ECE 251

Chapter 4

Circuit Theorems
1

Reference: Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

C. K. Alexander and M. N. O. Sadiku , 5th Edition
2 Outlines

1. Introduction
2. Linearity Property
3. Superposition
4. Source Transformation
5. Thevenin’s Theorem
6. Norton’s Theorem
7. Maximum Power Transfer
8. Summary
 3 1. Introduction

A large Simplify
Circuit Theorems
complex circuits circuit analysis

‧Thevenin’s theorem ‧ Norton theorem

‧Circuit linearity ‧ Superposition
‧source transformation ‧ max. power transfer
4 2. Linearity Property

 A linear element or circuit satisfies the properties of :

 Additivity: requires that the response to a sum of

inputs is the sum of the responses to each input
applied separately.

 If 𝑣1 = 𝑖1 R and 𝑣2 = 𝑖2 R
 then applying (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 )
 v = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) R = 𝑖1 R + 𝑖2 R = v1 + v2
5 Linearity Property

 Homogeneity:

If you multiply the input (i.e. current) by some

constant K, then the output response (voltage) is
scaled by the same constant.
If v1 = i1R then K v1 =K i1R
 6 Linearity Property

 A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related

(or directly proportional) to its input.
i

V0
I0 v

Suppose vs = 10 V gives i = 2 A. According to the

linearity principle, vs = 5 V will give i = 1 A.
7 Linearity Property - Example

v0

Solve for v0 and i0 as a function of Vs

8 Linearity Property – Example
Ladder Circuit

5A 3A

x
2A +6V- 2A +3V- 1A

+ + +
14 V 8V 5V
- - -

This shows that assuming I0 = 1 A gives Is = 5 A; the actual

source current of 15 A will give I0 = 3 A as the actual value.
9 3. Superposition

 The superposition principle states that the

voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic
sum of the voltages across (or currents
through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.
10 Steps to apply superposition principle

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find

the output (voltage or current) due to that active source
using nodal or mesh analysis.
 Turn off voltages sources = short voltage sources; make
it equal to zero voltage
 Turn off current sources = open current sources; make it
equal to zero current
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.

Dependent sources are left intact.

11
Turning sources off

Current source:
We replace it by a
a
current source where
i = is
is  0
is

b An open-circuit

Voltage source: We replace it by a

voltage source where
+ i

DC
vs v = vs vs  0
-
An short-circuit
11
 12 Superposition - Problem

Find I0 using superposition theorem

4mA

12V
2kW
– +

2mA 1kW 2kW

I0
13 2mA Source Contribution

2kW
I’0 = -4/3 mA
2mA 1kW 2kW
I’0
14 4mA Source Contribution

4mA

2kW
I’’0 = 0

1kW 2kW
I’’0
15 12V Source Contribution

12V
2kW
– + I’’’0 = -4 mA
1kW 2kW
I’’’0

I’0 = -4/3 mA
I’’0 = 0
Final Result I’’’0 = -4 mA

I0 = I’0+ I’’0+ I’’’0 = -16/3 mA

16 Example 3

 Find i0 using superposition

17 4. Source Transformation

 A source transformation is the process of replacing a

dependent or independent voltage source vs in series with a
resistor R by a dependent or independent current source is in
parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa
 Equivalent sources can be used to simplify the analysis of
some circuits.

vs
vs = is R or is =
R
18 Example 4

 Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit.

19 Cont’d…

Fig 4.18

2
we use current division i= ( 2 ) = 0 .4 A
2+8

vo = 8i = 8(0.4) = 3.2V
20 Example 5

 Find vx using source transformation

21 Cont’d…

Applying KVL around the loop in Fig (b) gives

− 3 + 5i + vx + 18 = 0 (1)
Appling KVL to the loop containing only the 3V voltage source, the resistor, and
Vx yields
− 3 + 1i + vx = 0  vx = 3 − i (2)
Substituting this into Eq.(4.7.1), we obtain
15 + 5i + 3 = 0  i = −4.5A (3)

− vx + 4i + vx + 18 = 0  i = −4.5A vx = 3 − i = 7.5V
 22 5. Thevenin’s Theorem

 Any circuit with sources (dependent and/or independent) and

resistors can be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a
single voltage source and a single resistor.
 Thevenin’s theorem implies that we can replace arbitrarily
complicated networks with simple networks for purposes of
analysis.
 In case of variable load, a Thevenin circuit is useful for circuit
design.

Original Circuit Thevenin equivalent circuit

 23 Process of Thevenin Analysis

1. Pick a good breaking point in the circuit (cannot split

a dependent source and its control variable).

2. Thevenin: Compute the open circuit voltage, VOC.

24 Cont’d…

3. Compute the Thevenin equivalent resistance, RTh

(a) If there are only independent sources, then short circuit all
the voltage sources and open circuit the current sources (just
like superposition) and find Req .
(b) If there are only dependent sources, then must use a test
voltage or current source in order to calculate
RTh = VTest/Itest
NB: For this case both VTh=0 [so skip step 2]
Note: for 3(b) the equivalent network is merely RTh , that is, no
voltage (or current) source.
(c) If there are both independent and dependent sources,
then compute RTh from VOC/ISC OR Turn off all independent
source & calculate RTh = VTest/Itest
25 Example 6

 Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit below, to

the left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current through 6,
16 and 36 Ω.
26 Example 7
27 Example 8

 Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit below at terminals a-b .

28 6. Norton’s Theorem

 Any Thevenin equivalent circuit is in turn equivalent to a

current source in parallel with a resistor [source
transformation].
 A current source in parallel with a resistor is called a Norton
equivalent circuit.

 Finding a Norton equivalent circuit requires essentially the

same process as finding a Thevenin equivalent circuit.
 29 Thevenin/Norton Analysis

4. Thevenin: Replace circuit with VOC in series with RTh

Norton: Replace circuit with ISC in parallel with RTh

Only steps 2 & 4 differ from Thevenin & Norton!

30 Example 9

 Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit below at

terminals a -b .
 31 7. Maximum Power Transfer

 In all practical cases, energy sources have non-zero internal

resistance. Thus, there are losses inherent in any real source.
 Also, in most cases the aim of an energy source is to provide
power to a load.
 Given a circuit with a known internal resistance, what is the
resistance of the load that will result in the maximum power
being delivered to the load?
 Consider the source to be modeled by its Thevenin equivalent.
i a

RTh
RL
DC
VTh

b
 i a

32 RTh
RL
DC
VTh

The power delivered to the load (absorbed by RL) is

( RTh + RL ) 
2
p = i RL = VTh
2
RL

This power is maximum when p RL = 0

p
= VTh ( RTh + RL ) − 2 RL ( RTh + RL )  = 0
2  −2 −3

RL  
33
dp
= VTh ( RTh + RL ) − 2 RL ( RTh + RL )  = 0
2  −2 −3

dRL  
RTh + RL = 2 RL
RL = RTh
Thus, maximum power transfer takes place when the resistance of the load equals the
Thevenin resistance RTh. Note also that

( RTh + RL )
2
pmax = VTh RL RL = RTh

( 2 RTh ) 
2
pmax = VTh RTh = VTh 2 4 RTh

Thus, at best, one-half of the power is dissipated in the internal resistance and one-half in
the load.
34 8. Summary
 The total response (voltage or current) is the sum of the responses
contributed by each independent source separately.
 Superposition cannot be used for calculating POWER (not a linear
quantity).
 Voltage source is turned off or deactivated by replacing it with a SC.
 Current source is turned off or deactivated by replacing it with an OC.
 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems can be used to analyze AC circuits
in the same way as in the analysis of DC circuits.
 3 cases of interest:
a) independent sources only, no dependent sources;
b) both independent and dependent sources;
c) dependent sources only, no independent sources;
 Problem Set

35