CHAPTER

TWELVE

GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE

EVALUATION

12.1 Introduction

Pressure ratio and gas temperature determine the efficiency, while mass flow
controls the power developed in the gas turbine. Once the need and specifications for a
new gas turbine have been identified, initial cycle computations permit preparing design
of individual components of the turbine to deliver the desired performance when
operating at the selected values of speed, pressure and temperature ratios and mass flow.
The task at hand is then to determine performance behavior of the engine as it runs
through a full range of speed and developed power.
Individual component designs are more amenable for delivering specific targets
for efficiency and power produced in a given range of operating conditions in the
vicinity of the design point. The range of operating conditions of each component tends
to get restricted when the components are assembled and required to function together.
When the assembly operates at a steady speed, corresponding points of each component
characteristics must be determined. Matching of components is required in the gas
turbine assembly that will lead to acceptable efficiency and power as operating speed
and power requirement vary in the specific range of operation.
Ambient conditions affect the performance of a gas turbine in many different
ways. A stationary power generation turbine is restricted to air temperature shifting
from -35° C during the winter in areas closer to the Arctic to 50° C in the tropical
regions. Aero engines, on the other hand, have to contend with rapidly changing
pressures and temperatures as the aircraft ascends from sea level to 12,000 m altitude.
The maximum thrust developed by the engine is substantially reduced on a hot day at an
airport located at a high altitude, thus requiring a longer runway for the aircraft to
takeoff and also diminishing its to load-carrying capacity.
472 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

The jet engine is sensitive to variables arising from design and operating
characteristics as also due to changes in the medium in which the engine must operate.
In the first group, engine speed, size of nozzle area, weight of fuel, amount of air bled
from the compressor and turbine inlet temperature are included. In the second group,
design unrelated factors include aircraft speed and temperature, pressure and humidity
of ambient air play a role.
The net thrust produced by an aircraft engine is a result of pressure and
momentum changes within the engine. Some of the changes produce forward forces
while other forces are directed rearward. When there is an increase in total heat energy
by burning fuel, or in total pressure energy by compression, or by a change from kinetic
energy to pressure energy as in a diffuser, forward forces are produced. Conversely,
forces directed rearwards or thrust losses result when heat or pressure energy decreases
or is converted into kinetic energy, as in the nozzle. The excess forward thrust over the
rearward thrust forces determines the rated thrust of an aero engine. In the computation
of gross thrust the velocity of air entering the engine due to the velocity of aircraft is
disregarded, while the velocity of gas exiting the exhaust nozzle is used as the
acceleration factor. True acceleration of the gas is the difference in the velocity between
the incoming and outgoing air, and is used in computing net thrust. The loss in thrust
due to admitting the air at the engine’s front is called ram drag, and is deducted from
the gross thrust to establish net thrust
The thermal efficiency of a jet engine depends on the ratio of engine’s energy
output and the fuel’s energy input. A principal measure of engine efficiency is the
specific fuel consumption, or SFC, or the thrust-specific fuel consumption, the latter
being a ratio of fuel flow, lbs per hour, and the thrust of the engine, lbs. Thus, the higher
the thrust per pound of fuel, the more efficient the engine is. The specific fuel
consumption permits valid comparison between engines, since the amount of fuel
consumed is reduced to a common denominator. In stationary power generation
turbines, the engine’s thermal efficiency is based on comparing the fuel’s thermal
energy with the amount of power produced.
Performance guarantees from the manufacturers of gas turbines play a major role
in a customer’s selection decision of one unit over another. Fuel, operating, and other
ownership costs are directly linked to the specific fuel consumption, power generating
capacity, and durability of the unit. Factors affecting the performance of a gas turbine
are of considerable interest, both for the manufacturers and for their customers. Losses
as a consequence of a number of operating circumstances, hardware configuration, and
combustion characteristics of the fuel deserve close scrutiny.
A performance test is normally conducted after the gas turbine is installed, with
parameters such as power, fuel, and heat consumption duly recorded. The objective is to
permit adjustment of the relevant parameters to the condition of the guarantee. The
ASME Performance Test Code PTC-22-1985, “Gas Turbine Plants,” establishes the
testing procedures and calculation methods. All the instruments used for data collection
must be inspected and calibrated before the test.
Single-shaft gas turbines have one continuous shaft, so the compressor and the
turbine operate at one speed. The generator may be located at either the compressor or
the turbine end. This arrangement is suitable for power generation applications where
 GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION 473

the operating speed is held constant at 3600 rpm for 60 Hz electric power or at 3000
rpm for 50 Hz power. Some gas turbines operate at 5400 rpm for 60 Hz power. The
turbine shaft is then connected through a 2:3 speed reducer to the electrical generator.

12.2 Gas Turbines with Single Shaft

A single shaft industrial gas turbine that is typically used for simple-cycle power
generation has two bearings, one at the compressor end and the other near the turbine’s
exhaust. In a simple jet engine for aircraft propulsion the useful available power
converts the turbine’s exhaust into a high-velocity jet in the propelling nozzle. Aero
derivative engines have a single-shaft gas generator and a power turbine for driving the
load. The gas generator portion in the jet engine and in the aero-derivative engine
performs in the same manner, but the available energy in the gas stream causes the
useful function to be altered after exiting the core section. In contrast, all of the gas
stream’s energy in the industrial power generation turbine is converted into mechanical
energy to drive both the compressor and the driven load. Whatever residual thermal
energy is left in the gas stream after leaving the turbine goes into the atmosphere.
Gas turbines derived from aero engine technology are widely used for propelling
ships, marine applications and pipeline pumping. Derivative engines take advantage of
the lighter weight characteristics of aero engines to produce power in situations where

Single shaft gas turbine for power generation

1 2 3 4

Derivative engine gas generator with power turbine

1 2 3 4 5

Jet engine with gas generator and propelling nozzle

1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 12.1. Single Shaft Gas Turbine Configurations

474 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

excess weight is a problem. A classic example would be offshore oil platforms. The
platforms sit on long legs that sit on the ocean floor, and the weight of the structure
above the water level must be kept low to prevent the system from getting top heavy.
All three types of engine are shown schematically in figure 12.1.
In many ways the flow in the power turbine and in the exhaust nozzle of the jet
engine may be characterized in a similar manner. As a consequence, limitations arising
in the operation of the gas generator from cycle considerations also turn out to be
similar for both applications. The primary difference is the intent and method of using
the power output.
The gas generator performs essentially the same function of producing a
continuous flow of gas at high temperature and pressure in the two cases of the jet
engine and of the engine with a power turbine. The gas stream is then expanded to a
lower pressure to develop either a high-velocity propulsive jet or to produce shaft
power.

12.3 Impact of Component Characteristics on Overall Engine

Methods to determine operating characteristics of the compressor and the turbine

have been illustrated in chapters 9, 10 and 11. The effects of changes in mass flow,
pressure ratio and thermal efficiency of the component are conveniently obtained in the
form of characteristics as the running speed varies. Figures 9.9 and 9.40 show the
operating characteristics of the centrifugal and axial compressors, and figure 11.13 for
the axial turbine. The change in efficiency with mass flow as well as with pressure ratio
is shown along fixed speed contours. With a choked inlet, the constant speed contour
essentially assumes a vertical orientation with mass flow when the efficiency of an axial
compressor is high. Additional information is gleaned if the efficiency is plotted in
terms of pressure ratio under the circumstances.
Efficiency of an axial flow turbine does not vary substantially when non-
dimensional mass flow and speed parameters are taken into account. Generally the
exhaust nozzle of the jet engine, or the power turbine placed aft of the gas generator,
has a greater say on the operational region of a turbine. When the engine is operating at
a partial load, calculations to predict performance may initially be derived from the
mass flow, as shown in the plots of figure 11.13.
Losses are encountered as the flow stream passes through the inlet, combustor and
the exhaust. Precise determination of efficiency must include the losses, but they may be
difficult to gauge when operation at partial load is under consideration. For operation at
off-design point, one possibility is to ignore losses in the inlet and exhaust ducts and to
assume combustor losses as a certain percentage of discharge pressure of the combustor.
The assumed fraction of pressure loss may also be varied following a prescribed
schedule of operating events.

12.4 Engine Operation at Equilibrium

Initial calculations for individual engine components when operating at selected

values of speed, pressure ratio and mass flow are normally based on a combination of
past experience and test bed observations. Since all of the components have their own
 GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION 475

range of parameters that include the design point, the overlapping range of possible
operating conditions is bound to be reduced when the engine functions as an assembly.
The question then remains to identify operational points of each component from its
characteristics when the full engine will run at a steady state, when an equilibrated form
of operation may be expected. Such steady state running points are then obtained for a
number of speeds. The resultant data is then graphically combined with the
compressor’s operating characteristics to obtain the equilibrated operating region of the
whole engine. Calculations to determine the available power output or thrust and
specific fuel consumption will then follow.
The surge line for the compressor represents the limiting region on the steady
state running diagram of the engine. Thus, if the engine’s running curve were to cross
the compressor surge curve at a certain speed, stability of operation of the engine will
be affected in the absence of some other preventive action to avoid the situation. The
characteristics of the compressor also must be checked to ensure efficiency is
acceptable. The running zone of the engine preferably must lie close to the locus of
maximum compressor efficiency points.
Since the compressor and the turbine are coupled directly, the speed at which
the two run must be compatible. Hence:

N N T01
= × (12.1)
T03 T01 T03

Equation (12.1) provides the turbine non-dimensional speed N/√T03. Pressure ratio
p03/p02 is a function of pressure loss in the combustor. The mass of the air bled from the
compressor is usually equal to the fuel input in the combustor. Since mass flow through
the compressor and the turbine is equal, hence m1 = m3 = m, and so:

m T03 m T01 p 01 p 02 T
= × × × 03 (12.2)
p 03 p 01 p 02 p 03 T01

Operation of the gas generator alone when running in the equilibrium condition at
the design point is of interest. To obtain an equilibrium running point, the procedure to
be generally followed calls for selecting a constant speed contour on the compressor
characteristic and a point on the curve. Values for m/√T01/p01, p02/p01, ηc and N/√T01 are
determined for the chosen point. Since rotor speed and mass flow are identical for the
compressor and the turbine, the corresponding point on the turbine characteristic is also
determined. To ensure if the work output at the selected point is adequate with that
needed for the driven load can only be determined from the variation of power
requirement of the driven load with speed.
Once the design operating points for the compressor are selected, then the values
for m√T01/p01 and p02/p01 are available, and expansion ratio in the turbine p03/p02 may be
assumed to be constant. Then m√T03/p01 will only depend on turbine expansion ratio
p03/p04. Also, if losses in the inlet and exhaust ducts are presumed to be negligible, then
pa = p01 = p04 and p03/p04 = (p03/p02)(p02/p01). The temperature ratio √(T03/T01) is then
476 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

calculated from equation (12.2) since the pressure ratios may be obtained from the
compressor and turbine characteristics. Knowing ambient temperature Ta = T01, turbine
inlet temperature is then determined.

12.5 Partial Load Performance

If pressure losses in the inlet and exhaust ducts are assumed to be negligible in the
single-shaft gas turbine, the pressure ratio across the turbine will be the difference of
compressor pressure ratio and pressure loss in the combustor. Also, mass flow through
the turbine will be the same as that in the compressor, except for the bleed extraction
and addition due to fuel. Generally, the bleed extraction and fuel mass balance out, so
mass flow through the compressor and the turbine are approximately equal.
The efficiency of the turbine is available from the turbine’s characteristic for
known values of N/√T03 and p03/p04. The drop in temperature in the turbine may be
determined from the expression:
  (γ −1) / γ 
1 

∆T034 = η t T03 1 −    (12.3)
  p 03 / p 04  
 
Similarly, the increase in temperature in the compressor may be determined from the
compressor characteristic using the expression:

 p (γ −1) / γ 
T 
∆T012 = 01  02  − 1 (12.4)
ηc  p 01 
 
 
The expression for power output is:
1
Net power output = mc pg ∆T034 − mc pa ∆T012 (12.5)
η gg

where cpg and cpa represent specific heats of gas and air. Values for γ should be used in
the same context. Mass flow m is given by (m√T01/p01)(pa/√Ta) for specified ambient
conditions. ηc, ηt and ηgg denote compressor, turbine and gas generator efficiencies.
The pressure ratio across the turbine when the gas generator is operating at steady
equilibrium condition can be obtained by equating the work done in the turbine with the
work required to drive the compressor. This temperature drop in the turbine, together
with temperature at the turbine inlet and efficiency, yields the expression for pressure
ratio in the turbine: ηgg c pg ∆T034 = c pa ∆T012, or in non-dimensional terms,

∆T034 ∆T012 T01 c pa

= × × (12.6)
T03 T01 T03 c pg η gg

The firing temperature ratio, T03/T01, plays a major role in ensuring compatibility
in operation between the compressor and the turbine, so rotor speed and mass flow in
the two sections remain the same. The pressure ratio indicated in equation (12.6) also
 GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION 477

depends on the firing temperature ratio. Turbine inlet temperature at any point on the
compressor characteristic may be obtained through an iterative procedure as follows.
Equation (12.4) is used to obtain ∆T012/T01 once values for N/√T01, p02/p01, ηc and
m/√T01/p01 are determined for a specific point on the compressor characteristic. For an
assumed p03/p04, the turbine characteristic yield value of m/√T03/p03, which helps to
determine the temperature ratio of T03/T01 from equation (12.2). Equation (12.1) may
then be used to get N/√T03. The two parameters N/√T03 and p03/p04 determine the turbine
efficiency from the turbine characteristic. Equations (12.3) and (12.6) are next used to
calculate ∆T034/T03 as also another value for T03/T01. This second value, however, will
mostly not match with the first value obtained from equation (12.2), denoting that the
assumed p03/p04 is not an acceptable equilibrium running point. The sequence of
calculations is then repeated for a new assumed p03/p04 until both equations (12.2) and
(12.6) yield identical values for T03/T01. Equality of the two values indicates
compatibility between the turbine operating point and the selected compressor point that
will lead to the given turbine inlet temperature ratio T03/T01.
Note that the matching requirements are based on absence of linkage between the
non-dimensional flow and speed of the turbine, and only turbine pressure ratio plays a
role. The procedure described above needs to be modified if the turbine characteristic
tends to be affected when m/√T01/p01 varies with N/√T03. The turbine operating point is
unaffected if it falls on the choking point of the mass flow contour, but other points call
for adjusting the procedure. Prior to assuming a value for p03/p04 near the beginning of
the sequence, assume a value for T03/T01 to determine the values of N/√T03 and
m/√T03/p03 from equations (12.1) and (12.2). p03/p04 and ηt are then obtained from the
turbine characteristic, which permits calculating ∆T034/T03 using equations (12.3).
Equations (12.6) then allows comparison of T03/T01 with the initial guess.
An additional requirement concerning compatibility of mass flow when a
component is placed downstream of the gas generator will preclude carrying out this
iterative procedure for a large number of points on the compressor characteristic. Thus,
limitations are imposed in the operational zone of the compressor in the presence of a
power turbine or a propelling nozzle.

12.6 Gas Generator in Tandem with Power Turbine

The flow of gases exiting the gas generator must equal entering the power turbine
will be relied upon to establish compatibility between the two. The pressure ratio of the
power turbine will depend the pressure ratios of the compressor and the turbine of the
gas generator. The power turbine’s performance will depend on N p/√T04, p04/pa, ηpt and
m/√T04/p04, but its characteristic assumes the same profile as that of figure 11.13.
Mass flow at exit from the gas generator, m/√T04/p04, is obtained from:

m T04 m T03 p 03 T
= × × 04 (12.7)
p 04 p 03 p 04 T03

where:
478 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

  (γ −1) / γ 
T04  ∆T  ∆T034 1 
= 1 − 034 
 and = η t 1 −  


T03  T03  T03   p 03 / p 04  
 
Ignoring inlet and exhaust duct losses in a stationary gas turbine installation, p01 and pa
are equal, and the related power turbine pressure ratio takes the form:
p 04 p p p
= 02 × 03 × 04 (12.8)
pa p 01 p 02 p 03

Mass flow parameter m/√T04/p04 may now be determined from the power turbine
characteristic or from equation (12.7). If a match does not exist between the two values,
the process may be repeated for another point on the constant speed curve of the
compressor characteristic.
Only one point on the constant N/√T01 contour will ensure that both work required
for the gas generator and compatibility of flow with power turbine are met. Continuing
the calculation sequence for each constant speed curve will yield points that may be
joined to establish the equilibrium running curve for the gas generator with a power
turbine. In contrast with the gas generator turbine being dependent on the imposed load,
note that this plot relies only on the capacity of power turbine to consume the gas mass
flow.
The operation of two turbines when placed in series presents some useful aspects.
The efficiency ηt and mass flow m/√T04/p04 of a gas generator turbine at a specific
pressure ratio is generally not affected much in its usual operating range, as seen in
figure 11.13, since change in √(T03/T04) is appreciably low. A mean value for ηt at a
specific pressure ratio usually suffices, in which case m/√T04/p04 becomes a function
only of m/√T03/p03 and p03/p04. With this procedure, equation (12.7) yields turbine outlet

Gas generator turbine Power turbine

m/√T04/p04
m√T0/p0

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

m/√T04/p04
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
m√T0/p0

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
m/√T03/p03

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

(c) (b) (a) p03/p04 (c) (b) (a) p04/pa

Fig. 12.2. Gas Generator and Power Turbine Operating in Series

 GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION 479

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

p03/p04
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Choked power turbine

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

p03/p04

Fig. 12.3. Loss in Combustor Pressure

flow values from points located on turbine inlet flow values, as indicated in figure 12.2
when the gas generator and power turbines are operating in tandem. The gas generator
turbine operates at a fixed pressure ratio, denoted (a) when the power turbine is choked.
When the power turbine is not choked, the gas generator is restricted to run at a fixed
pressure ratio for a specific power turbine pressure ratio, such as (b) and (c).
The outcome of pressure ratio relationships in the turbines is a graph that may be
plotted that connects gas generator pressure ratio p03/p04 with the compressor pressure
ratio p02/p01 by noting:
p 03 p p p
= 03 × 02 × a (12.9)
p4 p 02 p 01 p 04

The above formulation assumes loss in the combustor pressure, p03/p02, is available in
the form shown in figure 12.3, and p04/pa is obtained from figure 12.2. Thus, the
pressure ratio of the gas generator can be obtained for any compressor pressure ratio,
which then determines the values of m√T03/p03 and T034/T03.
Shifts in power output and SFC with speed at the delivery end of the power
turbine may be computed from the expression: power output = mcp∆T045, where

  (γ −1) / γ 
1 
∆T045 = η pt T04 1 −    (12.10)
  p 04 / p a  
 
At a steady state equilibrated operating point on a compressor speed curve, the pressure
ratio is known, and temperature T04 equals the difference between T03 and ∆T034. For
specific ambient conditions the pressure and temperature establishes the mass flow
value m/√T01/p01. Power turbine efficiency ηtp is then determined. Power turbines are
known for driving a variety of loads, each one having its own load requirements as the
speed changes. Hence, it is essential to determine turbine output over a range of speeds
at each equilibrium operating point of the compressor speed, as shown in figure 12.4.
Fuel consumption rate is also dependent on both compressor and power turbine
speed. The calculation sequence is on the same line as that shown for the single-shaft
unit, as indicated in figure 12.5. In practice, fuel flow, and so T03, is responsible for the
480 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Power Output
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Operation at fixed compressor speed

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Power Turbine Speed, NLP

Fig. 12.4. Power Turbine Load/Speed Characteristic

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Specific Fuel Consumption

Power output/Load speed curve

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Np
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Operation at fixed power turbine speed

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Power Output

Fig. 12.5. Power Turbine Load/Speed Characteristic

power developed. At lesser power output the SFC tends to increase because the lesser
fuel causes the compressor speed and gas generator turbine inlet temperature. The
deteriorated efficiency of the simple cycle gas turbine at part load is one of its major
drawbacks. Increasing the speed only marginally improves the SFC because other
operating parameters are not appreciably affected. At maximum gas generator speed,
power developed, temperature at turbine inlet and fuel flow increase rapidly (figure
12.6). Increased turbine inlet temperature (and hence also running speed) certainly
boosts the efficiency of the gas generator, but it cannot be indefinitely raised due to the
restrictions arising from blade creep and thermal fatigue. Running at maximum speed is
normally limited for emergency power needs, and base load conditions at lower speed
generally prevail to maximize component life.
If the intent is to avoid a reduction gear for a prime mover dedicated for electric
power generation, it is possible to use an aircraft engine gas generator with a power
turbine in place of the propelling nozzle. A larger diameter power turbine together with
 GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION 481

Maximum speed
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Turbine Inlet Temperature

Power Output, Fuel Flow,
Fuel flow

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Power

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Turbine inlet temperature

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Gas Generator Speed, NHP

Fig. 12.6. Gas Generator Performance as Function of Speed

a longer nozzle proves useful to let its running speed match that of the electrical
generator for producing 50 or 60 Hz electricity. Fuel consumption of a twin-shaft engine
operating at partial load is enhanced when running at a fixed speed. A single shaft
installation, on the other hand, loses some of the design flexibility since the entire rotor
has to operate at the same speed. It might me noted that the Siemens V84.3 gas turbine
runs at 5400 rpm but with a 3 to 2 speed reducer for 60 Hz power generation. The
smaller diameter engine permits running the engine at a higher speed, which helps in
increasing the compressor pressure ratio, mass flow and power output.

12.7 Jet Engine Characteristics

The non-dimensional mass flow, m√T04/p04, and pressure ratio, p04/p05, are the
primary parameters that characterize off-design performance of the propelling exhaust
nozzle of a jet engine. The flow area of the exhaust nozzle is based on design point
calculations. For a nozzle, the mass flow is determined from:

m T04 T04 v5 A5 p 5 T04

= v 5 A5 ρ 5 = × × × (12.11)
p 04 p 04 T04 R p 04 T5

where A5 is nozzle area and R is gas constant. Now from equation (5.10 - check):

  (γ −1) / γ 
v5 2 1 
= 2c p η j 1 −    (12.12)
T04   p 04 / p 5  
 
Also, the temperature ratio expression is:

  (γ −1) / γ 
T5 T − T5 1 
= 1 − 04 = 1 − η j 1 −    (12.13)
T04 T04   p 04 / p 5  
 
482 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

Choking mass flow

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

m√T04/p04
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––

p5 = pa p5 = pc > pa

1 p04 = pc p04/pa

Fig. 12.7. Propelling Exhaust Nozzle Characteristic

Thus, the non-dimensional mass flow may be expressed in terms of the pressure
ratio p04/p05 if the ratio lies up to a critical value, given by equation (5.12 check):
γ / (γ −1)
p 04  1  γ − 1 
=1 1 −   (12.14)
pc  η j  γ + 1 

where p5 = pa up to the critical point. Where the pressure ratio p04/pa is greater than the
critical value, the non-dimensional mass flow remains steady at the maximum choking
value. Note also that p5 = pc > pa. The plot for non-dimensional mass flow as a function
of overall nozzle pressure ratio p04/pa is shown in figure 12.7, which has a similar
profile as that for the turbine.
The temperature ratio, T5/T04, up to the choking point is obtained from equation
(12.12). If the nozzle is choked, equation (5.11 check) is used: Tc/T04 = 2/(1 + γ).
Similarly, the velocity parameter, v5/√T04, for the non-choked condition is
obtained from equation (12.12). But when the nozzle is choked, v5 has Mach number 1,
or M5 = 1. Since v = M√(γRT) and T0 = T[1 + (γ - 1)/M2/2], the general expression for
the velocity parameter is:
v M γR
= (12.15)
T0  γ −1 2 
1 + M 
 2 
Hence, for a choked nozzle,
v 5 2 v 5 2 2γR
= = (12.16)
T04 T05 γ + 1

The primary feature of a jet engine during flight is the forward speed, which
affects the equilibrated operating curve in a number of ways. Expressed as a Mach
number for matching calculations, the forward speed results in a ram effect that leads to
increased compressor discharge pressure and prior to entering the propelling nozzle.
But when the nozzle reaches choking conditions, the non-dimensional mass flow
reaches a limiting value. The mass flow does not depend any longer on the pressure
ratio, and hence, also of the engine’s flight speed. As a consequence, the turbine’s
 GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION 483

operating point also does not change due to the need for compatibility of flow between
the turbine and the exhaust nozzle. Thus, in the choked condition, the equilibrated
operating condition is not affected by the forward flight speed, and depends only on the
fixed turbine operating condition.
Jet engine driven aircraft generally run with a choked nozzle during takeoff, climb
and cruise. The nozzle comes out of choking condition when the thrust developed is low
enough such as when coming in for landing. Reduced thrust develops at low rotor
speeds, which causes the running curve to lie close to the surge line. Thus, the effects of
forward speed on the running curve needs to be looked at closely under these operating
conditions. The relation between nozzle pressure ratio p04/pa and ram pressure ratio is:
p 04 p p p p
= 04 × 03 × 02 × 01 (12.17)
pa p 03 p 02 p 01 p a

The ram pressure ratio is related with the intake efficiency ηi and flight Mach number
Ma by the expression:
γ / ( γ −1)
p 01   γ −1  2
= 1 + η i  M a  (12.18)
pa   2  
Thus, the nozzle pressure ratio p04/pa depends on gas generator parameters and
flight Mach number for a given nozzle efficiency. For each compressor contour the
calculations may be repeated for selected values of Mach number to cover to cover the
full flight speed range, which will provide equilibrium running lines of constant Ma. The
lines will merge into a single contour that is obtained for higher running speeds when
the exhaust nozzle is choked. Further increases in the Mach number causes the
equilibrium running curve to move away from the surge line at low running speeds.
The thrust developed in a jet engine’s exhaust nozzle varies with the aircraft’s
flight speed and altitude. If the exhaust gas stream experiences expansion from p04 to pa,
the net thrust is F = m(v5 - va) where va is aircraft speed. But with a choked nozzle,
some of the expansion occurs outside the exhaust nozzle, and p5 > pa. The pressure
difference leads to an additional thrust component, and then F = m(v5 - va) + A5(p5 - pa).
Plots for thrust developed as a function of inlet pressure and temperature, flight
speed and rotor speed may be obtained from the equilibrated running diagram. For
individual operating points, the values of p01/pa, m√T01/p01, p02/p01, T03/T01, T04/T03,
p04/p03 and p04/pa are determined for selected values of N√T01 and Ma if the nozzle is not
choked or only N√T01 when the nozzle is choked. The expression for thrust takes the
form:
F m T01 p 01  v 5  T04 T03  v  p 
= ×   ×  − a  +  5 − 1 A5 (12.19)
pa p 01 
p a  T04  T03 T01   
  pa 
 T 01  

Now in equation (12.15), va/√T01 = va/√T0a when the nozzle is not choked. So the
pressure term is deleted since p5/pa =1. When the nozzle is choked, M5 = 1 and v5/√T04
is obtained from equation (12.16). Also, pressure ratio p5/pa = (pc/p04) × (p04/pa), with
484 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

Ma
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

F/pa
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Static, Ma = 0

–– Ma ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Engine Speed, N/√T01

Fig. 12.8. Jet Engine Thrust as Function of Flight and Engine Rotor Speed

critical pressure ratio (pc/p04) obtained from equation (12.14). The critical pressure ratio
is thus only a function of γ of the gas and nozzle efficiency ηi. Figure 12.8 graphically
illustrates change in engine thrust with variation in flight speed and engine rotor speed.
Note that in the choked nozzle condition, flight speed affects the developed thrust
in other ways. With increasing flight speed, aerodynamic drag is increased. Also,
increased compressor inlet pressure may be expected from ram compression. At low
engine speeds the aerodynamic drag tends to predominate, and increased flight speed
causes the thrust to decrease. At high engine speeds, on the other hand, increased ram
pressure effects raise the thrust.
Ambient pressure changes affect the performance of a jet engine. From figure
12.8, the thrust varies directly with the intake pressure. Engine operating point does not
shift, but air mass flow is reduced as the pressure falls. Hence, an aircraft taking off
from an airport located at a high altitude experiences some loss in engine thrust. As the

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
SFC/√Ta

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Ma
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Engine Speed, N/√T01

Fig. 12.9. Jet Engine SFC as Function of Flight and Engine Rotor Speed
 GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION 485

aircraft climbs up, both the pressure and temperature are reduced, with the temperature
leveling off at a certain point. The loss in thrust due to reduced pressure is usually more
than offset due to the temperature effects.
The fuel consumption, as also fuel flow per unit thrust (or SFC), of a jet engine
may be derived as a function of engine speed and flight speed. For a given level of
combustion efficiency, the rate of fuel consumption will depend on mass flow,
temperature rise in combustor, and air/fuel ratio. For discrete values of ambient pressure
and temperature the values of m, T03 and T02 can be obtained from the dimensionless
parameters. Unlike thrust, the fuel parameter is not heavily dependent on Ma since it
varies due to changes in intake conditions at the compressor. It is also independent of
aerodynamic drag. Figure 12.9 displays variation of SFC/√Ta with N/√T01 for different
Ma. Being independent of pa, changes in altitude do not affected to the same extent as
thrust.

12.8 Equilibrium Running and Compressor Surge Curves

Under rapid acceleration the compressor can tend to surge if the running curve
lies too close to surge curve, even if the two do not intersect. Remedial action is
required if maximum thrust is to be developed in the engine.
Newer designs in compressor are likely to exhibit surging at lower N/√T01 then at
higher rotor speeds. Thus, a kink is present in the surge line of the type depicted in
figure 12.10 for axial compressors. An operating curve intersecting the surge line at low
speeds of the engine is also shown in the figure. To rectify the situation one possibility
is to use stator vanes that are varied in position to adjust the flow of air. Another method
calls for bleeding some of the air through adjustable blocker doors near the entrance to
the compressor or ports located at some intermediate stages. Sensors and actuators are
required for this purpose to bleed the air only during selected operating regimes and
thus avoid imposing unnecessary loss of useful turbine output. The blow-off of the air
will lead to a loss in pressure ratio at the operating speed, thus shifting equilibrated
running curve downwards.
Still another possibility for ensuring the running and surge lines do not intersect
is to employ a propelling exhaust nozzle with variable geometry for a jet engine (figure
12.11). The intention is to reduce the compression ratio at a given compressor speed in
all methods, and lower the running line. The increased nozzle area will lead to higher
turbine pressure ratio and hence also the temperature ratio T034/T03. The condition for
compatibility of mass flow is:

p 02 m T01 p 02 T p 03 T
= × × 03 × = K 1 03 (12.20)
p 01 p 01 p 03 T01 m T03 T01

where K1 is a constant if values for p02/p03, m√T01/p01 and m√T03/p03 are fixed for given
operating conditions. For equilibrium operation of the gas generator, the work
requirement is obtained from equation (12.6), so:
T03/T01 = (∆T012/T01) × (T03/∆T034) × (cpa/cpgηgg).
486 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Pressure ratio, p02/p01

Equilibrated running curve

Surge line
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Kink Impact of increased

Impact of air bleed nozzle area
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

m√T01/p01

Fig. 12.10. Impact of Air Bleed and Increased Nozzle Area

on Compressor Surge and Operating Curves

If (∆T012/T01) is held fixed, then:

T03 T
= K 2 03 (12.21)
T01 ∆T034

where K2 is a constant. Combining equations (12.20) and (12.21) yields:

p 02 K3
= (12.22)
p 01 (∆T034 / T03 )
where K3 is another constant.

m/√T04/p04
m√T0/p0

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
m√T0/p0

Increased nozzle area

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
m/√T03/p03
Standard nozzle area
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Increased pressure ratio

p03/p04 p04/pa

Fig. 12.11. Impact of Variable Area Propelling Nozzle

on Compressor Surge and Operating Curves
 GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION 487

At a steady engine speed if the nozzle area is increased, the ratio (∆T034/T03)
increases and pressure ratio p02/p01 is decreased. The operating line then moves away
from the surge line. Fuel flow to the combustor must be decreased if the engine is to
maintain its speed. On the other hand, a reduction in the nozzle area leads to the running
curve moving towards the surge curve.
Mass flow m1 and m3 do not remain the same in the event of air bleed, and
equation (12.20) takes the form:

p 02 T m
= K 1 03 × 3 (12.23)
p 01 T01 m1

If the propelling nozzle of a jet engine or the power turbine of a unit equipped with shaft
power is choked, the operating point of the gas generator turbine is unaffected, and
equation (12.23) becomes:

T03 m1 ∆T012 T c pa m
= × × 03 × = K4 × 1 (12.24)
T01 m 3 T01 ∆T034 c pg η gg m3

where K4 is a constant if ∆T012/T01 is held fixed. Equations (12.23) and (12.24) lead to:

p 02 m3
= K5 (12.25)
p 01 m1

where K5 is a constant. Since m1 > m3 in the case of bleeding, the pressure ratio
decreases and the running curve is lowered. Mass flow to the turbine also falls, causing
a larger reduction in temperature for the same compressor power. If the non-
dimensional temperature drop is fixed, this means an increase in the temperature at the
turbine inlet. In physical terms, the compressor provides lesser compression at a given
speed with either increased nozzle area or with air bleed.
Stationary gas turbines have air entering the intake close to atmospheric pressure,
so it is important to minimize losses in the inlet and exhaust ducts. A ∆p0/p0 loss of 2.5
cm of H2O in the intake can lead to a loss of 1 percent in power output. The size of the
inlet and exhaust ducts will determine mass flow velocity and pressure loss at maximum
power. The cost of making the components has to be carefully weighed against the
pressure losses. Once the dimensions are selected, if the flow is considered
incompressible the loss ratio ∆p0/p0 is in proportion to the dynamic head, or
(m√∆T0/p0)2. For specific design values of (∆p0/p0)D and (m√∆T0/p0)D, at other off
design operating points,
2
∆p 0  ∆p 0   m To   m To
 /
 
 
=  
 (12.26)
p0  p 0  D  p o   po
 
 
D 

Values for each component of (m√∆T0/p0) are required for the computations.
The pressure losses may be included using the equation: p03/p02 = 1 - (∆p03/p02).
488 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

12.9 Review Problems

Example Problem # 12.1: A single-shaft gas generator turbine runs at a mechanical

efficiency of 97.5 percent. If pressure losses are ignored, ambient conditions are 1.025
bar and 290 K, determine the turbine inlet temperature for producing 4250 kW power if
the turbine has the following characteristics:
Compressor characteristic Turbine characteristic .
p02/p01 m√T01/p01 ηc m√T03/p03 ηt
5.2 342.5 0.86 135.7 0.885
4.6 352.8 0.84 135.7 0.885
4.0 363.5 0.82 135.7 0.885
Flow parameters are expressed in terms of kg/s, K and bar.

Solution: Equations (12.2), (12.3) and (12.4) are used to calculate temperature at the
turbine inlet, temperature fall in the turbine and temperature increase in the compressor
for all points on the compressor characteristic. Power output is obtained from equation
(12.5). Turbine inlet temperatures will then be calculated for a range of power output
values.
At compressor pressure ratio of 5.2, if pressure losses are ignored then p03 = p02 and:

T03 m T03 / p 03 p 03 135.7 × 5.2

= × = = 2.060
T01 m T01 / p 01 p 01 342.5

Thus: T03 = 1230.96 K

Increment in compressor temperature is: ∆T012 =
290
0.86
[ ]
(5.2)1 / 3.5 − 1 = 202.89 K
  1 
Fall in turbine temperature is: ∆T034 = 0.885 ×1230.961 −  1 / 4  = 367.98 K
  5 .2 
Flow of air mass (from non-dimensional flow): m = 342.5 × 1.205/√290 = 20.62 kg/s
1
Power output is: 20.62 × 1.148 × 367.98 − 20.62 × 1.005 × 202.89 = 4397.46 kW
0.975
The calculation sequence is repeated for the other points on compressor characteristic.
The results are:
p02/p01 = 5.2, T03 = 1230.96 K, ∆T012 = 202.89 K, ∆T034 = 367.98 K, m = 20.62 kg/s,
power = 4397.46 kW.
p02/p01 = 4.6, T03 = 907.85 K, ∆T012 = 188.68 K, ∆T034 = 254.83 K, m = 21.24 kg/s,
power = 2082.28 kW.
p02/p01 = 4.0, T03 = 646.65 K, ∆T012 = 171.88 K, ∆T034 = 167.62 K, m = 21.88 kg/s,
power = 333.90 kW.
If T03 and power output are plotted, an output of 4250 kW will call for turbine inlet
temperature of 1189.68 K.
 GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION 489

Example Problem # 12.2: A combination gas generator and power turbine operates
under the following conditions:
Air mass flow 28.5 kg/s
Compressor pressure ratio 5.85
Compressor isentropic efficiency 0.87
Turbine inlet temperature 1170 K
Turbine (both) isentropic efficiency 0.885
Combustion pressure loss 0.225 bar
Mechanical efficiency (gas generator, power turbine) 0.98
Ambient conditions 1.02 bar, 290 K
Calculate the values for the two turbine’s non-dimensional flows m√T03/p03 and
m√T04/p04 at the design point if power turbine inlet pressure and temperature are 2.58
bar and 987 K.

Solution: Gas generator turbine: p02/p01 = 5.85, p02 = 5.85 × 1.02 = 5.97 bar
p03 = p02 - combustor loss = 5.97 - 0.225 = 5.742 bar
m√T03/p03 = 28.5 × √1170/5.742 = 169.78
m√T04/p04 = 28.5 × √987/2.58 = 347.04

Example Problem # 12.3: In example problem # 12.2 determine m√T01/p01 if the non-
dimensional mass flow increases by 5 percent and the ambient temperature is reduced to
270 K.

Solution: m√T01/p01 = 1.05 × 28.5 × √270/1.02 = 482.08

Example Problem # 12.4: In example problems 12.2, 12.3, assume the gas generator
turbine is restricted to run at a fixed non-dimensional point since the power turbine is
choked. If the temperature drop in power turbine is 207 K at the design gas generator
turbine inlet temperature, calculate the firing temperature ratio T03/T01 in terms of
∆T012/T01.

Solution: ∆T034/T03 = 207/1170 = 0.1769

For work compatibility,
∆T012 ∆T034 T03  c pg η gg  0.1769 × 1.148 × 0.98 T03 T
= ×  = × = 0.198 × 03
T01 T03 T01  c pa  1.005 T01 T01
T ∆T
Thus: 03 = 5.049 × 012
T01 T01

Example Problem # 12.5: In example problems 12.2, 12.3 and 12.4, to ensure flow
compatibility, express T03/T01 in terms of p03/p01.
490 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

m T03 m T01 p 01 T
Solution: For flow compatibility, = × × 03
p 03 p 01 p 03 T01
p 01 T T03 p
Hence: 169.78 = 482.08 × × 03 , and so: = 0.3522 × 03
p 03 T01 T01 p 01

Example Problem # 12.6: The compressor isentropic efficiency varies with the pressure
ratio in example problems 12.2, to 12.5, according to the following scheme: 5.70/0.868,
5.80/0.870, 5.9/0.872, 6.0/0.875, 6.1/0.881, 6.2/0.877. Calculate the firing temperature
ratio T03/T01 from work compatibility considerations.

Solution: Values for p02/p01, (p02/p01)(γ - 1)/γ, ηc, ∆T012/T01 and ∆T03/T01 using γ = 1.40 for
air are shown below.
p02/p01 (p02/p01)(γ - 1)/γ ηc ∆T012/T01 T03/T01
5.70 1.6442 0.868 0.742 3.748
5.80 1.6524 0.870 0.750 3.786
5.90 1.6605 0.872 0.757 3.825
6.00 1.6685 0.875 0.764 3.858
6.10 1.6764 0.881 0.750 3.786
6.20 1.6842 0.877 0.753 3.803

Example Problem # 12.7: In example problems 12.2, to 12.6, calculate p02, p03, p03/p01,
√T03/T01 and T03/T01 from flow compatibility considerations.

Solution: Values for p02, p03, p03/p01, √(T03/T01) and T03/T01 are shown below.
p02 p03 (p03/p02) √(T03/T01) T03/T01
5.81 5.59 5.48 1.930 3.724
5.92 5.69 5.58 1.965 3.861
6.02 5.79 5.68 2.000 4.001
6.12 5.90 5.78 2.035 4.143
6.22 6.00 5.88 2.071 4.287
6.32 6.10 5.98 2.106 4.434

Example Problem # 12.8: In example problems 12.6 and 12.7, determine the operating
point for the compressor that will have the same value of T03/T01 from flow and work
compatibility considerations.

Solution: Plotting the two curves, the required pressure ratio is 5.725, with the value of
T03/T01 = 3.755.
The corresponding turbine inlet temperature is 3.755 × 270 = 1013.85 K.
 GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION 491

12.10 Exercises

12.1 A power turbine coupled with gas generator operates under the following
conditions:
Air mass flow 32 kg/s
Compressor pressure ratio 6.2
Compressor isentropic efficiency 0.88
Turbine inlet temperature 1210 K
Turbine (both) isentropic efficiency 0.89
Combustion pressure loss 0.2 bar
Mechanical efficiency (gas generator, power turbine) 0.98
Ambient conditions 1.01 bar, 287 K
Calculate the values for the two turbine’s non-dimensional flows m√T03/p03 and
m√T04/p04 at the design point if power turbine inlet pressure and temperature are 2.58
bar and 987 K.

12.2 In exercise # 12.1, calculate m√T01/p01 if the non-dimensional mass flow is

increased by 3.75 percent and the ambient temperature is reduced to 267 K.

12.3 In exercises # 12.1 and 12.2, assume the gas generator turbine is restricted to
run at a fixed non-dimensional point since the power turbine is choked. If the
temperature drop in power turbine is 223 K at the design gas generator turbine inlet
temperature, calculate the firing temperature ratio T03/T01 in terms of ∆T012/T01.

12.4 In exercises # 12.1, 12.2 and 12.3, express T03/T01 in terms of p03/p01 to ensure
flow compatibility.

12.5 The compressor isentropic efficiency varies with the pressure ratio in exercises
12.1, to 12.4, according to the following scheme: 6.0/0.868, 6.10/0.870, 6.3/0.872,
6.4/0.875, 6.5/0.881, 6.6/0.877. Calculate the firing temperature ratio T03/T01 from work
compatibility considerations.

12.6 In exercises 12.1, to 12.5, calculate p02, p03, p03/p01, √T03/T01 and T03/T01 from
flow compatibility considerations.

12.7 In exercises 12.5 and 12.6, determine the operating point for the compressor
that will have the same value of T03/T01 from flow and work compatibility
considerations.

12.8 A single-shaft gas generator turbine runs at a mechanical efficiency of 97.5

percent. If pressure losses are ignored, ambient conditions are 1.025 bar and 290 K,
determine the turbine inlet temperature for producing 4250 kW power if the turbine has
the following characteristics:
492 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

Compressor characteristic Turbine characteristic .

p02/p01 m√T01/p01 ηc m√T03/p03 ηt
5.3 337.5 0.86 129.8 0.870
4.65 344.8 0.85 129.8 0.870
4.0 351.5 0.84 129.8 0.870
Flow parameters are expressed in terms of kg/s, K and bar.

References & Bibliography

Burghardt, M. D., “Engineering Thermodynamics with Applications”, Harper and Row, New
York, 1993.
Barnes, J. F., Fray, D. E,, “An Experimental High-Temperature Turbine”, Aeronautical Research
Council, R & M 3405, No. 126, HMSO, 1965.
Benson, R. S., “Prediction of Performance of Radial Gas Turbines in Automotive Turbo-
chargers”, ASME Paper # 71-GT-66, New York, 1971.
Dixon, S. L., “Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbo-machinery”, Pergamon Press,
London, 1975.
Ebeling, J. E., “Thermal Energy Storage and Inlet Air Cooling for Combined Cycle”, ASME
Paper # 94-GT-310, New York, 1994.
Meher-Homji, C. B., Mee, T. R., “Inlet Fogging of Gas Turbine Engines”, ASME Paper # 2000-
GT-307 and 308, New York, 2000.