UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND BIOSYSTEMS
ENGINEERING
FEB3271: SOLID AND STRUCTURAL MECHANICS I
SECOND YEAR BSc: 2024/2025
ENVIRONMENTAL AND BIOSYSTEMS
ENGINEERING
TERM PAPER TOPIC:
CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR STRESS IN BEAMS
STUDENT NAME: WILLIAM MWANZA
STUDENT REG NO: FEB3/7182/2023
LECTURER’S NAME: MR. NANJE M.M
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Table of content
2. Introduction ………………………………………………………………(3)
3. Discussion
3.1LinearElasticity(Hooke’sLaw)…………………………………………..(3)
3.1.1Definition……………………………………………………………..(3)
3.1.2 Application to Beam Theory ……………………………………. (4)
3.2 Axial Stress in Beams……………………………………………….. (5)
3.2.1 Definition and Formula ………………………………….…….(5)
3.2.2 Applications and Examples ………………………….. (6)
3.3 Shear Stress in Beam…………………………………………………………(7)
3.3.1 Definition and Importance ……………………………………………(7)
3.3.2 Shear Stress Formula and Distribution in Cross-section ……..(7)
3.4 Bending Stress (Flexural Stress)…………………………………… (9)
3.4.1 Concept of Bending in Beams ………………………………………. (9)
3.4.2 Bending Stress Formula and Distribution ………………….(9)
3.4.3 Importance of Moment of Inertia and Neutral Axis …………..(10)
3.5 Torsional Stress in Beams ……………………………………………………….(11)
3.5.1 Definition and Relevance in Beam Analysis ………………..(11)
3.5.2 Torsional Stress Formula and Polar Moment of Inertia …………(12)
[Link]…………………………………………………………………………(13)
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5. References…………………………………………………………(13)
INTRODUCTION TO CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR STRESS IN BEAMS
Constitutive relations are equations describing the way in which materials deform to the
applied stresses. For beams, such relations allow the establishment of a bridge
between stress and strain and predictions regarding a beam’s behavior under loading.
The most common constitutive relation for stress in beams, in structural engineering, is
based on linear elasticity, also known as Hooke’s Law, which assumes that the material
returns to its original shape when the load is removed and that the relationship between
stress and strain is linear.
These constitutive relationships in beams make it possible to calculate stresses due to
bending, axial loads, and shear forces by engineers in order to make their predictions
about deformation and structural integrity. The constitutive relations of the beams as far
as stress are concerned summarize, therefore, the relationship between stress and
strain resulting from the material properties and loading conditions. These relations are
significant in understanding response behavior from different types of loads applied to
beams (axial, bending, shear, torsion) and they result from material behavior, mainly
elasticity and plasticity.
Following are the constitutive relations, which in general are used along with the beam
theory,
1. Linear Elasticity
2. Axial Stress in Beams
3. Bending Stress
4. Shear Stress in Beams
5. Torsional Stress in Beams
[Link] ELASTICITY
IN the context of linear elasticity, the constitutive relation for stress in beams is based
on Hooke's Law, which describes the relationship between stress and strain in a
material that deforms elastically. This principle is fundamental in structural analysis for
predicting how beams respond to applied forces within the elastic range, meaning the
material will return to its original shape once the load is removed.
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Constitutive Relation:
Hooke’s Law
For a material in the linear elastic range, stress (𝜎) and strain (𝜀) are directly
proportional through Young’s modulus (𝐸), a property that measures material stiffness:
𝜎=𝐸⋅𝜀
where:
σ is the normal stress in the material (force per unit area)
E is Young’s modulus, which depends on the material (e.g., steel has a much higher
E than wood),
ε is the strain (change in length per original length).
In the case of beams, Hooke’s Law is applied in multiple ways to understand stresses
from different loading types (axial, bending) and is used to calculate the stress
distributions and deformations under applied forces.
Types of Stresses in Linear Elasticity
Axial Stress: If a beam is subjected to a force along its length (axial load), the axial
stress (σ) is:
𝜎=𝐹/𝐴
where
F is the axial force
A is the cross-sectional area.
The resulting axial strain 𝜀can be determined by rearranging Hooke’s Law:
𝜀=𝜎/𝐸 =𝐹/𝐸⋅𝐴
Bending Stress: When a beam bends under a moment M, the bending stress (σ) at a
distance y from the neutral axis is:
𝜎=𝑀⋅𝑦𝐼
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This formula derives from Hooke's Law applied to bending. Since strain varies linearly
across the cross-section in bending, it results in a linearly distributed stress profile, with
maximum stresses at the outermost fibers (top and bottom).
Elastic Deformation and Beam Deflection
The linear elastic relationship also allows for calculating beam deflections,
essential in structural engineering. Deflections are found by integrating the bending
curvature, which depends on bending stress and Young’s modulus:
D2 v/dx2 =M/ E⋅I
where
v is the deflection of the beam and
x is the position along its length
. This equation shows that deflection is inversely related to Young’s modulus
E; thus, stiffer materials (higher E) deform less.
Importance in Design
Linear elasticity ensures that beam designs remain within the elastic range under
normal operating loads. This is critical for:
[Link] Deformations: Ensures that deflections are within acceptable limits.
[Link] Reversibility: The beam returns to its original shape after the load is
removed, preventing permanent deformation or failure.
[Link] Material Use: Allows engineers to use the right materials and dimensions
to support loads without over-designing.
[Link] STRESS IN BEAMS
The constitutive relations for axial stress in beams describe how stress and strain
behave when a beam is subjected to a force along its length, either in tension (pulling)
or compression (pushing). Axial stress is one of the simplest forms of stress in beam
theory and is especially relevant for structural elements like columns, trusses, or beams
subjected to axial loads.
Axial stress (σ) in a beam is given by the formula:
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σ= F/A
where:
(σ ) is the axial stress (force per unit area
F is the axial force acting along the length of the beam (either tensile or compressive),
A is the cross-sectional area of the beam.
This relationship shows that axial stress is directly proportional to the force applied
along the beam’s length and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. For a
given axial force, increasing the area reduces the stress, which helps prevent material
failure.
Axial Strain and Hooke’s Law
When an axial load is applied, the beam undergoes a change in length. Axial strain(ԑ)
represents the relative deformation along the length and is given by:
ԑ=length and is given by:
𝜀=𝛿/𝐿
where:
𝜀 is the axial strain,
(s ) is the change in length of the beam due to the applied force,
( L ) is the original length of the beam.
Hooke’s Law links axial stress and axial strain in the elastic range (when the material
deforms linearly and returns to its original shape when the load is removed):
=E
where E is Young’s modulus of the material. Combining Hooke's Law with the formulas
for axial stress and strain, we can express the change in length (σ) due to the axial
force as:
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𝛿= FL/ EA
This equation is essential for determining the elongation or compression of a beam
under axial loads and is useful for assessing whether a structure can safely withstand
applied forces without excessive deformation.
Key Points and Design Considerations
1. Material Strength: Axial stress must be within the material’s elastic limit to avoid
permanent deformation.
2. Cross-sectional Area: Increasing A reduces axial stress for a given force, which is
why columns and tension members are often designed with large cross-sectional areas.
[Link] Control: For materials with high Young’s modulus (stiffer materials), the
axial deformation (\(\delta\)) is minimized, ensuring dimensional stability.
4. Safety Against Buckling: In compressive cases, the risk of buckling must be
considered, especially in slender columns, as axial stress alone does not account for
this instability.
3 . SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS
The constitutive relations for shear stress in beams describe how shear stress (𝜏) and
shear strain (𝛾)behave in a beam subjected to transverse (lateral) forces. Shear stress
arises when these forces try to slide one part of the beam’s cross-section over another,
often near supports or where loads are applied perpendicular to the beam’s length.
For a beam with a rectangular cross-section, shear stress (𝜏) at a given height from the
neutral axis is approximately:
= I⋅t /V⋅Q Type equation here .
where: V is the shear force at the section of the beam,
𝑄 is the first moment of area about the neutral axis for the area above (or below) the
point of interest,
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𝐼 is the second moment of area (moment of inertia) of the beam's entire cross-section
t is the width of the beam at the height where shear stress is calculated.
This equation reveals that shear stress is directly proportional to the applied shear force
and the cross-sectional shape of the beam, with higher values typically occurring near
the neutral axis.
Shear Strain and Hooke’s Law for Shear
Shear strain represents the angular deformation resulting from shear stress and is given
by:
γ =δ x /h
where
- δ x is the *horizontal displacement* across a vertical distance h ,
- h is the distance over which the shear deformation occurs.
In the linear elastic range, shear stress and shear strain are related through Hooke’s
Law for Shear.
The shear modulus G is related to Young’s modulus E and Poisson's ratio by the
formula:
G = E /2(1+V )
Shear Stress Distribution
In a rectangular beam cross-section, shear stress is typically highest at the neutral axis
(center of the beam) and decreases to zero at the outermost fibers (top and bottom
surfaces). This variation is significant, as it indicates that most shear stress occurs in
the central region of the beam.
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For other cross-sectional shapes, such as I-beams or T-beams, the shear stress
distribution can be more complex, with the web (vertical portion) carrying most of the
shear load.
Key Points and Design Considerations
1. Shear Capacity: Ensuring that the maximum shear stress does not exceed the
material's shear strength is critical, especially near supports where transverse loads are
highest.
2. Shape and Size of Cross-Section: Sections with larger areas in the center (like I-
beams) are preferred for handling shear since they can localize and manage higher
shear stresses within the web.
3. Avoiding Shear Failure: Shear stress analysis helps prevent shear failure, where a
beam might fail by sliding internally before reaching its bending capacity.
[Link] Modulus: Materials with higher shear modulus \(G\) exhibit less angular
deformation under a given shear stress, contributing to overall beam stability.
4. BENDING STRESS IN BEAMS
The constitutive relations for bending stress in beams describe how bending moments
relate to the resulting stress distribution across a beam's cross-section. These
relationships are based on elasticity theory, specifically for materials that follow Hooke's
Law. Here’s an outline of the key constitutive relations for bending stress in beams:
1. Stress Distribution
The bending stress 𝜎 at a point within the cross-section is given by:
𝜎=−𝑀⋅𝑦𝐼
where:
𝑀= bending moment applied to the beam,
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𝑦= distance from the neutral axis to the point of interest within the cross-section,
𝐼= second moment of area (moment of inertia) of the beam’s cross-section about the
neutral axis.
This relation indicates that bending stress is linearly distributed across the cross-
section, with maximum stress occurring at the furthest points from the neutral axis (the
top and bottom surfaces).
2. Moment-Curvature Relationship
The curvature 𝜅 of the beam is related to the bending moment
𝑀 by:
𝑀=𝐸𝐼⋅𝜅
where:
𝐸= Young’s modulus (modulus of elasticity) of the material,
𝐼 = second moment of area,
𝜅= curvature of the beam’s neutral axis.
The curvature
𝜅 is also related to the radius of curvature
𝑅 by
𝜅=1/𝑅
3. Stress-Strain Relationship (Hooke’s Law)
For linear elastic materials, the bending strain 𝜖 at a distance 𝑦 from the neutral axis is:
𝜖=𝑦/𝑅 =𝑦⋅𝜅
From Hooke’s Law, the corresponding bending stress is:
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𝜎=𝐸⋅𝜖=𝐸⋅𝑦⋅𝜅
These relations form the basis for analyzing bending stresses and deflections in beams
under transverse loads. Constitutive relations for bending stress in beams
Key Points and Design Considerations
1. Material Limits: Bending stress must remain below the yield strength of the
material to avoid permanent deformation (plastic behavior).
2. Cross-sectional Shape and Moment of Inertia: Beams are often designed with
shapes (like I-beams) that have high moments of inertia to minimize bending
stress for a given load.
3. Safety and Load-bearing Capacity: By analyzing bending stress, engineers
ensure that beams can support the intended loads without excessive deflection
or risk of breaking.
Tension and Compression Balance: Understanding the linear stress distribution
allows designers to optimize materials based on their tensile and compressive
strengths.
[Link] STRESS IN BEAMS
The constitutive relation for torsional stress in beams describes the relationship
between the applied torque and the shear stress generated within the cross-section of
the beam due to torsion. When a beam (typically with a circular or tubular cross-section)
is twisted, it experiences shear stress that varies with the radial distance from the
center. Here’s a breakdown of the torsional stress in beams:
Torsional Shear Stress Formula
For a beam subjected to a twisting moment or torque T, the torsional shear stress (τ) at
a point located at a radial distance r from the center of the cross-section is given by:
τ=T⋅r/J
where:
τ is the torsional shear stress at the point of interest,
T is the applied torque (or twisting moment),
r is the distance from the center (axis of rotation) to the point where the stress is
being calculated,
J is the polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area, which depends on
the shape of the beam’s cross-section.
Key Components in the Torsional Shear Stress Equation
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1. Applied Torque (T):
o Torque is the twisting force applied to the beam, causing it to experience
rotational deformation. It is typically measured in Newton-meters (N·m).
2. Radial Distance (r):
o The torsional shear stress varies linearly with the distance rrr from the center of
the cross-section. This means that the stress is zero at the center of the cross-
section (where r=0) and reaches its maximum at the outer edge of the cross-
section (where r is maximum).
3. Polar Moment of Inertia (J):
o The polar moment of inertia, JJJ, is a geometric property of the cross-sectional
shape of the beam and represents the distribution of the area with respect to the
axis of rotation. It is analogous to the area moment of inertia used in bending but
applies to torsional deformation.
o For a solid circular cross-section of radius R:
J=πR4/2
o For a hollow circular cross-section with an inner radius Rinner and an outer
radius Router
J=π(Router4−Rinner4)/2J
torsional shear stress distribution
Linear Distribution: Torsional shear stress increases linearly from the center to
the outer edge of the cross-section. This means the maximum torsional stress
occurs at the outer surface of the beam.
Circular Cross-Sections: Torsional stress analysis is most straightforward for
circular and tubular cross-sections, as these shapes resist warping under torsion,
unlike non-circular cross-sections.
Torsional Strain and Angle of Twist
The angle of twist (θ) per unit length in a beam under torsion is given by:
θ=T⋅L/G⋅J
where:
L is the length of the beam,
G is the shear modulus of the material, a property that relates shear stress to
shear strain.
This formula helps determine the rotational deformation or twist angle of the beam
under the applied torque.
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Applications of Torsional Stress Relations
These torsional stress relations are vital in the design of shafts and beams that
must resist twisting forces, like those in machinery, vehicle axles, and structural
beams. Since torsion is accounted for in designing materials and cross-sections, it
is possible to avoid failure caused by twisted or shear strength in materials.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the study of constitutive relations for stress in beams is integral to
structural engineering. By relating stress to strain based on material properties,
engineers can predict and control beam behavior under various loading conditions.
Mastery of these principles not only enhances structural safety but also drives
innovation in material science, enabling the development of advanced, resilient
structures for future applications.
REFERENCE
Gere, J. M., & Goodno, B. J. (2012). Mechanics of Materials. Cengage Learning.
Beer, F. P., Johnston, E. R., DeWolf, J. T., & Mazurek, D. F. (2014). Mechanics of
Materials. McGraw-Hill Education.
Timoshenko, S., & Goodier, J. N. (1970). Theory of Elasticity. McGraw-Hill.
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