Thesis Writing

13
Research Design

Module 013 Instrument of the Study

Objectives
1. To compare the different types of data-gathering instruments
2. To design the instrument of the study
Library Activity (triad)
Collect three different instruments. Analyze and compare them.

Instrument of the Study

An exciting part of research is personally meeting the subjects or
respondents of the study and reading their responses through the
questionnaires. The task of the researcher is to devise a way to examine or
measure the variables of interest so that the answers to the problems can be
derived. The decision on what instrument to use is a very critical issue that
determines the validity and reliability of the findings.
Most Frequently Used Data Collection Techniques
1. Documentary analysis. This technique is used to analyze primary
or secondary sources that are available mostly in rural health
units, hospitals, or community halls. At times, data are not
available or are difficult to locate. Sometimes, information
gathered may tend to be incomplete or indefinite.
2. Interview. The instrument used in this method is the interview
schedule. The skill of the interviewer is necessary to enable the
interviewee to express his/her thoughts clearly. Usually, an
interview is conducted with an individual person, but there are
also times when it is conducted with a group of people (around
five to ten) whose opinions and experiences are solicited
simultaneously. This type is called focus group interview. Life
histories are also needed in this area. These are narrative self-
disclosures about the individual’s life experiences. The interviewer
must guide the respondents to narrate the accounts in sequence.
Data obtained from an interview may be recorded on
audiotapes or videotapes. Some researchers think that the written
recording of responses jeopardizes rapport, reduces spontaneity, and
hinders eye contact.

Course Module
Types of Interview
a. Unstructured. The researcher must be skilled in conducting the
interview so that he/she would be able to steer its course. The
interviewer must be knowledgeable on the subject or topic of
discussion. This can be in the form of normal conversation or a
freewheeling exchange of ideas.
b. Structured. The conduct of questioning follows a particular
progression and has a well-defined content. The interviewer does
not ask questions that are not part of the questionnaire, but
he/she can ask the interviewee to clarify his/her answers.
c. Semi-structured. There is a specific set of questions, but there are
also additional probes that may come in the form of follow-up
questions that are not included in the list of original questions.
Through this process, the researcher can gather additional data
from a respondent that may add depth and significance to the
findings.
3. Observation. This technique or process enables the researcher to
participate actively in the conduct of the research. The instrument
is called observation guide or observation checklist. Observation
must be done in a quiet and inconspicuous manner so as to get
realistic data. In nursing research, the observation method has
broad applicability, particularly for clinical inquires. Nurses are in
an advantageous position to observe the behaviors and activities
of the patients and their families as well as the healthcare staff. It
can be used to gather information such as the characteristics and
conditions of individuals, verbal communication, non-verbal
communication, and activities and environmental conditions. The
following dimensions should be taken into consideration: the
focus of observation; concealment, the condition in which the
subject of observation has no knowledge that he/she is being
observed; duration; and the method of recording the observations.
Types of Observation
a. Structured. The researcher devices a checklist as a data collection
tool in which expected behaviors of interest have been specified.
The researcher just records the frequency of the occurrences of
the behavior.
b. Unstructured. This is performed by the researcher as he/she tries
to explain events without any preconceived ideas about what will
be observed. The researcher observes things as the happen
4. Physiological Measures. They involve the collection of physical
data from the subjects. They are considered more accurate
objective than other data collection methods. However, skills and
expertise are needed to enable the researcher to apply and
manipulate the devices used in the measurement.
5. Psychological Tests. They include personality inventories and
projective techniques. Personality inventories are self-report
measures to assess the differences in personality traits, needs, or
values of people. They gather information from a person through
questions or statements that require responses or reactions.
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Research Design

Examples of these are the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality

Inventory (MMPI) and the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule
(EPPS). In projective techniques, the subject is presented with
stimuli that are designed to be ambiguous or with no definite
meaning. The person is then asked to describe the stimulus or tell
what the stimulus appears to represent. Examples of common
projective techniques are the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the
Thematic Apperception Test. In the Rorschach Inkblot Test,
subjects are presented with cards that contains designs which
are actually inkblots. The Thematic Apperception Test consists of a
set of pictures about which subjects are asked to tell a story about
what they think is happening.
6. Questionnaire. It is the most commonly used instrument in
research. It is a list of planned, written questions about a
particular topic, with space provided for the response to each
question, intended to be answered by a number of persons (Good,
1984). It is less expensive, yield more honest responses,
guarantees confidentiality, and minimizes biases based on
question-phrasing modes.
The questionnaire can be structured or unstructured. It is
structured if possible answers are provided and respondents
just have to select from them. It is unstructured if no options
are provided and the respondents are free to answer however
they wish.

Relationship of the Reviewed Related Literature to the

Questionnaire
The reviewed literature, as well as the reviewed studies, must be rich
with information and data to enable the researcher to thoroughly understand
the variables being investigated in the study. The descriptive information
gathered from the different sources are called indicators for the specific
variables and they are used to make sure the content of the questionnaire is
valid. An indicator, to be valid, must be supported by previous studies done
by experts.

Types of Questions
1. Yes or No type. Items are answerable by “yes” or “no.”
Example:
Do nurses have the right to refuse on call duties? () Yes ()No
2. Recognition type. Fixed alternative answers are already
provided; the respondents simply choose from among the given
choices. It contains close-ended questions.
Course Module
 Example;
Educational qualification
____ Elementary school graduate
____High School graduate
____Vocational/Technical school graduate
____College graduate
____M.A/Ph.D
____ Others (pls. specify)_____
3. Completion type. The respondents are asked to fill in the blanks
with the necessary information. Questions are open-ended.
Example:
As a teacher, after seeing a misbehavior done by a pupil, I will
____________________________________________________.
4. Coding type. Numbers are assigned to names, choices, and other
pertinent data. This entails knowledge of statistics on the part of
the researcher, as statistical formula application is necessary to
arrive at the finding.
Example:
On a scale of 1 to 10, how will you rate your manager’s skills?
5. Subjective Type. The respondents are free to give their opinions
about an issue of concern.
Example:
What can you say about government officials who are deeply
committed to their work?
6. Combination type. This questionnaire is a combination of two or
more types of questions.

Wordings of Questions (Nieswiadomy, 2004)

1. State the questions in an affirmative rather than in a negative
manner.
2. Avoid ambiguous questions, e.g., those which contain words like
many, always, usually, few, etc.
3. Avoid double negative questions, e.g., Don’t you disagree with the
idea that…?
4. Avoid double-barred questions, i.e., two questions in one.
Example:
Do you want to pursue a doctorate degree in education and seek
an administrative position upon graduation?

Characteristics of a Good Data-collection Instrument

1. It must be concise yet able to elicit the needed data. According to
Shelly (1984), the length of a questionnaire must be two to four
pages, and the maximum time of answering is 10 minutes. A
desirable length of each question is less than 20 words.
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Research Design

2. It seeks information which cannot be obtained from other sources

like documents available at hand.
3. Questions must be arranged from the simplest to the most
complex.
4. It must also be arranged according to the posted questions.
5. It should pass validity and reliability.
6. It must be easily tabulated and interpreted.

Scales Commonly Used in an Instrument

1. Likert scale. It is a common scaling techniques which consists of
several declarative statements that express a viewpoint on a topic.
The respondents are asked to indicate how much they agree or
disagree on the statements.
Example:
A Likert scale to measure attitudes towards condom use

Items
SA A D SD
1. The use of a condom shows care for my
partner.
SA A D SD
2. My partner will respect me upon
insisting the use of a condom during
intercourse.
SA A D SD
3. I would be embarrassed to ask my
partner to use a condiom
2. Semantic differential scale. The respondents are asked to rate
concepts on a series of bipolar adjectives. Advantages: it is flexible
and easy to construct.
Example:
Description of the sales account executive
Competent 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent
5 4 3 2 1 Not Punctual
Punctual
5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
Pleasant
The following items should be discussed on the formulation of
the instrument of the study: the type of instrument used; the
conceptual definition of the instrument with corresponding
references; the rationale or reasons why the researcher has decided
to use the instrument; and the description of the essential parts of the
instruments.

Course Module
DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENT Example 1 (Cristobal, 2003)
The data gathered to answer the specific questions were drawn by
sets of questionnaires, documents like the Performance Appraisal for
Secondary Teachers (PAST), division reports, and other school records.
The questionnaires used were composed of two sets. The first set
having three parts was for the school managers. The first part was to find out
the personal profile of the school managers which included age, home
atmosphere, home management styles, level of religiosity, hobbies, human
virtues, health condition, and involvement in civic and religious
organizations. The second part assessed the awards received by the teachers
and students in the national, regional, division, and district levels.
The third part has two sections. Section A assessed the intrapersonal
competency of school principals, which was sub-divided into six major
variables. These were locus of control, Machiavellianism, self-esteem, self-
monitoring, risk-taking, and type “A” personality. These variables were based
on the book of Stephen Robbins (1996) entitled Organizational Behaviors.
The standardized tests presented in the book were improved to fit in the
Philippine culture and with additional items in several related literatures.
The assessment checklist was completed then validated. Each variable has a
minimum of ten indicators. The respondents used were the following:

5 = Completely true (81% to 100% true)

4 = Generally true (61% to 80% true)
3 = Moderately true (41% to 60 % true)
2 = Partly true (21% to 40% true)
1 = Not at all true (0% to 20% true)
Thus, when a respondents indicated his/her response as “5,” this
would mean that a particular statement is observed to be commonly
practiced 81% to 100% or is believed all the time by the school manager.
Whereas, a response of “I” would mean that a particular statement has never
been observed to be practiced by the school manager or 0% to 20% true to
the school manager.
Section B of the third part assessed the interpersonal competency if
the school managers which was composed of five variables: role in
management; learning and training; understanding and motivating teachers;
positive attitudes and problem-solving techniques. These variables were
based on the book of Ernesto Appodaca (1997) entitled Human Relations of
Supervisors. The guide questions presented in the book with additional items
from other sources were the basis of the items in the checklist was then
improved and validated. It was composed of 60 items with 10 items per
variable.
A parallel questionnaire was designed for the secondary school
teachers.
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Research Design

DATA-GATHERING INSTRUMENT Example 2 (Quiazon, 2007)

The study used a questionnaire as the primary research instrument.
Padua (2001) defined questionnaire as a list of planned, written questions
related to a particular topic, with space provided for the response to each
questions. In like manner, the questionnaire is commonly used in normative
survey and in the measurement of attitudes and opinions (Good, 1991). In
other words, the questionnaire is the best instruments that can supply the
necessary information to complete a research study as it commonly used in
behavioral research or social research (Calderon & Gonzales, 2005).
Two sets of questionnaires were prepared, one for the student
respondents and another for the clinical instructors. The student’s
questionnaire included the respondent’s profile, namely age, gender, civil
status, and types of hospital assigned. The second part dealt with infection
control practices in the NICU. The CI’s questionnaire was similar with that of
the student-respondents except that the former did not contain the questions
on the profile of the student-respondents.
The researcher employed threating scale which has the following
descriptions or verbal interpretation:

Value Scale Verbal Interpretation

5 4.20-5.00 Very Great Extent

4 3.40-4.19 Great Extent

3 2.60-3.39 Moderate Extent

2 1.80-2.59 Low Extent

1 1.00-1.79 No Extent

References:
Books and Journals

Bakas, T., Champion, V., perkins, S., Farran, C., & William, L. (2006).
Psychometric testing of the revised 15-otem Bakas Caregiving Outcomes
Scale. Nursing Research, 55 (5), 346-355.

Briggs, A.R. J., & Coleman, M. (Eds.). (2002). Research methods in

educational leadership and management. London: Sage Publications

Course Module
Calmorin, L. P., & Calmorin, M. A. (2003) Methods of Research and thesis
writing. Manila: Rex Bookstore.

Catane, J. A. (2000). Conducting research: A practical application (rev. ed).

Quezon City: JMC Press Inc.

Coleman, M., & Briggs, A. (2002). Research methods in educational

leadership and management. London: Paul Chaplan Publishing

Glatthorn, A. A. (1998). Writing the winning dissertation. A step-by-step

guide. Corwin Press, [Link]ė, L. E., & Šeškauskienė, I. 1999. Writing
a research paper. The student’s guide. Vilnius

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Kubiszyn, T., & Borich, G. (2007). Educational testing and measurement:

Classroom application and practice (8th ed.) USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Lileikienė, A., Šaparnis, G., & Tamošiūnas, T. (2004). Magistro darbo

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McMillan, J. H. (1996). Educational research: fundamentals for the

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City: Rex Printing Co. Inc.

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