Psychology of Men & Masculinity Copyright 2007 by the American Psychological Association

2007, Vol. 8, No. 1, 53– 65 1524-9220/07/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/1524-9220.8.1.53

The Practice of Coaching: Exploring Alternatives to Therapy for

Counseling-Resistant Men
Ryan A. McKelley and Aaron B. Rochlen
University of Texas

The current article examines the practice of coaching as a possible alternative to

conventional therapy for men. Although overviews of coaching have been outlined,
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

none have specifically addressed how this particular helping modality might fit with the
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

cultural demands of men resistant to conventional sources of professional help. This

article provides suggestions for how coaching may address possible conflicts and
paradoxes between men’s gender role socialization and help-seeking attitudes and
behaviors, as well as overviews some of the problems within the current practice of
coaching. Suggestions for research with using coaching are also addressed.

Keywords: coaching, executive coaching, masculinity, help seeking, men and therapy

Research has consistently shown that treat- tions” (International Coach Federation [ICF],
ment for mental health concerns appears equally 2006). It is estimated that the number of
effective for women and men (Jonghe, Kool, coaches in the United States alone is in the tens
Aalst, Dekker, & Peen, 2001; Quitkin et al., of thousands and has grown faster than any
2002); however, men make fewer contacts with other type of consulting (Hall, Otazo, &
physicians across the life span and seek help Hollenbeck, 1999). Research in this area is ex-
less often than women for an array of problems tremely limited, but several studies suggest that
including depression, drug and alcohol use, and gender differences in help seeking appear to be
medical concerns (Mansfield, Addis, & less pronounced for coaching than therapy. For
Mahalik, 2003). In fact, men’s underutilization example, Gale, Liljenstrand, Pardieu, and
of mental and physical health services continues Nebeker (2002) reported that 52% of coaching
to be one of the most consistent findings in the clients were men. In one of the few outcome
help-seeking literature (Addis & Mahalik, 2003; studies of the field, 85% of executive coaching
Blazina & Watkins, 1996; Good, Dell, & Mintz, clients were men (Wasylyshyn, 2003).
1989; Kim & Omizo, 2003; Mahalik, Good, & Although overviews of coaching have been
Englar-Carlson, 2003). outlined in the literature, none have specifically
Of importance, men’s negative attitudes to-
addressed how this service may fit with the
ward traditional helping professions and behav-
cultural demands of men resistant to utilize con-
ioral patterns of help seeking do not appear to
ventional sources of professional help. More-
be consistent with the growth in the practice of
coaching, yet no articles have talked about why over, although researchers continue to investi-
this pattern may exist. Coaching has been de- gate reasons underlying men’s resistance to tra-
fined as “an ongoing professional relationship ditional services (Addis & Mahalik, 2003;
that helps people produce extraordinary results Blazina & Marks, 2001; Mansfield, Addis, &
in their lives, careers, businesses, or organiza- Courtenay, 2005; Mansfield et al., 2003;
Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992) as well as alter-
native interventions for counseling-resistant
Ryan A. McKelley and Aaron B. Rochlen, Department of
populations (Rochlen, Blazina, & Raghunathan,
Educational Psychology, University of Texas, Austin, 2002; Rochlen, McKelley, & Pituch, 2006), few
Texas. have examined what might actually be working
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- within coaching that may have appeal to certain
dressed to Ryan A. McKelley, Department of Educational
Psychology, 1 University Station D5800, University of
types of men. Subsequently, the current article
Texas Austin, TX 78712. E-mail: [Link]@mail intends to contribute to this literature in several
.[Link] different ways. We begin by providing a brief
53
 54 MCKELLEY AND ROCHLEN

overview of coaching including the history, and debates arise as to the precise definition of
emerging trends, and growth of the field. Sec- coaching. Peltier (2001) defines an executive
ond, we contrast coaching with other models coach as “someone from outside an organiza-
used in the helping professions for mental tion that uses psychological skills to help a
health services. We speculate ways in which person develop into a more effective leader.”
coaching may address possible conflicts and Whitworth, Kimsey-House, and Sandahl (1998)
paradoxes between men’s gender role socializa- take a broader approach, defining coaching in
tion, help-seeking attitudes, and behaviors. Fi- its many forms as “the powerful alliance de-
nally, a discussion of the limitations and ethical signed to forward and enhance the lifelong pro-
concerns with using coaching as a modality in cess of human learning, effectiveness, and ful-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

treating men with psychological problems and fillment.” There is no single model or approach
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

ideas for further research are also provided. to coaching, but the ICF(2006) provides the
following outline of the coaching process:
The Potential for Coaching Coaching typically begins with a personal interview
(either face-to-face or by teleconference call) to assess
Definitions and Origins the individual’s current opportunities and challenges,
define the scope of the relationship, identify priorities
for action, and establish specific desired outcomes.
Before our discussion on the origins of Subsequent coaching sessions may be conducted in
coaching, it is important to define the terms person or over the telephone, with each session lasting
executive, coaching, and executive coaching a previously established length of time. Between
used in this article. The word executive has been scheduled coaching sessions, the individual may be
used to describe top officers of an organization asked to complete specific actions that support the
achievement of one’s personally prioritized goals. The
(e.g., CEO, CFO) down to “one that exercises coach may provide additional resources in the form of
administrative or managerial control” relevant articles, checklists, assessments, or models, to
(Merriam-Webster, 2006). The use of executive support the individual’s thinking and actions. The du-
in this article is consistent with the second, ration of the coaching relationship varies depending on
the individual’s personal needs and preferences.
broader definition describing a person who
manages others. Coaching is an umbrella term To add to the complexity of the practice,
for a field that includes the terms personal coaches with graduate training in mental health
coaching, life coaching, professional coaching, services often bring with them a range of theo-
business coaching, and executive coaching. In a retical orientations and models to coaching. A
broad sense, the practice of coaching is a part- few examples of different coaching approaches
nership between a qualified coach and an indi- are psychodynamic (Kilburg, 1996), Rational
vidual or team that supports the achievement of Emotive Behavior Therapy (Anderson, 2002),
results based on goals set by the individual or Adlerian (Page, 2003), solution-focused (Grant,
team (ICF, 2006). Some examples of coaching 2001), developmental (Laske, 1999), reality
clients’ goals are intrapersonal (e.g., finding a therapy (Howatt, 2000), and cognitive– behav-
better balance between work and personal life), ioral (Ducharme, 2004). Although it is beyond
interpersonal (e.g., managing conflict with oth- the scope of this article to provide a detailed
ers), or performance-based (e.g., improve time overview of the varied practice of coaching,
management). Because most of the limited, readers can refer to the following books for
peer-reviewed research in the field of coaching more information: Auerbach, 2001; Kilburg,
has been on executive coaching (Grant, 2003a), 2000; Peltier, 2001; Sperry, 2004; Whitworth et
the term executive coaching will be used when al., 1998.
citing specific research; otherwise, the more Despite the range of definitions, it is clear
general term coaching will be used. that coaching is used in a variety of settings.
The use of the term executive coaching began Athletes have long used coaches to remediate
in the late 1970s (Brilliantissimo, 2003), and deficits and improve their performance in sports
since then there has been incredible growth in (Douge, 1993; Howe, 1993). Professional actors
the field, with the number of executive coaches and singers use coaches to develop their perfor-
operating worldwide expected to grow fivefold mance skills. As the general field of coaching
over the next several years (Bell, 2002). Despite grows, so do distinct markets for coaching ser-
its growth in popularity, a range of definitions vices. For example, there are practitioners using
 COACHING FOR COUNSELING-RESISTANT MEN 55

the titles of executive, retirement, relationship, ing services, and anywhere from 52 (Gale et al.,
and life coach. Central to these coaching roles is 2002) to 83 (Wasylyshyn et al., 2006) and 85%
a relationship with clients wishing to pursue of executive coaching clients in these studies
growth in their respective pursuits. Tradition- are men (Wasylyshyn, 2003). In contrast, stud-
ally, executive coaches were external to an or- ies on physician utilization consistently show
ganization and hired to provide objective as- men seek help half as frequently as women for
sessment and advice to managers and executive- physical concerns (Moller-Leimkuhler, 2002)
level personnel. Recently, the scope has and half as frequently for mental health con-
changed to include internal coaches when the cerns like depression (Angst, Gamma, & Gast-
resources exist within an organization (Frisch, par, 2002). Epidemiological studies based on
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

2001). Whether coaches are internal or external the recent National Comorbidity Survey Repli-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

to organizations, there are still no universally cation also support that men have significantly
accepted standards for coaching competence in lower rates of treatment contact and use of
training or practice. The only central entry cri- mental health services than women (Kessler,
terion for the profession seems to be one’s abil- Demier, & Frank, 2005; Wang, Berglund, &
ity to solicit clients (Garman, Whiston, & Olfson, 2005). Coaching seems an important
Zlatoper, 2000). area of study to help us understand whether
Few studies have examined the utility of ex- some men can see the benefits of seeking help
ecutive coaching (Kampa-Kokesch & White, from a coach for certain issues that ethically fall
2002), but the existing literature suggests that under the coaching umbrella.
coaching is “effective in facilitating goal attain- Of importance, the practice of coaching has a
ment and well being and [suggest] that coaching range of possible applications for men, particu-
[is] a useful platform for an applied positive larly those who may be reluctant to utilize tra-
psychology and the investigation of the psycho- ditional sources of mental health services.
logical mechanisms involved in purposeful Coaching may be one way to encourage utili-
change in normal, nonclinical populations” zation of professional help by (1) focusing on
(Grant, 2003b). In an outcome study of execu- skill building, (2) decreasing the stigma of seek-
tive coaching in Fortune 100 companies, Hall et ing help, (3) addressing resistance from male
al. (1999) reported that most coaching clients gender role socialization, (4) marketing a subset
rated the overall effectiveness of their coaching of mental health services as coaching, or (5)
as “very satisfactory” (4 on a 5-point scale). providing an alternative or adjunct to traditional
Clients reported acquiring new skills, abilities, therapy for psychologically healthy men seek-
and perspectives such as improved relation- ing help for personal growth or increased well-
ships, a more flexible range of behaviors, being. Before addressing each of these goals in
greater self-confidence, and more sensitivity to detail, we will provide an overview of the lim-
communication issues with others. More re- ited research available on coaching.
cently, an outcome study on a coaching pro-
gram designed to help employees develop their Limitations to Research on Coaching
emotional competence resulted in participants
reporting an increase in overall emotional com- Despite the growth in popularity and the
petence, better understanding of their impact on practice of coaching in its many forms, one of
others, and more effective career management the critical problems or limitations is the lack of
(Wasylyshyn, Gronsky, & Haas, 2006). In these substantial empirical research demonstrating its
and other studies, effective coaches are believed effectiveness (Kilburg, 1996). Among the avail-
to possess general psychological skills like in- able data specific to executive coaching in the
terpersonal effectiveness, empathy for diverse literature, reviews by Kampa-Kokesch and
groups, analytical problem solving, and humor Anderson (2001) found only seven reported em-
(VanFleet, 1999), as well as core competencies pirical studies, whereas Grant (2001) found 17
like approachability, compassion, and interper- published reports of empirical evaluations of
sonal and political savvy (Brotman, Liberi, & coaching interventions with normal popula-
Wasylyshyn, 1998). tions. Many of those studies were reported in
These outcome studies suggest that clients the American Psychological Association Divi-
appear to be using (and benefiting from) coach- sion 13 journal Consulting Psychology Journal:
 56 MCKELLEY AND ROCHLEN

Practice and Research, which devoted an entire option for men, it is important to discern what is
issue to the topic of executive coaching (Brot- and what is not coaching.
man et al., 1998). Articles have also appeared in
American Psychological Association Division
42’s Independent Practitioner, the Psychother- Coaching Versus Other Modalities
apy Networker, and other mental health publi-
One of the most common themes in the lit-
cations (Peltier, 2001).
erature is the debate on the differences between
Of the published research available on coach- coaching and other kinds of interventions like
ing, the overwhelming majority are case stud- counseling or psychotherapy and consulting
ies, with some group-based empirical evalua- (Garman et al., 2000; Peltier, 2001; Sperry,
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

tions and limited quasi-experiential field exper-

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

1996). Sperry (1993) describes counseling and

iments (Grant, 2003a). In a study by Olivero, psychotherapy as ways to work through charac-
Bane, and Kopelman (1997) on the effect of terological issues and past events, whereas
executive coaching versus training in a public coaching is the teaching of human relations
agency, results showed an 88% increase in pro- skills to executives. Some psychotherapy mod-
ductivity from coaching compared with a gain els focus on transference and countertransfer-
of 22.4% from training alone. Gegner (1997) ence, exploration of family of-origin dynamics,
investigated the effectiveness of executive and the development of a working therapeutic
coaching by using a cross-sectional field study. alliance (Orenstein, 2002). Coaching may be
In follow-up interviews with 25 of the origi- seen as more directive and based on a more
nal 48 executives, all 25 reported that gaining collegial relationship between coach and client
new skills and learning more about themselves than between therapist and client (Levinson,
were the most valuable outcomes. In addition, 1996). These counseling and coaching models
all 25 participants also said that “coaching had by no means capture the richness and breadth of
positively affected their personal lives by affect- therapeutic approaches but are provided as a
ing their interactions with people, helping them way to highlight differences between therapy
establish balance in their lives, and helping and coaching. In fact, some authors suggest that
them prioritize and make decisions about how coaching fits well with more strength-based and
they use their time” (Kampa-Kokesch & Ander- positive psychology perspectives (Kauffman &
son, 2001). Scoular, 2004). There are, however, clear dif-
Scholars in the area of men’s studies are ferences with respect to governance and scope
already well suited to consider how gender of practice. Counseling and therapy work re-
might relate to men’s attitudes and beliefs about quire formal training and credentials and are the
seeking help through coaching. Of interest, few domains of licensed professionals working with
published studies specifically studied gender or people suffering from a range of mental health
sex differences or approached the topic of how issues. Although efforts are underway to estab-
coaching works with men (or different types of lish guidelines for the practice of coaching, the
men). Only one study considered sex as an field remains unregulated.
independent variable, finding no difference in In contrast to consultants, who are typically
outcome for cross-gender pairs of coaches and experts that provide guidance and advice on
clients (Hall et al., 1999). One recent disserta- organizational issues, coaches are more fre-
tion did, however, investigate the relationship quently involved in individual relationships
between gender role conflict and attitudes to- (Sperry, 1993). Consultants very often set the
ward executive coaching (Boespflug, 2005), agenda for the relationship based on the spe-
suggesting that if men are comfortable express- cialized expertise they bring to an engage-
ing themselves to other men, “they may be more ment; however, coaching is not about the
willing to choose a ‘masculinized’ help-seeking coach’s content, expertise, or solutions. A
label such as executive coaching rather than the coach’s job is to help clients articulate their
more ‘feminized’ perceived label of psycho- goals and help them achieve a desired out-
therapy” (p. 73). However, before considering come (Whitworth et al., 1998). This brief
the possible benefits and limitations of using the overview of coaching, counseling, and con-
label or practice of coaching as a treatment sulting provides a framework to understand
 COACHING FOR COUNSELING-RESISTANT MEN 57

how coaching can be applied to working pro- appears to align well with clinical evidence that
fessionally with men. some men prefer framing the benefits of profes-
sional help in terms of developing new skills.
Central goals of coaching engagements often
Applications of Coaching to Working focus on building skills (e.g., listening, commu-
With Men nication, interpersonal skills) and sustained be-
havior change (Frisch, 2001). More specifically,
Researchers propose that a central challenge
individuals in a coaching relationship are ex-
in working therapeutically with men is a lack of
pected to learn new perspectives on personal
fit between the culture of therapy and the rules
challenges and opportunities, enhanced thinking
of masculinity (Brooks, 1998; Levant, 1990;
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

and decision-making skills, improved interper-

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

Meth, Pasick, & Gordon, 1990; Robertson &

sonal effectiveness, and increased confidence in
Fitzgerald, 1992; Wilcox & Forrest, 1992). Re-
work and life roles (ICF, 2006).
cent research in the men’s help-seeking litera-
ture suggests alternative counseling techniques,
modalities, and therapeutic orientations that Coaching to Decrease Stigma of Seeking
may be more appealing and/or effective to a Help
greater range of men (Rochlen & O’Brien,
2002; Brooks & Good, 2001; Campbell, 1996). The majority of research over the past few
Examples of alternatives include support groups decades has found that men have less positive
(Blazina & Marks, 2001), online therapeutic attitudes toward help seeking and seek help less
interventions (Hsiung, 2002; Rochlen, Land, & often than women (Addis & Mahalik, 2003;
Wong, 2004), and psychoeducational work- Simonsen, Blazina, & Watkins, 2000; Vogel &
shops or outreach programs (Blazina & Marks, Wester, 2003). Studies on within-group differ-
2001; Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992; Vogel & ences have added to our understanding of this
Wester, 2003). Although many of the findings relationship by suggesting that men who tend to
are promising, these studies used conventional subscribe to more traditional and restrictive
interventions like therapy and support groups models of masculinity report more negative
that are arguably inconsistent with traditional help-seeking attitudes than other types of men.
masculine ideology. Authors have recently sug- For example, men scoring high on Success,
gested creating alternative, nontraditional fo- Power, and Competition from the Gender Role
rums and models of care more congruent with Conflict Scale (O’Neil, Helms, Gable, David, &
the unique needs of men (Addis & Mahalik, Wrightsman, 1986) are described as having to
2003; Corrigan, 2004). Specifically, Addis and be in charge and being driven toward moving up
colleagues (2005) argue, “We need to get men the career ladder (Mahalik, Cournoyer, De-
into some help-seeking context other than psy- Franc, Cherry, & Napolitano, 1998). More re-
chotherapy.” In lieu of the successes and chal- cently, other researchers have identified that
lenges of the innovative approaches listed communal pressures of wealth, success, and
above, coaching may be an additional alterna- high expectations create a tremendous amount
tive that aligns with some of the norms of mas- of stress for males to be successful and “fit in”
culinity and male role socialization. and contribute to a gender-linked stigma about
males’ help-seeking behaviors (Timlin-Scalera,
Coaching as Skill Building Ponterotto, Blumberg, & Jackson, 2003). Given
that coaching is often success-oriented and
In a symposium on psychotherapy with men competitive in nature, it may be a better ap-
at the 112th meeting of the American Psycho- proach for men with high needs of success,
logical Association, researchers and clinicians power, and competition where the culture of
suggested that men in therapy may respond therapy may be in opposition to the culture
better to conceptualizing therapy as building associated with traditional masculine roles and
emotional skills over repairing emotional defi- values.
cits (Kiselica, Vasquez, Robertson, & Stevens, Hill, Carlstrom, and Evanow (2001) make
2004). With its focus on skill building, coaching clear the importance of casting the work of
 58 MCKELLEY AND ROCHLEN

consulting psychologists not as therapy but as contribute to “traditional men’s” underutiliza-

coaching. They suggest tion of mental health services. Traditional men
tend to (1) be achievement- and goal-oriented,
Most business leaders see therapy or counseling as an (2) restrict emotional expression, (3) value in-
option only if one has mental health problems, not
business or leadership concerns. Coaching, even when dependence and self-reliance, (4) focus on in-
focused on early childhood experiences, does not carry strumental-based aspects of interaction (i.e., ac-
this stigma and so arouses less of the resistance that tive problem solving), and (5) be restrictive in
many men would experience (p. 128). expressing closeness with other men. These the-
oretical characteristics fit well with several bar-
Additional anecdotal support of framing
riers to seeking help, such as concerns with
help-seeking options as coaching comes from
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

autonomy and keeping one’s emotions under

practicing clinicians. Grodzki (2002) suggests
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

control (Mansfield et al., 2005). Typical goals

that coaches can attract a segment of the popu-
of coaching address several of these character-
lation that some economists call the “worried
istics and barriers directly.
well— higher functioning adults who would
Fundamental to the coaching process is set-
rate themselves as ‘content,’ but want more or
ting goals to solve problems in a client’s per-
feel blocked in some areas of their lives.” This
sonal or work life, addressing traditional men’s
author cited research reporting that 85% of the
goal orientation and preference for active prob-
“worried well” do not seek counseling or psy-
lem solving. One of the key characteristics of
chotherapy when they have personal problems
coaching is that the agenda always comes from
because they do not see themselves as psycho-
the client (Whitworth et al., 1998), ensuring that
logically “ill.” Robertson suggests that word
a level of independence is still present in the
choice is important to consider when working
relationship. With respect to restrictive emo-
with men and oftentimes uses the word “coach-
tionality, Kilburg (1996) published a list of
ing” with men in therapy (Kiselica et al., 2004).
goals for coaching aimed at improving a client’s
It seems an important addition to the research
psychological and social competencies. These
base on men’s issues in help seeking to inves-
goals include increasing (a) flexibility in main-
tigate whether framing therapy as coaching,
taining effective interpersonal relationships, (b)
when ethical and appropriate, results in de-
tolerance and range of emotional responses, and
creased stigma and resistance.
(c) awareness of and knowledge of psychosocial
If coaching can help address problems cre-
domains of human behavior. For example, men
ated by the pressures of work, it may also ad-
exhibiting restrictive emotionality may benefit
dress some of the other reasons why men tend to
through the coaching process when the coach
avoid seeking help. For example, men subscrib-
has extensive training and treatment experience
ing to masculine ideologies may refuse to seek
in this area.
help to avoid being perceived as weak
As in therapy, working through restrictive
(Mahalik, Locke et al., 2003). More recently,
emotionality is only one of many possible is-
Vogel, Wade, and Haake (2006) found that men
sues in which a client desires behavioral
scoring higher on a measure of self-stigma (i.e.,
change. No matter what the issue, Brotman et
seeing oneself as weak if one cannot handle a
al. (1998) believe that psychologists and other
problem on one’s own) predicted more negative
mental health practitioners are uniquely quali-
attitudes toward and less intent to seek psycho-
fied to define standards of competence for a
logical help. In contrast, athletes use coaches for
coach when sustained behavior change is de-
the specific purpose of overcoming weaknesses.
sired. Rotenberg (2000) also believes that
Perhaps the reduced stigma of a coaching rela-
trained therapists have a knowledge base that
tionship might appeal to men currently resisting
predisposes them to be effective in a coaching
other forms of professional help.
role. In dealing with the issue of expressing
closeness with other men, it is possible that
Coaching to Address Characteristics of expectations around coaching relationships dif-
Male Gender Role Socialization fer from those of therapy. This seems an impor-
tant barrier to overcome, whether through
Campbell (1996) suggested five characteris- coaching or other alternative models of profes-
tics of traditional male role socialization that sional help, because emotional vulnerability
 COACHING FOR COUNSELING-RESISTANT MEN 59

with other men has been shown to negatively add to that challenge, many experienced thera-
impact men’s willingness to seek help pists were taught that it was unprofessional and
(Mahalik, Good, et al., 2003; Mansfield et al., unethical to advertise their services (Williams &
2003). Davis, 2002), making it more difficult to reach
an audience of men that may need help. In
Marketing Coaching to Men contrast, coaches typically market their services
and can even solicit clients directly. Better mar-
Research suggests that male role socializa- keting of the process and goals of a coaching
tion may also influence men’s perception of relationship may, therefore, appeal to men with
psychological services. By using brochures de- more traditional gender roles. Clinicians with
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

scribing three different treatment formats, coach training could consider marketing a sub-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

Blazina and Marks (2001) found that high gen- set of their services as coaching to appeal to a
der role conflicted men have significantly more broader audience or consider coaching as an
negative reactions to individual therapy, psy- adjunct or introduction to therapy. Taking this
choeducational services, and men’s support approach ethically would require considerable
groups. In contrast, an executive coaching out- work from a clinician, particularly around iden-
come study showed that 75% of participants tifying and developing their core competencies
reported significantly positive reactions to the in coaching (Peltier, 2001), and not just using
idea of working with a coach (Wasylyshyn, the coaching term as a way to attract more
2003). It would be interesting to investigate clients. Furthermore, marketing coaching as it is
whether the men in the Blazina and Marks study currently practiced as a mental health service is
would have reacted differently to a fourth con- problematic given that it lacks a substantial
dition of a brochure describing coaching. There literature base. It would be helpful for research-
are well-supported findings that different pro- ers to begin to explore the extent to which men
fessional titles affect the tendency to seek help would be able to recognize the differences be-
from help providers (Brown & Chambers, tween a counseling and coaching session, as
1986). In their study, Brown and Chambers well as the perceived appeal and outcome of the
found that the counseling center title was im- work.
portant in determining student and faculty use
of the counseling center. Personal and Career Coaching as an Alternative or Adjunct to
Counseling Service was preferred over titles Traditional Interventions
that included the words “psychological” or
“consultation.” Unfortunately, the researchers There has recently been increasing interest in
did not look at gender differences or report research on conducting therapy using e-mail,
between- or within-group differences for the the telephone, Internet chat, and video confer-
sample. Future research could investigate encing. Setting aside the continued debate on
whether using the term coaching instead of major ethical and legal issues with online coun-
counseling or therapy to describe a subset of seling (Rochlen, Zack, & Speyer, 2004), there
services available may affect the likelihood of may be potential benefits to reaching men re-
some men to seek help. luctant to face-to-face interventions. Currently
Another promising area to consider is the with less legal restrictions than mental health
impact of the marketing approach we use to services, the field of coaching has long used
describe mental health services to men. Re- technology to conduct sessions with clients
searchers are beginning to explore reaching men (Richard, 1999). In fact, some coaches conduct
through more targeted, gender-specific market- all of their sessions by using a combination of
ing of mental health services (Robertson & e-mail, telephone, and videophone, allowing for
Fitzgerald, 1992; Rochlen et al., 2002, 2006). an international client base (Williams & Davis,
Rochlen and Hoyer (2005) propose that a per- 2002). This less restrictive practice of coaching
ceived lack of fit between the culture of mascu- may provide an additional channel to reach men
linity and that of the help-seeking process can in need of some guidance in balancing the pres-
present considerable challenges to agencies and sures of work, home, and community. The most
practitioners trying to market their services widely recognized coach-training programs in-
more effectively to a greater range of men. To clude skill development on telecoaching and
 60 MCKELLEY AND ROCHLEN

integrating technology into a coaching practice. Second, well-developed codes, ethical stan-
Perhaps using these methods in coaching would dards, and practicing guidelines do not currently
appeal to a broader range of men than tradi- exist in the coaching industry. There are signif-
tional face-to-face sessions. icant concerns with competency and licensing
questions, most of which remain unresolved
Limitations and Concerns of Coaching currently. Of the over 10,000 estimated coaches
practicing in the United States, only 20% have
Although there are possible benefits of formal psychological training and are licensed
coaching as an alternative to therapy with men, mental health professionals (Sperry, 2004).
there are significant concerns and limitations Only a handful of training programs fulfill re-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

that remain. First, because of the overlap of quirements to carry titles like Professional Cer-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

many techniques used with clients, it may often tified Coach (PCC) created by the ICF. How-
be difficult to identify the line between coach- ever, certification through the ICF is voluntary,
ing, counseling, and therapy. Coaching clients and there is no equivalent governing organiza-
often want and ask for personal counseling, tion, such as the American Psychological Asso-
especially if it is discovered that early childhood ciation or American Medical Association, to
situations may be working to create dysfunc- prevent someone from using the title of coach.
tional patterns in the workplace. Other coaching This opens the public to the possibility of un-
clients may have anger management problems scrupulous practitioners taking advantage of a
that require a coach with formal psychology field without established and accepted standards
training (Anderson, 2002). Some practitioners of competence. Peltier (2001) urges coaches
believe that it is important to avoid becoming and consumers of coaching to pay close atten-
psychotherapeutic with coaching clients be- tion to the limits of confidentiality, informed
cause the coaching process does not allow time consent, and boundaries in the coaching rela-
for developing a therapeutic alliance, dealing tionship. Although licensed mental health pro-
with transference issues, or handling possible fessionals practicing coaching can often use
ambivalence if the client becomes dependent on their established ethical codes for guidance, the
the coach (Levinson, 1996). This may be par- majority of coaches without such training are
ticularly difficult for clinicians that transition “on their own to make difficult moral decisions”
into the practice of coaching, especially when (Peltier, 2001).
they try to maintain an independent practice and To deal with these issues, Sperry (2004) sug-
coaching practice (Williams & Davis, 2002). gests three possible coaching practice styles for
Identifying issues that are better suited for a mental health professionals, each with their own
therapist is an even greater challenge for opportunities and challenges. In a single-
coaches that do not have formal training in focused practice, the therapist gives up his or
delivering mental health services. her mental health licensures and functions
In addition, coaching as a field or industry solely as a coach. The dual-focused practice
today fails to meet the criteria of a true profes- model consists of parallel therapy and coaching
sion, such as significant barriers to entry, formal practices with separate business setups (i.e.,
qualifications, government-sanctioned licensing therapist conducts coaching and therapy, but as
or regulatory bodies, and so forth (Grant, separate practices without overlapping clients).
2003a). People who use the titles Personal In an integrated practice, therapists can use their
Coach, Executive Coach, Life Coach, and Busi- coaching skills to provide an expanded set of
ness Coach are often former executives, MBAs, services for a broader population. Sperry notes
human resource specialists, attorneys, teachers, that the dual-focused model presents the most
and sports coaches (Brotman et al., 1998; Gale potential for legal and ethical issues, and there
et al., 2002). Although they may claim to have are also some implications with licensure and
the necessary competencies to address leader- liability in the integrated model.
ship issues, there is no guarantee that they have Third, although the title of coach may be
any experience in handling or even referring appealing to some men over titles like therapist,
clients with more serious mental health con- counselor, or psychologist, it also brings with it
cerns, let alone working with the unique needs possible expectations that can interfere with the
of men. therapeutic process. Sports have long been an
 COACHING FOR COUNSELING-RESISTANT MEN 61

integral part of the male culture, starting with graphics captured in published studies support
the exclusion of women from the first Olympics this observation. For example, coaching clients
in 776 B.C. until their inclusion in the modern- in the Wasylyshyn (2003) outcome study were
day games (American Association of University predominantly White men (85%), middle-aged
Women, 2004). This long history of men and (79%), employed at a Fortune 500 company
coaching may influence expectations of a (79%), and at the vice president level or higher
coaching relationship. For example, a male cli- (68%). We do not yet know how a help-seeking
ent may associate the word coach with his ex- option like coaching would be perceived by
perience playing high school or college sports. younger or older, non-White, working class
For him, a coach is only there to improve his men. Unfortunately, research supports that
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

performance for a specific skill or sport. Alter- many minorities already have less access to
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

natively, he may think of a coach as hard driv- high quality mental health services than Whites
ing and demanding, reducing the likelihood of (Muñoz & Mendelson, 2005; Wang, Lane, &
creating a therapeutic experience or allowing an Olfson, 2005), seek help at lower rates (Gallo,
authentic connection in the relationship. If Marino, & Ford, 1995; Sussman, Robins, &
coaching is not expected to be therapeutic by a Earls, 1987), and perceive that services offered
potential client that would not otherwise con- in the existing system do not meet their cultural
sider traditional therapy, he may not be helped or linguistic needs (Surgeon General, 1999).
by either modality. This may be problematic for Bernal and Scharró-del-Rı́o (2001) reported that
a man who subscribes to more traditional, re- even when controlling for variables like mental
strictive gender role norms like restricted emo- health history, socioeconomic status, education,
tional expression. Because a common goal of and attitudes toward health-related issues,
coaching is to help develop clients’ emotional “there are significant disparities in the use and
competency (Kilburg, 1996; Wasylyshyn et al., quality of mental health services among and
2006), it might be particularly important to across ethnic, cultural, and racial communities”
evaluate expectations and perceptions about (p. 332). These are large barriers to overcome
coaching for these men. Understanding expec- for a relatively new field like coaching and
tations of the relationship may be critical in underline the importance of finding ways to
using coaching to overcome resistance to seek- address these disparities. For coaching to be a
ing help. useful help-seeking option for more men, re-
Fourth, professional boundary issues and lim- searchers and practitioners will need to consider
its to confidentiality inherent in coaching how the practice intersects with culture, race,
present challenges to working with men. Pro- ethnicity, sexual identity, socioeconomic status,
fessional boundaries between coaches and cli- disability status, and other important dimen-
ents are usually more relaxed than those be- sions.
tween therapists and clients. The nature of the
coaching relationship may require a coach to Future Research Directions
attend meals with clients or attend their meet-
ings. As these situations do not typically occur Considering the problems faced by some men
with therapy clients, it may make judging ap- and their resistance to seek help, exploring ad-
propriateness more difficult for both coach and ditional options to reach these men appears to
client (Auerbach, 2001). In addition, coaching be critical (Blazina & Watkins, 1996). Because
clients do not have the same protection as ther- the coaching field is interdisciplinary, better co-
apy clients with respect to privileged commu- operation between professions like counseling,
nication (Sperry, 2004). The issue becomes consulting, and industrial-organizational psy-
even more complicated in executive coaching, chology may help solidify the definition and
where organizations often pay for the services, construct of coaching. It may also be important
with some clients’ superiors expecting informa- to involve other social scientists and business
tion accountability provided by the coach. and management theorists in this process since
A final and important limitation to coaching, many current studies are found in the business
particularly the practice of executive coaching, management literature (Kampa-Kokesch &
is its reputation as a service available only to a Anderson, 2001). A beneficial first step in in-
limited number of privileged clientele. Demo- vestigating coaching is a focus on using estab-
 62 MCKELLEY AND ROCHLEN

lished research methodologies. Grant (2003a) Hopefully, future research will elucidate an un-
suggests an increased emphasis on objective derstanding of how the practice of coaching can
quantitative outcome measures, relative efficacy complement existing efforts to reach this popu-
of different coaching approaches, and more so- lation.
phisticated designs than case studies. Given the
large number of male executives in this country,
it also seems critical to consider gender and its References
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