
- Procedure: The practical application of design through specific
techniques and practices in the classroom.

In summary, procedure is critical for the successful implementation of a

method, focusing on how teaching activities are applied, practiced, and
evaluated in real-time teaching scenarios. It connects theoretical and design
aspects with actual classroom practices.

1. Situational Language Teaching

- Sequence of Activities:
1. Presentation: Introduce and present the new structure.
2. Controlled Practice: Intensive practice of the structure under the
teacher's guidance.
3. Free Practice: Students use the structure independently, without
teacher control.
4. Checking: Teacher elicits use of the structure to ensure it has been
learned.
5. Further Practice: Practice the structure in new situations or combined
with other structures.

2. Communicative Language Teaching

- Sequence of Activities:
1. Pre-Communicative Activities: Accuracy-based activities focusing
on the presentation of structures, functions, and vocabulary.
2. Communication Activities: Fluency-based activities focusing on
information-sharing and information-exchange.

3. Text-Based Lessons
- Sequence of Activities:
 1. Building the Context: Discuss the situation in which a particular text-
type is used and its purpose.
2. Modeling and Deconstructing the Text: Teacher demonstrates
how the text is constructed and its linguistic and discourse features.
3. Joint Construction of the Text: Teacher and students
collaboratively create a new text following the model.
4. Independent Construction of the Text: Students create their own
texts.
5. Links to Related Texts: Discuss similarities and differences between
the text studied and other types of texts.

Adaptation in Practice
- Methods may appear idiosyncratic at the procedural level.
- Teachers often adapt prescribed procedures to fit their own teaching styles
over time.
- Classroom observations might reveal variations from the method's original
procedures as teachers personalize their approach.
Reasons for Adopting Language Teaching Approaches or Methods

🌻 1. Paradigm Shifts
- Changes in supporting disciplines (e.g., linguistics, psychology) can lead to
shifts in language teaching approaches. For instance:
- Chomsky’s critique of behaviorism and his theory of linguistic
competence led to new methods like the Natural Approach.
- The field of second language acquisition has influenced approaches like
Task-Based Language Teaching and Communicative Language Teaching.

🌻 2. Support Networks
- The promotion and legitimacy of new methods often rely on support from:
- Educational authorities, administrators, and professional organizations.
- Example: The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR)
gained prominence due to its backing by the Council of Europe.

🌻 3. Practicality
- Methods that are straightforward and easy to implement are more likely to
be adopted. For example:
- Total Physical Response and Text-Based Instruction are considered
practical.
- Methods like the Silent Way and Task-Based Language Teaching may be
less accessible due to their complexity and resource requirements.

🌻 4. Teacher’s Language Proficiency

- Methods that require high levels of native-speaker proficiency may face
challenges in contexts where teachers are non-native speakers. For instance:
- The Direct Method was difficult for many teachers due to its demands on
language proficiency.

🌻 5. Use as Basis for Materials and Tests

- Methods that can be used to create textbooks, syllabuses, and tests are
more likely to be adopted. For example:
- Audiolingualism and Communicative Language Teaching have been the
basis for many widely-used textbooks.

🌻 6. Compatibility with Local Traditions

- Methods must align with local educational traditions and cultural
expectations. For instance:
- Methods that emphasize learner autonomy may not be suitable in
cultures where a more teacher-directed approach is the norm.
🎀 Checklist for Adoption
- Advantages: Is the method perceived as more effective than current
practices?
- Compatibility: How well does it fit with existing beliefs and practices?
- Support: Is it endorsed by authorities and experts?
- Complexity: Is it easy to understand and implement?
- Testing: Has it been trialed in schools before widespread adoption?
- Communication: Are the benefits clearly communicated to teachers?
- Practicality: Are expectations clear and practical for classroom use?

✨ Conclusion✨
- Language teaching methods can be described through approach, design, and
procedure. These methods often evolve from theoretical frameworks or
practical teaching procedures.
- Development may not always follow a linear path from approach to design
to procedure. Sometimes methods emerge from innovative practices or
theoretical advancements.
- Understanding the criteria for teaching activities, learning theory, and
syllabus design helps in evaluating and implementing language teaching
methods effectively.