UNIT:-1 ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS

They started as traders but with the passage of time, in order to safeguard their
commercial interests, they aimed at dominating the politics of India. Thus, the
commercial rivalry among the European powers resulted in political rivalry and this not
only brought them into conflict with each other but with Indian rulers too. Ultimately,
the British succeeded in establishing their rule in India.

The first Europeans were the Portuguese to arrive in India, who landed at Calicut on
May 20, 1498. The Portuguese were followed by the Dutch and the British. But other
European countries soon followed their lead. The Portuguese arrived in 1498 and
colonized Goa, which became the centre of Portuguese trade from 1510 onwards. It was
from Goa that they established trading posts in other parts of India like Cochin (1510)
and Bombay (1534). Other European powers followed suit by establishing colonial
outposts along the coastlines of India. This article looks into commercial contact
between India and Europe in 1498, the Portuguese Contributions to India, and how they
established a new sea route from Europe to India.

 Portuguese in India

In this section, you can read about the Portuguese rule in India that lasted for over 450
years. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in India and the last to leave.

 In c. 1498 CE, Vasco da Gama of Portugal discovered a new sea route from Europe to
India. He sailed around Africa via the Cape of Good Hope and reached Calicut. Read
more about da Gama’s landing in Calicut in This Day in History dated May 20.
 He was welcomed by the Zamorin, the Hindu ruler of Calicut and returned to
Portugal in the next year making huge profits from the Indian cargo that was worth
60 times the cost of his expedition.
 In c. 1500 CE, another Portuguese Pedro Alvares Cabral arrived in India and Vasco
da Gama also made a second trip in c. 1502 CE.
 The Portuguese established trading settlements at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore.
 The first governor of the Portuguese in India was Francis de Almeida.
 In c. 1509 CE, Afonso de Albuquerque was made the governor of the Portuguese
territories in India and in c. 1510 CE, he captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur
(during the reign of Sikander Lodhi) and thereafter, Goa became the capital of the
Portuguese settlements in India.
 The Portuguese established their domination over the entire Asian coast from
Hormuz in the Persian Gulf to Malacca in Malaya and the spice islands in Indonesia.
 At the time of the death of Afonso de Albuquerque, the Portuguese were the
strongest naval power in India.
 In c. 1530 CE, Nino da Cunha captured Diu and Bassein from Bahadur Shah of
Gujarat. They also established settlements at Salsette, Daman and Bombay on the
west coast and at San Thome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast.
 However, the Portuguese power declined in India by the end of the 16th century and
they lost all their acquired territories in India except Daman, Diu and Goa.
 Portuguese Contributions to India

 They brought tobacco cultivation to India. They established the first printing press
at Goa in c. 1556 CE.
 “The Indian Medicinal Plants” was the first scientific work which was published at
Goa in c. 1563 CE.

 Causes of Decline of Portuguese in India

In this section, the causes for the Portuguese decline in India are discussed.

 The governors that succeeded Afonso de Albuquerque were weak and less
competent which eventually led to the decline of the Portuguese Empire in India.
 The Portuguese were intolerant and fanatical in religious matters. They indulged in
forcible conversion of the native people to Christianity. Their approach in this
respect was hateful to the people of India where religious tolerance was the rule.
 The Portuguese administration was more interested in making fortunes for
themselves which resulted in the further alienation of the people of India. They were
also involved in inhuman cruelties and lawlessness. They did not even shy away
from piracy and plunder. All these acts resulted in a hostile attitude towards the
Portuguese.
 The Portuguese and the Spanish had left the English and the Dutch far behind during
the 15th century and the first half of the 16th century. But in the later half of the
16th century, England and Holland, and later, France, all growing commercial and
naval powers, waged a fierce struggle against the Spanish and the Portuguese
monopoly of world trade. In this struggle, the latter were subjugated. This also
weakened their power in India.
 Also the might of the Mughal Empire and the growing power of the Marathas did not
let the Portuguese maintain their trade monopoly for long in India. For instance,
they clashed with the Mughal power in Bengal in c. 1631 CE and were driven out of
their settlement at Hughli.
 The Portuguese discovered Brazil in Latin America and began to pay much more
attention to it than its territories in India.
 When Portugal came under Spain in c. 1580 CE, the Spanish interests predominated
over the Portugal interests which were subsequently side lined.

 Dutch in India
The Dutch East India Company was established in c. 1602 CE under the name
Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie (VOC). Dutch set up their first factory
at Masulipatnam in Andhra. They also established trading depots at Surat, Broach,
Cambay and Ahmedabad in Gujarat in west India, Cochin in Kerala, Chinsura in Bengal,
Patna in Bihar and Agra in U.P. Pulicat (Tamil Nadu) was their main centre in India and
later, it was replaced by Nagapattinam. In the 17th century, they won over the
Portuguese and emerged the most dominant power in European trade in the East. They
dislodged the Portuguese from the Malay straits and the Indonesian islands, and in c.
1623 defeated English attempts to establish themselves there. The Anglo-Dutch rivalry
continued for about seven years during which the Dutch lost their settlements to the
British one by one and finally, the Dutch were defeated by the English in the Battle of
Bedara in c. 1759.

 British in India

The English Association or Company to trade with the East was formed in c. 1599 CE
under the auspices of a group of merchants known as “The merchant Adventurers”. The
company was given a royal charter and the exclusive privilege to trade in the East by
Queen Elizabeth on 31st December c.1600 CE and was popularly known as the East
India Company.

 In c. 1609 CE, Captain William Hawkins arrived at the court of Mughal Emperor
Jahangir to seek permission to establish an English trading centre at Surat.
 But it was refused by the Emperor due to pressure from the Portuguese.
 Later in c. 1612 CE, Jahangir permitted the East India Company to set up a factory at
Surat.
 In c. 1615 CE, Sir Thomas Roe came to the Mughal court as ambassador of James Ⅰ,
the king of England and succeeded in getting an Imperial farman to trade and
establish factories in different parts of India.
 Thus, by c. 1619 CE, the English established their factories at Agra, Ahmedabad,
Baroda and Broach.
 The English opened their first factory in the south at Masulipatnam.
 In c. 1639 CE, Francis Day obtained the site of Madras from the Raja of Chandragiri
and built a small fort around their factory called Fort St. George. Read more on this
incident in This Day in History dated August 22.
 Madras soon replaced Masulipatnam as the headquarters of the English on the
Coromandel coast.
 The English East India Company acquired Bombay from Charles Ⅱ, the then king of
England in c. 1668 CE and Bombay became the headquarters of the company on the
west coast.
 In c. 1690 CE, an English factory was established at a place called Sutanuti by Job
Charnock. Later, it developed into the city of Calcutta where Fort William was built
and which later became the capital of British India.
  British settlements in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta became the nuclei of flourishing
cities.
 The British East India Company grew in power and tended to acquire the status of a
sovereign state in India.

 French in India

The French East India Company was founded in c. 1664 CE by Colbert, a minister under
Louis ⅩⅣ. In c. 1668 CE, the first French factory was set up at Surat by Francis Caron. In
c. 1669 CE, Maracara established a factory at Masulipatnam. In c. 1673 CE, Francois
Martin founded Pondicherry (Fort Louis), which became the headquarters of the French
possessions in India and he became its first governor. In c. 1690 CE, the French
acquired Chandranagore near Calcutta from the governor, Shaista Khan.
The French established their factories at Balasore, Mahe, Qasim Bazar and Karaikal. The
arrival of Joseph François Dupleix as French governor in India in c. 1742 CE saw the
beginning of the Anglo-French conflict which resulted in the famous Carnatic wars.

 Danes (from Denmark) in India

The Danes established an East India Company in c. 1616 CE. They formed settlements at
Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu) in c. 1620 CE and at Serampore (Bengal) in c. 1676 CE. Their
headquarters was at Serampore. However, they could not strengthen themselves in
India and had to sell all their settlements in India to the British in c. 1845 CE.

 Anglo-French Rivalry

In the beginning of the 18th century, the English and the French were competing with
each other to establish their dominance in India. They took advantage of the political
turmoil in India which was due to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

The rivalry between the French and the English played out in the three Carnatic Wars.
Know more about the Carnatic wars from the table below.

First Carnatic War

Second Carnatic War

Third Carnatic War

The Anglo French rivalry came to a close with British success and French
failure. The causes of French failure can be summarised as follows–
 Commercial and naval superiority of the English.
 The French East India Company lacked adequate support from the French
government.
 The English had a strong base in Bengal while the French were supported only in the
Deccan.
 The French had only one port – Pondicherry while the English had three ports –
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
 There were differences of opinion between the French Generals.
 England’s victory in the European wars decided the destiny of the French in India.
France’s hope of building an empire in India was quashed after the third war and this
paved the way for the British to become the paramount power in the subcontinent.

 British Conquest of India

1) Battle of Plassey (c. 1757 CE)

 Bengal was the most fertile and the richest province of India. In c. 1717 CE, under a
royal farman by the Mughal Emperor (Farrukhsiyar), the East India Company was
granted the freedom to import and export their goods in Bengal without paying
taxes and the right to issue passes or dastaks for the movement of such goods. All
the nawabs of Bengal, from Murshid Quli Khan to Alivardi Khan had objected to the
English interpretation of the farman of c.1717 CE.
 In c. 1756 CE, Siraj ud Daulah succeeded his grandfather, Alivardi Khan and came in
conflict with the British as he was against the misuse of dastaks. Siraj ud Daulah
seized the English factory at Kasimbazar, marched on to Calcutta and occupied Fort
William on 20 June, 1756 CE. The conflict between the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud
Daulah and the English led to the Battle of Plassey held on 23rd June 1757 CE.
Robert Clive, the commander of the British troops emerged victorious by defeating
the Nawab’s army. The easy victory was due to the treachery of Mir Jafar, the
commander of the Nawab’s army. The Nawab was forced to flee, was captured and
put to death by Mir Jafar’s son, Miran.
 The English proclaimed Mir Jafar the Nawab of Bengal and the company was granted
the undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in addition to other
rewards. The Battle of Plassey was of immense historical significance as it paved the
way for the British mastery of Bengal and eventually of the whole of India.
2) Battle of Buxar (c. 1764 CE)

 Mir Jafar was not able to satisfy the demands of the English, and he was forced to
resign in c. 1760 CE and his son-in-law, Mir Qasim was put on the throne. He was an
able, efficient and a strong ruler, who soon emerged as a threat to the English and
their designs in Bengal.
 Mir Qasim was defeated in a series of battles in c. 1763 CE and fled to Awadh where
he formed an alliance with Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh and Shah Alam Ⅱ,
the Mughal Emperor. The three clashed with the Company’s army at Buxar on 22nd
 October c.1764 CE and were thoroughly defeated. The English military superiority
was decisively established.
 In c. 1765 CE, Robert Clive was appointed as the governor of Bengal. Clive
introduced a new administrative system in Bengal called Dual Government in which
the nominal head was the Nawab of Bengal and the real power was in the hands of
the British.
3) Treaty of Allahabad (c. 1764 CE)

 The province of Awadh was returned to Shuja-ud-Daulah but he had to pay Rs 50

Lakhs to the English. Shuja-ud-Daulah was forced to maintain English troops for the
defence of his state.
 Shah Alam was forced to grant Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the
English. Districts of Kara and Allahabad were given to Shah Alam and the English
accorded a pension of Rs 26 Lakhs per year to him.
In c. 1763 CE, the British restored Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal and after his death,
his second son, Nizam-ud-Daulah was placed on the throne. The Company gained
supreme control over the administration of Bengal.

4) Conquest of Mysore

Hyder Ali, son of a faujdar of the Mysore army was born in c. 1721 CE. By his sheer hard
work and determination, he became commander-in-chief of the army and when the
ruler of Mysore died, he proclaimed himself as the ruler and became Sultan of Mysore.
He was an able general and he strengthened his army by including French soldiers.

5) First Anglo-Mysore war (c. 1767 – 1769 CE)

The rapid rise of Hyder Ali excited the jealousy of the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas
and the English. They together formed an alliance and declared a war on Hyder Ali. By
diplomacy, Hyder Ali won over the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad and the first
Anglo-Mysore war ended with the defeat of the British. At the end of the war, a Treaty of
Madras was signed, according to which both sides restored each other’s conquests and
promised mutual help in case of an attack by a third party.

6) Second Anglo-Mysore war (c. 1780 – 1784 CE)

 In c. 1771 CE, Hyder Ali was attacked by the Marathas, however the English did not
come to his help and the Treaty of Madras was violated. This led Hyder Ali to
distrust the British and he wanted an opportunity to strike at them.
 When Mahe, a French possession in the dominion of Hyder Ali was attacked by the
English, Hyder Ali declared war on the English in c. 1780 CE. Hyder Ali inflicted one
defeat after another on the British armies in the Carnatic and made them surrender
in large numbers. He soon occupied almost the entire Carnatic.
 Lord Warren Hastings, by a clever stroke of diplomacy divided the confederacy of
Hyder Ali, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas. He made peace with the
Marathas and bribed the Nizam with the cession of Guntur district.
 In c. 1781 CE, the British under Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali at Porto Novo. After
Hyder Ali’s death in c. 1782 CE, the war was carried on by his son Tipu Sultan. Read
more on the Battle of Porto Novo in This Day in History dated July 1, 1781.
 The second Anglo-Mysore came to an end by the Treaty of Mangalore, according to
which all conquests were mutually restored and the prisoners on both sides were
liberated.
7) Third Anglo-Mysore war (c. 1790 – 1792 CE)

 Lord Cornwallis, the then Governor General succeeded through shrewd diplomacy in
isolating Tipu Sultan by winning over the Marathas, the Nizam and the rulers of
Travancore and Coorg.
 War broke out in c. 1790 CE between the English and Tipu, and ended in Tipu’s
defeat in c. 1792 CE. The war ended with the Treaty of Seringapatam, according to
which Tipu lost half of his territories i.e, Malabar, Coorg, Dindugal, Baramahal (now
Salem and Erode). Tipu was compelled to pay a war indemnity of 3 crore rupees and
had to surrender two of his sons as hostages to the English until he paid the
indemnity. After this war, although the strength of Mysore was reduced, it was not
extinguished; Tipu was defeated but not destroyed.
8) Fourth Anglo Mysore war (c. 1798 – 1799 CE)

 The then Governor General, Lord Wellesly tried to persuade Tipu to accept a pact
of subsidiary alliance and wrote letters requesting Tipu to dismiss the French, to
receive an English envoy, and to make terms with the company and its allies. Tipu
paid little attention to Wellesley’s letters and thus, the fourth Anglo-Mysore war
started.
 The Bombay army under General Stuart invaded Mysore from the west. The Madras
army, which was led by the Governor-General’s brother, Arthur Wellesley, forced
Tipu to retreat to his capital Srirangapattanam. Tipu fought bravely but died in the
battle.
 The central part of Mysore was given to Krishna Raja of the Wadiar dynasty. The
remaining parts of the kingdom were divided between the British and the
Nizam. Tipu’s family was sent to the fort of Vellore.
 British Struggle with Marathas
1) First Anglo-Maratha war (c. 1775 – 1782 CE)

 In c. 1772 CE, Madhava Rao (Maratha Peshwa) died and was succeeded by his
younger brother, Narayan Rao but his uncle Raghunath Rao alias Raghoba murdered
him and announced himself as the next Peshwa. The Maratha leaders under the able
leadership of Nana Phadnavis disregarded the authority of Raghoba and appointed
Madhava Rao Narayana, the infant son of Narayan Rao as the Peshwa.
 Raghoba went to the British to seek their help for obtaining Peshwaship. The British
authorities in Bombay concluded the Treaty of Surat with Raghunath Rao in c. 1775
 CE. Raghunath Rao agreed to hand over the islands of Salsette and Bassein to the
British.
 The Battle at Talegaon (c. 1776 CE) was fought in which the Marathas defeated the
British. The Treaty of Purander (c. 1776 CE) was signed much to the advantage of
the Marathas and this raised the position of Nana Phadnavis among Marathas.
 In c. 1781 CE, Warren Hastings dispatched British troops under the command of
Captain Popham. He defeated the Maratha chief, Mahadaji Scindia, in a number of
small battles and captured Gwalior. In c. 1782 CE, the Treaty of Salbai was signed
between Warren Hastings and Mahadaji Scindia. Raghunath Rao was pensioned off
and Madhav Rao Ⅱ was accepted as the Peshwa. It provided the British twenty years
of peace with the Marathas. The treaty also enabled the British to exert pressure on
Mysore with the help of the Marathas in recovering their territories from Hyder Ali.
2) Second Anglo-Maratha war (c. 1803 – 1805 CE)

 Treaty of Bassein (c. 1802 CE) – Nana Phadnavis who kept the Maratha confederacy
together for the last 30 years died in c. 1800 CE. After his death, the infighting
among the Maratha leaders proved to be self-destructive. Jaswant Rao Holkar and
Daulat Rao Scindia were fighting against each other and the Peshwa, Baji Rao Ⅱ
supported Scindia against Holkar. The combined armies of Scindia and Peshwa were
utterly defeated by the Holkars. Peshwa Baji Rao Ⅱ approached the British for
protection and signed the Treaty of Bassein with the British in c. 1802 CE. It was a
subsidiary treaty and the Peshwa was recognised as the head of the Maratha
kingdom. In accordance with this document, the foreign policy of the Marathas came
under British control and therefore, any action of the Maratha chiefs against the
British was successfully prevented. The Marathas considered the treaty as a
document that surrendered their independence.
 Raghoji Bhonsle and Daulat Rao Scindia took the Treaty of Bassein as an insult to the
national honour of the Marathas. The forces of both the chieftains were united,
however, the English defeated the combined forces of Scindia and Bhonsle under
Arthur Wellesley at Assaye near Aurangabad (c. 1803 CE). Subsequently, Arthur
Wellesley carried the war into Bhonsle’s territory and defeated the Maratha forces
on the plains of Argaon. As a result, the Treaty of Deogaon was signed between
Bhonsle and Wellesley which forced Bhonsle to give up the province of Cuttack in
Orissa.
 In the north, Lord Lake routed Scindia’s army at Laswari and occupied Aligarh, Delhi
and Agra. Lake took Shah Alam, the Mughal Emperor under his protection.
 Wellesley now turned his attention towards Holkar, but Yeshwant Rao Holkar
proved more than a match for the British and Holkar remained unsubdued.
3) Third Anglo-Maratha war (c. 1817 – 1818 CE)

 The second Anglo-Maratha war had shattered the power of the Maratha chiefs but
not their spirit. They made a desperate last attempt to regain their independence
and old prestige in c. 1818 CE. The Peshwa attacked the British Residency at Poona
in c. 1817 CE but was defeated. Appa Sahib (the Bhonsle chief) refused to accept the
Treaty of Nagpur, which he had signed with the British in c. 1816 CE. According to
this treaty, Nagpur came under the control of the company. He fought the British in
the Battle of Sitabaldi in November 1817 CE, but was defeated. Holkar too was
 defeated by the British on 21st December 1817 CE at Baroda. Therefore, by
December c.1818 CE the dream of a mighty Maratha Confederacy was finally
shattered.
 Results of the war – The Peshwa Baji Rao Ⅱ was pensioned off at Bithur in Kanpur.
His territories were annexed and the enlarged Presidency of Bombay came into
existence in this region. Holkar and Bhonsle accepted Subsidiary forces. To satisfy
the Maratha pride, a small state of Satara was created under Pratap Singh, a
descendant of Shivaji who ruled it as a complete dependent of the British.
 By c. 1818 CE, the entire Indian subcontinent, except Punjab and Sindh was brought
under British Control.
 The consolidation of British Power (1818 – 57)

The British completed the task of conquering the whole of India from c. 1818 – 1857 CE.
Sindh and the Punjab were conquered and Awadh, the central provinces and a large
number of other petty states were annexed.

1) The Conquest of Sindh

 The conquest of Sindh occurred as a result of the growing Anglo-Russian rivalry in

Europe and Asia and the consequent British fears that Russia might attack India
through Afghanistan and Persia. To counter Russia, the British government decided
to increase its influence in Afghanistan and Persia. This could be done only if Sindh
was brought under British dominion. The British authorities also wanted to explore
the commercial possibilities of the river Sindh.
 The roads and rivers of Sindh were opened to British trade by a treaty in c. 1832 (by
Lord Bentinck).
 The chiefs of Sindh, known as Amirs, were forced by Lord Aukland to sign the
Subsidiary Alliance in c. 1839 CE.
 In spite of previous assurances that its territorial integrity would be
respected, Sindh was annexed in c. 1843 CE after a brief campaign by Sir Charles
Napier. Charles Napier destroyed Imamgarh, the famous desert fortress. In
retaliation, Baluchis attacked the British resident and declared a war on the British.
The battle of Miani ensued in which the Baluchi army was defeated by Napier and
some Amirs had to surrender. Later, battle of Dabo took place in which Napier
defeated Sher Muhammad (Amir of Mirpur) and thus, Sher Muhammad was expelled
from Sindh resulting in the formal annexation of Sindh (c. 1843 CE). Napier was
appointed the first Governor of Sindh and received 7 lakh rupees as prize money for
accomplishment of the task.
2) The Conquest of the Punjab

 The death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in c. 1839 CE was followed by political instability
and rapid changes of government in the Punjab. Next three rulers, Kharak Singh, Nao
Nihal Singh and Sher Singh were murdered within the next six years (c. 1839 – 45
CE). In c. 1845 CE, Dalip Singh, the five-year-old son of Ranjit Singh ascended the
throne and his mother Maharani Jind Kaur acted as a regent to her son.
 British encirclement of Punjab started from c. 1833 CE, when they appointed British
residents at Ludhiana and Sindh. After the annexation of Sindh, a series of battles
happened between the British and Sikh rulers which form a part of the First Anglo-
Sikh war (c. 1845 – 46 CE).
 Battle of Muduks (c. 1845 CE) was fought between Lal Singh (Prime Minister of
Sikhs) and Sir Hugh Gough in which the Sikh army was defeated.
 Battle of Ferozpur (c. 1845 CE) was fought between Sikh army under Tej Singh and
the British in which the Sikhs were defeated.
 Battle of Buddewal (c. 1846 CE) was fought between Ranjeet Singh Maihithia and
Harry Smith in which the Sikhs suffered a defeat.
 Battle of Guns/Battle of Sobraon (c. 1846 CE) – One of the decisive battles
between Harry Smith and the Sikhs. The British defeated the Sikhs and crossed
Sutlej and also occupied Lahore. This battle resulted in the signing of the Treaty of
Lahore (c. 1846 CE). Read more on the Battle of Sobraon in This Day in History dated
February 10.
 Treaty of Lahore – The Treaty of Lahore was signed on 8th March c. 1846 CE.
According to this treaty, Jalandhar Doab was given to the British along with a
payment of one and a half crore to the British. The Sikhs paid only half of the amount
and for settling the rest they sold Kashmir to the British who sold it further to Raja
Gulab Singh Dogra.
 Treaty of Bhairowal (c. 1846 CE) – Also known as the Second Treaty of Lahore. Rani
Jind Kaur was removed and a regency council for Punjab was set up (consisting of
eight sikh sardars) and presided over by Sir Henry Lawrence. Also, a British force
was stationed at Lahore for which the Sikhs also needed to pay Rs.22 lacs. The
Treaty of Bhairowal transformed the Sikh Kingdom into a virtual British
protectorate.
 Second Anglo-Sikh war (c. 1848 – 49 CE) – The Second Anglo-Sikh war resulted in
the annexation of Punjab by Lord Dalhousie in c. 1849 CE and Dalip Singh and
Maharani Jind Kaur were transported to England. A board of three commissioners
was established consisting of Henry Lawrence, John Lawrence and Charles G
Mansel. In c. 1853 CE, this board was abolished and a chief commissioner for Punjab,
Sir John Lawrence was appointed.

 Why did Europeans Arrive in India in 1498?

The Europeans believed, mainly Portuguese, that they could create commercial contacts
between India and Europe for trade. The Europeans came to India mainly because they
wanted more commercial opportunities.

The Europeans found that India had many things they wanted, but it wasn’t easy to get
them home. For example, India had spices such as cloves and nutmeg used in cooking
and medicine. The Portuguese were able to sell these spices in Europe at a high price
because there were few other places where they could be found.

 Portuguese Contributions to India in 1498

The Portuguese were responsible for introducing many aspects of modern Western
culture to India. They set up trading posts along the coast, bringing back Indian goods
such as spices, precious stones, fabrics and ivory from East Africa, which they sold in
Europe. The Portuguese also brought new agricultural techniques from their travels
around Asia, including new methods of growing rice and sugarcane.

 What is the Foundation of the British Empire?

The first Europeans to arrive in India were the Portuguese, who searched for a route
from Europe to the East Indies and created commercial contacts between India and
Europe. They landed on the west coast of India in 1498 and soon established trade links
with local rulers. The Portuguese were followed by the Dutch and later by the British,
who defeated them in a war and took over their possessions.

The English East India Company was set up in 1600, but its early attempts to establish
itself in India were unsuccessful until it acquired Bombay (now Mumbai) as a base. The
company then expanded its power until it could control most of the subcontinent by
1857. It was replaced by direct British rule after this date, although India remained a
colony until 1947 when it became independent.

The British East India Company was started in 1600. However, it began trading with
India only in 1612 when it received a charter from Queen Elizabeth I. In 1757, the BEIC
defeated the French forces at Plassey and established its control over the Bengal region
of India.

In 1856, Lord Dalhousie took over as Governor-General of India and introduced many
administrative reforms to strengthen Britain’s control over India. He also divided India
into different provinces, such as the Bombay Presidency, Madras Presidency, etc.
 Advent of Europeans in India

Even before the beginning of the formal rule of British in India, there was
prevalence of trade between India and European countries. India and Europe had
trade relations via land route through Syria, Egypt and also Oxus valley. The age of
15th century in Europe was an era of geographical discoveries of land and sea routes.
In 1492, the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492 and
Vasco da Gama of Portugal discovered a new sea route from Europe to India in 1498.
After this discovery, many trading companies from all across Europe came to India
and established their centers. The Europeans came to India in phases. The first to
come to India as traders were the Portuguese followed by, the British, the Dutch, the
Danes and the French, who subsequently developed designs to be the political
masters of India.

 Why Europeans Wanted to Discover New Routes to India?

The goods from India to Europe had to pass through many territories and hands as
these were in great demand throughout the Europe. In turn, overlords in the
Middle East and North Africa levied tolls and duties on these imported goods. So,
to maximize the profits, European trading companies wanted to establish their
trading centres within India and hence they sailed directly to India.
However, there were many obstacles to sea trade such as pirates and natural
calamities. The old trade routes through Egypt and the Persian Gulf through Syria
were closed in 7th century when Arabs conquered these countries. Thus, Indian trade
was monopolized and Indian merchandise was carried to the markets of the Levant.
Also, Constantinpole was captured by Turks in 1453 and with this capture, the
overland route was blocked. European-Asian trade became the monopoly of
merchants of Venice and Genoa of Italian city and they refused to let the new nation
states of Western Europe particularly Spain and Portugal have any share in the trade
through these old routes. The other nations of Europe who had no ports on the shore
of the Mediterranean were shut out from the participation in the lucrative trade with
the east.

 Arrival of Portuguese in India

 Prince Henry, the Navigator, started a maritime school in Portugal and with that
the European Age of Discovery started with the Portuguese navigators. As a result
of the technical and scientific discoveries, Portugal developed the most
advanced ships, including the Caravel, the Carrack and the Galleon and hence for
the first time in history, maritime navigation was possible. The Portuguese
Empire led the Portuguese Kingdom to discover and map most of the Globe, and
find sea routes as far as the East and West, which led to some of the remarkable
voyages like finding the sea route to India via the Cape of Good Hope.
 The first Portuguese mission was led by Vasco da Gama who reached Calicut
via the Cape of Good Hope in May 1498 where he was favourably received by
the local ruler Zamorin. In 1500, the Portuguese sent the second mission under
Pedro Alwares Cabral. Hence, Portuguese Company became the first European
trading company to establish its trade posts in India. They established their
 trading settlements at Cochin, Goa, Daman and Diu, Salsette and Bassein and
Bombay.
 The Portuguese developed the Cartaz System. Cartaz was a naval trade license
or pass issued by the Portuguese in the Indian ocean during the sixteenth century
(around1502-1750), under the rule of the Portuguese empire. Portuguese
employed this system after monopolizing the export-import via Indian Ocean.
Tobacco cultivation, ship making (at Calicut and Gujarat) and the use of
printing press began after the arrival of Portuguese. They also contributed in
Gothic architecture and its influence in India.
 In the beginning of 18th century, the influence of Portuguese in Indian trade had
declined. There were various reasons for this decline. Their religious intolerance,
excesses as sea pirates in the Bay of Bengal region, Albuquerque’s weak successors,
the decline of Vijaynagar empire, tensions with Spain, and arrival and growth of
English and Dutch in India, etc., were some of the reasons for their decline.

 Arrival of British in India

 The ongoing trade with other European nations attracted the British traders. In
1599, a group of merchants established a company for this purpose and named it
‘Governor of Company of Merchants of London Trading to the East Indies’. This
company was granted the royal charter by Queen Elizabeth I on 31st December
1600, to trade exclusively with Eastern countries for 15 years.
 British emperor James I sent Captain William Hawkins to the court of Jahangir in
1608, to seek permission to establish trading posts in India. He became the first
British to enter India via sea route. Initially, the emperor was reluctant due to the
opposition by the local traders of Surat and the Portuguese but was influenced by
the defeat of the Portuguese naval contingent by English captain Middleton in
1611. Thereafter, the Mughal emperor by an imperial firman, gave permission to
East India Company to establish their factory at Surat in 1613. Still, the British
were unsatisfied and sent another mission under Sir Thomas Roe in 1615 to
plead for more concessions. This time the Emperor Jahangir gave permission to
establish factories in any part of the Mughal Empire. Consequently, the British
established their factories at Agra, Ahmedabad, and Bharuch.
 In Southern India, the British established their first factory outside Mughal
empire in 1611 at Masulipattam, which was followed by Madras (1639) and
Hooghly (1651). In eastern India, the factory was established at Balasore in
Orissa in 1633. In 1691, the Company was given an exclusive privilege to carry
out trade from Bengal without paying any custom duty in lieu of an annual
payment of `3000. In 1698, the Subedar of Bengal, Azim ush Shan gave zamindari
rights of Sutanuti, Kalikata, and Gobindpur to British on a payment of `12,00,
where they established the modern town of Calcutta and a fort called Fort St.
Williams. Meanwhile in 1662, the Portuguese had given Bombay to King Charles
as dowry. The East India Company took Bombay on lease from the King of
England.
 In 1639, the King of Chandragiri gave the company a place to establish their
factory near Madras where the British established Fort St. George. In 1717,
Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar not only confirmed the privileges of the company but
also issued several new privileges including permission to trade from Bengal
without paying tax in lieu of an annual payment of `3000. It also gave them the
privilege to issue their own coins from the mint of Bombay. These privileges
have been called ‘the Magna Carta of East India Company’.

 Arrival of Dutch in India

 The Dutch also established their trade centres in India. Cornelis de Houtman
was the first Dutch citizen to arrive in India. The Dutch East India Company was
formed in 1602, which was also known as Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie-
VOC. They overpowered the Portuguese and established their control over the
centres of spice cultivation in India. They established their trade posts in
Gujarat, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
 The first Dutch factory was established at Masulipattam in 1605. Other
important factories were at Pulikat (1610), Surat (1616), Kasim Bazar, Patna,
Balasore, Nagpattnam and Cochin. The first Dutch factory in Bengal was
established at Peepli in 1627. The Dutch mostly traded in spices, indigo, raw
silk, rice and opium. It was the Dutch traders who made India a centre of textile
export. Pulicat was their main centre from 1616, but later it was replaced by
Nagapattinam. The trading system of Dutch company was based on Cartel
system. The Dutch company paid its shareholders a dividend of 18% which is
considered a record in the history of commerce.
 In 1741, they were defeated by king of Travancore Marthanda Verma in Battle of
Colachel and in 1759, they were decisively defeated by the British in the Battle
of Bedara, which was led by Robert Clive. The reasons for the decline of Dutch
were deteriorating economic condition, high degree of centralization, primacy to
spice trade, relatively weaker navy than British, etc.
 Arrival of Danes in India
 Danish or Danes refers to people from Denmark. Denmark held colonial
possessions in India for 225 years. The Danish colonies in India included the
towns of Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu), Serampore (Bengal) and the Nicobar
Islands. Serampore was their headquarters in India.
 Dutch adventurer Marcelis de Boshouwer provided the impetus for Danish
involvement in the Indian sub-continent. He wanted military assistance against
the Portuguese with a promise of monopoly on all trades to the assisting party.
His appeal convinced Christian IV, the King of Denmark-Norway who subsequently
issued a charter in 1616 granting the Danish East India Company a monopoly on
trade between Denmark and Asia for twelve years.
 Serampore Mission Press was established at Serampore by the Danish
missionaries in 1799 AD. The Danes ultimately failed to strengthen themselves
in India and they sold all

 Arrival of French in India

 French were the last among the European companies to enter India. In 1664,
during the reign of Louis XIV, the efforts of his minister Colbert resulted in the
formation of the French trading company. It was established by the government
and therefore was managed, funded and controlled by the government. The first
French factory in India was established at Surat in 1667 by Francois Caron
which was followed by the factory at Masulipattam by Marcara in 1669 after
acquiring permission from the ruler of Golkonda. The foundations of Pondicherry
were led by Martin in 1673. The trading post at Chandranagar was established at
the place given by the Nawab of Bengal Shaista Khan.
 The French power in India declined from 1706 to 1720 and this led to the
reconstitution of the French East India Company in 1720. The French power in
India was revived under governors Lenoir and Dumas between 1720 and 1742.
They occupied Mahe in the Malabar, Yanam in Coromandal (both in 1725) and
Karikal in Tamil Nadu (1739). The arrival of Dupleix as French governor in India in
1742 saw the beginning of Anglo French conflict (Carnatic wars) which resulted
in their final defeat in India.

t
India in the 18 Century
The 18th century was one of the most chaotic periods in the entire history of India.
The Mughal Empire, which dominated the Indian subcontinent for more than 200
years, began to decline owing to the internal and external factors. Numerous local
powers tried to assert their independence and foreign powers also attempted to
make inroads into the Indian subcontinent.

 Decline of Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire which was established in 1526 with Babur’s accession to the
throne began disintegrating with the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. When
Aurangzeb died, the empire was the largest in India. Yet, within about fifty years
 of his death, the Mughal Empire disintegrated. Aurangzeb’s death was followed
by the ascendancy of Bahadur Shah who after ruling for a very brief period died
in 1712. He was perhaps the last Mughal ruler who wielded real authority. He
was followed by a number of weak rulers who were incompetent
administrators. As a result, the Mughal empire started crumbling and its rule
came to an end in 1857 with the exile of the last Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah
II.
 Causes of Decline of the Mughal Empire
 The Mughal government was a centralized despotism with no institutionalized
system of installing the most capable person as the monarch. It was a hereditary
arrangement wherein the rulers were either chosen by the incumbent ruler from
amongst his sons or in case the incumbent ruler failed to nominate his successor
before his death, the heirs apparent would wage a war of succession and the one
who was emerged victorious would accede to the throne. In some cases, the Mughal
government was also controlled by powerful nobles, also infamous for being
“king makers”, who would crown a ruler of their choice and keep exercising
arbitrary influence over the affairs of the state.
 Further, due to the Mansabdari system, there was no bond of closeness between
the emperor and the individual soldiers. The loyalty of the soldiers was to the
Mansabdars and not to the emperor. As the later Mughal emperors were weak,
the powerful nobles began to convert the assignments which they held for
maintaining troops into hereditary possessions. With decline of the power of the
later Mughal emperors, decline also set in the character of the nobility. The
mansabdars and the nobles left no stone unturned to cheat the government. This
dependency over the nobles was primarily because of the huge amount of money
spent in wars (for example, Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaign), on maintaining the
splendour of the Durbar and also on building activities. These activities exhausted
the state exchequer. Additionally, due to the heavy burden of taxation, thousands
of cultivators began deserting their fields. Thus, the collection of land revenue
started decreasing.
 In addition to these factors, some of Aurangzeb’s policies (religious) such as the
imposition of Jizyah in 1679, ban on the construction of new temples and the war
against Marathas alienated a sizeable section of the population and created
distrust towards the empire. Taking advantage of the weakness of the later
Mughals, many ambitious provincial governors declared their independence.
During Muhammad Shah’s reign, Nizam-ul-Mulk proclaimed himself an
independent ruler of the six subas of the Deccan. Sadat Khan established an
independent dynasty in Awadh. Ali Vardi Khan became independent in Bengal.
The Marathas had won their independence long before this time. They
established their supremacy over the Mughal provinces of Malwa, Gujarat and
Bundelkhand and sought to bring the entire country under their domination.
 Last but not the least, some ruthless foreign invaders like Nadir Shah in 1739
during the reign of Muhammad Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761, plundered
and devastated the power, wealth and the prestige of the Mughal Empire. During
the time of the 3rd battle of Panipat, the real authority of the Mughal Empire was
largely reduced to the peripheries and boundaries of Delhi.
 An unfortunate development in the later Mughal period was the rise of powerful
 nobles who played the role of ‘king-makers'. The powerful nobles and leaders of
different factions used the royal princes as pawns in their game and enthroned
and removed princes to suit their interests. That is how Jahandar Shah became
the emperor not by his own strength but because of the able generalship of
Zulfikar Khan, a leader of the Irani party. Similarly, it was the Sayyid brothers
who raised Farrukhsiyar to the throne in 1713 and pulled him down in 1719
when he ceased to serve their interests. The three puppet emperors, Rafi- ud-
Darajat, Rafi-ud-Daula and Muhammad Shah were raised to the throne by the
Sayyids.

 Parties at the Mughal Court

William Irvine mentions the multiplicity of parties at the Mughal Court. Among
these, four were prominent – the Turanis, the Iranis, the Afghans and the
Hindustanis. The first three were descendants of foreigners from Central Asia,
Iran and Afghanistan who formed ‘the backbone of the army of occupation’. Their
number had greatly increased during the last twenty-five years of Aurangzeb's
reign when he waged incessant war in the Deccan. Descendants from these
foreigners held important military and civil offices in India. In opposition to the
Mughal or Foreign Party was the Indian born or Hindustani Party.
The Hindustani Party mostly comprised Muhammadans born in India, whose
ancestors though originally foreign immigrants had settled in India for
generations. This party got the support of the Rajput and the Jat chiefs and
powerful Hindu landlords. The Hindus who filled almost all the subordinate
civil offices were on their side. However, it will not be correct to assume that
the political parties were based entirely on ethnic or religious groupings.

 Role of Sayyid Brothers in Later Mughal Politics

The Sayyid brothers – Abdulla Khan and Hassan Ali – were the most powerful
players in the Mughal court and Mughal politics from 1713 to 1720. They were
the leaders of the Hindustani Party and represented the anti-Mughal and
quasi-nationalist interests.

The Sayyid Brothers became highly influential in the Mughal Court, they became
kingmakers during the anarchy following the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in
1707. They created and dethroned Mughal Emperors at their will during the
1710s. Aurangzeb's son Bahadur Shah I defeated his brothers to capture the
throne with the help of the Sayyid Brothers and Nizam-ul-Mulk, another
influential administrator in the Mughal court. Bahadur Shah I died in 1712, and
his successor Jahandar Shah was assassinated on the orders of the Sayyid
Brothers.
 UNIT:-2 BATTLE OF PLASSEY, BUXAR
Battle Of Plassey

Battle of Plassey was a major turning point in modern Indian history that led to the
consolidation of British rule in India. This battle was fought between the East India
Company headed by Robert Clive and the Nawab of Bengal (Siraj-Ud-Daulah) and his
French Troop. This battle is often termed as the ‘decisive event’ which became the
source of ultimate rule of the British in India. The battle occurred during the late reign
of Mughal empire (called later Mughal Period). Mughal emperor Alamgir-II was ruling
the empire when the Battle of Plassey took place.

 What is the Battle of Plassey?

It is a battle fought between the East India Company force headed by Robert Clive and
Siraj-Ud-Daulah (Nawab of Bengal). The rampant misuse by EIC officials of trade
privileges infuriated Siraj. The continuing misconduct by EIC against Siraj-Ud-Daulah
led to the battle of Plassey in 1757.

The Battle of Plassey took place on June 23, 1757, in the West Bengali region of Plassey.
The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daula, and the British East India Company, led by Robert
Clive, engaged in this fight. In this conflict, the French soldiers fought alongside Siraj-ud-
daula against Robert Clive.

Date June 23 , 1757

Location Near the village of Plassey in Bengal , present-day West Bengal , India.

Parties Involved British East India Company led by Robert Clives v/s Force of Siraj Ud-Daulah ,
the Nawab of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa.
 Battle of Plassey Background
 British East India Company’s Expansion: Company sought dominance in Indian
trade, particularly in Bengal.
 Tensions with Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah: Siraj ud-Daulah, Nawab of Bengal, suspicious
of British intentions due to their growing influence.
 Political Intrigues: British officials, led by Robert Clive, conspired with discontented
local factions, promising support for their cause.
 Alliance with Mir Jafar: Mir Jafar, a key noble, agreed to support the British in
exchange for becoming Nawab after the battle.
 Capture of Calcutta: Siraj ud-Daulah captured Calcutta in 1756, leading to the Black
Hole incident.
 Clash at Plassey: June 23, 1757, saw a battle between British and Siraj ud-Daulah’s
forces near Plassey.
 Causes of the Battle of Plassey
 Economic Interests: The British East India Company had established trading posts
in India and was increasingly asserting its economic dominance. The Nawab of
Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, perceived the Company’s growing influence as a threat to
his own power and revenue.
 Political Intrigues: British officials conspired with local Indian nobles who were
discontented with Siraj ud-Daulah’s rule. They promised support to these
discontented factions in exchange for favorable treatment and trading privileges.
 Military Discontent: Siraj ud-Daulah had a large army but lacked effective
leadership. His army was also not adequately equipped or trained, which weakened
his position against the more organized and disciplined British forces.

Majorly, the reasons for the Battle of Plassey to take place were:
  The rampant misuse of the trade privileges given to the British by the Nawab of
Bengal
 Non-payment of tax and duty by the workers of the British East India Company
Other reasons that supported the coming of this battle were:

 Fortification of Calcutta by the British without the Nawab’s permission

 Misleading Nawab on various fronts by British
 An asylum was provided to Nawab’s enemy Krishna Das
The East India Company had a strong presence in India majorly at Fort St. George, Fort
William and Bombay Castle.

The British resorted to having an alliance with the Nawabs and princes in exchange for
security against any form of external and internal attack and were promised
concessions in return for their safety and protection.

The problem arose when the alliance was disrupted under the rule of Nawab of Bengal
(Siraj-Ud-Daulah). The Nawab started seizing the fort of Calcutta and imprisoning many
British Officials in June 1756. The prisoners were kept in a dungeon at Fort William.
This incident is called the Black Hole of Calcutta since only a handful of the prisoners
survived the captivity where over a hundred people were kept in a cell meant for about
6 people. The East India company planned an attack and Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar,
the commander-in-chief of the Nawab’s army, and also promised him to make him
Nawab of Bengal.

The Battle of Plassey was fought at Palashi, on the banks of Bhagirathi river near
Calcutta on June 23, 1757.

After three hours of intense fighting, there was a heavy downpour. One of the reasons
for the defeat of Nawab was the lack of planning to protect their weapons during the
heavy downpour which turned the table in favour of the British army apart from the
major reason being the treachery of Mir Jafar.

Siraj-Ud-Daulah’s army with 50,000 soldiers, 40 cannons and 10 war elephants was
defeated by 3,000 soldiers of Robert Clive. The battle ended in 11 hours and Siraj-Ud-
Daulah fled from the battle post his defeat.

According to Robert Clive, 22 men died and 50 were injured from the British troops. The
Nawab army lost about 500 men, including several key officials and many of them even
suffered several casualties.
 Economic Interests: The British East India Company had established trading posts in
India and was increasingly asserting its economic dominance. The Nawab of Bengal,
Siraj ud-Daulah, perceived the Company’s growing influence as a threat to his own
power and revenue.

Political Intrigues: British officials conspired with local Indian nobles who were
discontented with Siraj ud-Daulah’s rule. They promised support to these discontented
factions in exchange for favorable treatment and trading privileges.

Military Discontent: Siraj ud-Daulah had a large army but lacked effective leadership.
His army was also not adequately equipped or trained, which weakened his position
against the more organized and disciplined British forces.

Who Fought the Battle of Plassey?

Participants of Battle of Role in the Battle of Plassey

Plassey

Siraj-Ud-Daulah (Nawab of  Involved in Black-Hole Tragedy (imprisoned 146 English persons

Bengal) who were lodged in a very tiny room due to which 123 of them died
of suffocation)
 Adversely affected by the rampant misuse of trade privileges by the
EIC
 Attacked and seized the English fort at Calcutta, it brought their
hostility into the open
Robert Clive (EIC)  Gave asylum to political fugitive Krishna Das, disappointing Siraj-
Ud-Daulah
 Misuse of trade privileges
 Fortified Calcutta without the nawab’s permission
Mir Jafar (Commander-in-Chief  Bribed by East India Company (EIC)
of Nawab’s army)  Was to be made the Nawab by EIC for conspiring against Siraj-Ud-
Daulah
 Cheated Siraj-Ud-Daulah during the battle
Rai Durlabh (One of the  Joined his army with Siraj-Ud-Daulah’s but did not participate in
Commanders of the Nawabs the battle
Army)  Betrayed Siraj
Jagat Seth (Influential Banker)  Involved in the conspiracy involving the imprisonment and
ultimate killing of Nawab Siraj-Ud-Daulah
Omi Chand (Bengal Merchant)  One of the principal authors of the conspiracy against Nawab and
associated with the treaty negotiated by Robert Clive before the
Battle of Plassey in 1757
 Effects of Battle of Plassey

Apart from the British getting political power of Northern India but only after Nawabs,
there were several other effects in many forms that came out as a result of the Battle of
Plassey. They can be categorised as:

 Political Effects
 Economic Effects
1) Political Effects

 The Battle of Plassey resulted at the end of the French forces.

 Mir Jafar was crowned as the Nawab of Bengal
 Mir Jafar was unhappy with the position and instigated the Dutch to attack the
British in order to consolidate his foundation.
 Battle of Chinsura was fought between the Dutch and British forces on November
25, 1759.
 The British installed Mir Qasim as the Nawab of Bengal.
 The British became the paramount European power in Bengal.
 Robert Clive was titled “Lord Clive”, Baron of Plassey and also obtained a seat in
the British House of Commons.
2) Economic Effects

 The economy of India was affected severely.

 Post the victory, the British started imposing severe rules and regulations on the
inhabitants of Bengal in the name of tax collection.

 Important Persons in Battle of Plassey

1) Siraj-ud-Daulah

The Nawab of Bengal was named Siraj-ud-Daulah. It is said that Siraj-ud-Daulah

imprisoned 146 English people who were confined to a very small room, causing 123 of
them to suffocate to death. While Calcutta was governed by the British, Siraj-ud-Daulah
invaded and captured the English fort there.

2) Robert Clive

The East India Company’s top commander in Bengal was Robert Clive. Robert Clive
granted sanctuary to Krishna Das, the economic fugitive son of Raj Vallabh,
disappointing the Siraj-ud-Daulah. He abused the East India Company’s right to
commerce. He strengthened the fort at Calcutta without the Nawab’s consent.

3) Mir Jafar
He was an excellent military leader for the Nawabs. He was bought by the East India
Company to defraud Siraj-ud-Daulah. He planned with the East India Company in an
effort to succeed as Bengal’s Nawab.

4) Rai Durlabh

He served as a representative in the nawab’s courts. Although he joined Siraj-ud-army,

Daulah’s he did not participate in battle, betraying Siraj-ud-Daulah.

5) Jagat Seth

He worked in finance. Siraj-ud-Daulah was imprisoned and then killed as a result of his
participation in the conspiracy.

6) Omi Chand

He was a commanding officer over Calcutta. He was in charge of signing the agreement
that Clive and others negotiated prior to the Battle of Plassey.

 Battle of Plassey Chronology

 The Nawab stormed and took control of the firm’s plant in Kasim Bazar as a measure
of warning after the company disobeyed his orders to prohibit the usage of Dastak
and stop the building of Fort William. The company pillaged and ransacked Hooghly
as retaliation. This further enraged the new Nawab, who invaded Fort William in
June 1756.
 The company’s officials were caught off guard and outnumbered; some of them
surrendered and were taken prisoner; others managed to escape through the back
gate and into the Hooghly River. Along with Governor Drakes, they sought refuge on
the tidal island known as Fulta in the Hooghly River, and from Fulta, they
despatched a letter to Madras.
 The English Prisoners were imprisoned under Nawab’s decree. He changed
Calcutta’s name to Alinagar, granted Manik Chand administrative control of the new
city, and then left for Murshidabad. Meanwhile, a sizable British army led by Admiral
Watson and Robert Clive arrived in Bengal from Madras in December 1756.
 Nawab learned of this and, as a result of his dread of being attacked by Ahmed Shah
Abdali and the Marathas, he decided to try to reach a settlement with the English.
Manik Chand, meanwhile, had peacefully ceded Calcutta to the English. Robert Clive
and Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah began the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Alinagor,
which was signed in February 1757.
 According to this agreement, Clive pledged that the company would refrain from
attacking the French at Chandra Nagar in exchange for the Nawab restoring the
company’s trading privileges, allowing it to fortify Fort William, and paying it a war
indemnity.
 However, the company invaded Chandranagar in April 1757, and the French were
routed. Nawab spoke with Clive, arrived in Calcutta with a little army, and then
 proceeded to Omichand’s property. Britisher believed that the Nawab was fighting
and attacked him.
 At Plassey in Nadia, West Bengal, both sides engaged in combat with one another.
British troops were 3,000, and the Nawab had nearly 65,000 soldiers, but a plot
hatched by Mir Jafar and Robert Clive resulted in the arrest and imprisonment of the
Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah, and the subsequent murder of the Nawab by Mir Jafar’s son
Miran.

 Battle of Plassey Result

The result of the Battle of Plassey had profound and far-reaching consequences.
Here is a summary of the key results:

 British Victory: The British East India Company, led by Robert Clive, decisively
defeated the forces of Siraj ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal.
 Installation of Mir Jafar: Mir Jafar, who had conspired with the British, was installed
as the new Nawab of Bengal. He served as a puppet ruler under British control,
allowing the Company to effectively control Bengal’s administration and resources.
 Political Control: The victory marked the beginning of British political dominance
in India. The British East India Company expanded its influence and control over
Bengal, setting a precedent for further annexations and consolidation of power.
 Economic Exploitation: The British gained control over Bengal’s vast wealth and
resources, leading to significant economic exploitation. This facilitated the transfer
of wealth from Bengal to Britain and contributed to the economic impoverishment
of the region.
 Foundation of British Raj: The Battle of Plassey laid the foundation for nearly two
centuries of British colonial rule in India. It was a critical step in the establishment of
the British Raj, which formally began in 1858.
 Decline of Mughal Influence: The battle signaled the decline of Mughal influence in
India, as regional powers like the Nawabs of Bengal were subdued by the British.
 Military and Administrative Reforms: The British victory led to significant
military and administrative changes in the regions they controlled. The East India
Company reorganized its army and administration to strengthen its grip on power.
 Resistance and Revolts: The British victory and subsequent policies fueled
resentment and resistance among the Indian populace, leading to various uprisings
and revolts against British rule, including the major revolt of 1857.

 Battle of Plassey Significance

 The Transfer of Power was a result of the Battle of Plassey, which is why it is
significant. Mir Jafar rose to the position of Nawab of Bengal after the Battle of
Plassey. Mir Jafar was a puppet of Nawab, the firm employed him merely to meet its
financial requirements. Therefore, that business could swiftly push its colonial
 interests. The corporation was of an Imperial nature, thus Mir Jafar was unable to
satisfy its rapacious demands.
 Mir Jafar thus began to become less important in the company’s imperial game. In
order to discredit him, it was said that he had conspired with Dutch, but the truth
was that he had failed to pay the vast sum of money the corporation had requested.
 A deal was reached between the British firm and Mir Kasim as a result, and in
September 1760, control was transferred. Some historians viewed this change in
power in Bengal as a precursor to a revolution.

Battle Of Buxar

The Battle of Buxar took place in the northeast region of the country on 22 October
1764. It was one of the decisive battles of Indian history. It was the Battle of Buxar
which earned the British East India Company control over Bengal and Bihar. The seeds
for this significant battle were sown soon after the Battle of Plassey. The Battle of Buxar
was fought between the British East India Company’s force led by Hector Munro and the
combined forces of Shah Alam II (the Mughal emperor), Shuja-Ud-Daula (Nawab of
Awadh), and Mir Qasim (Nawab of Bengal). The battle came to an end in 1765 with the
victory of the Company and the surrender of Shah Alam II.

 What was Battle of Buxar?

The Battle of Buxar was a decisive battle fought on October 22, 1764. It was fought
between the forces of the British East India Company and the combined armies of the
Mughal Empire, the Nawab of Awadh, and the Nawab of Bengal. The battle was fought at
Buxar, a town on the banks of the Ganges River in Bihar.

 Background on the Battle Of Buxar

 The British Forces’ roots got a firm hold on the land of Bengal after emerging
victorious in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. As a consequence of the Battle of Plassey,
Siraj-Ud-Daulah was replaced by the British East India Company with Mir Jafar,
commander of Siraj-Ud-Daulah, as the puppet emperor.
 Mir Jafar, after ascending the throne, could not cope with the ever-increasing
demands from the Britishers. He consequently joined hands with the Dutch East
India Company and revolted.
 This caused the British to force Mir Jafar to resign with a pension of Rs. 15000 as an
annual pension in 1760.
 Now, British East India made Mir Qasim, the Son-in-law of Mir Jafar, the new Nawab
of Bengal.

 Causes of the Battle of Buxar

 Mir Qasim, a strong and efficient ruler determined to make the affairs of the state
better, shifted the capital from Murshidabad in Calcutta to Munger in Bihar in 1762.
  He declared himself to be an independent ruler. This angered the British as they
wanted him to be their puppet ruler.
 He also hired foreign country experts to train his army as their strength was very
necessary for Mir Qasim to maintain his independence.
 British East India Company officials misused the Farman of 1717 and Dastak for
their personal gain.
 This act led Mir Qasim to take the extreme step of abolishing all duties on
International trade, which gave an edge to his own subjects in trade and kept the
British in check.
 He treated both the British merchants and Indian Merchants equally and thus
denied any special treatment to the East India Company, causing them huge revenue
losses.
 The British demanded preferential treatment over all others.
 All these factors, especially the tussle over the transit duty, resulted in the outbreak
of war in 1763.

 Participants in the Battle of Buxar

Get Participants and their respective roles in the Battle of Buxar in the table
below;

Participants Respective Roles

Mir Qasim He was offended by the English terms “Dastak” and “Farmans.” By making an alliance
with the Nawab of Awadh and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, he planned against them.
Shuja-ud-Daulah He was the Nawab of Awadh. He formed a confederacy with Mir Qasim and Shah Alam II.
Shah Alam II He was the Mughal Emperor. He wished to drive the English out of Bengal.
Hector Munro He was a British Army major. He led the English side in the Buxar War.
Robert Clive He signed treaties with Shuja-Ud-Daulah and Shah Alam-II after winning the Buxar War.

 The Battle

When the war broke out in 1763, English forces led by Hector Munro, one of the most
competent majors of history, secured continuous victories at Giria, Katwa, Murshidabad,
Munger, and Sooty. This crushing defeat forced Mir Qasim to flee to Awadh, and there he
formed an alliance with Indian rulers in the hopes of expelling the British once and for
all with Shuja-Ud-Daula, Nawab of Awadh and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam – II, who
wanted to regain Bengal from the Britishers.

Finally, the most important battle that poses a turning point in Indian history happened
at Buxar, a small town on the banks of the Ganga river, on October 22, 1764, between
the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-Ud-Daula and Shah Alam-II against the English
forces led by Major Hector Munro. The joint army was defeated by the English Forces in
a neck-to-neck contest.

 Result of Battle Of Buxar

 Mir Qasim abandoned his troops and escaped from the battlefield.
 Shah Alam-II and Shuja-Ud-Daula surrendered to the British.
 The English became the uncontested rulers of Northern India and announced
themselves as contenders for power and supremacy throughout India.
 Robert Clive, who played an important role in the battle, signed two important
treaties with Shuja-Ud-Daula and Shah Alam-II called the Treaty of Allahabad in
1765.
 After the war, Mir Jafar was again made the puppet ruler by the English.
 Mir Jafar also surrendered the districts of Burdwan, Midnapore, and Chittagong to
the English to maintain their army.
 The British traders were also granted preferential duty exemptions on trade in
Bengal except on salt, with a duty of 2 percent.
 After the demise of Mir Jafar, his minor son Nizam-Ud-Daula was made the emperor.
However, the British maintained the real power of administration by appointing
Naib-Subedar of their choice.
 Later, Nizam-Ud-Daula became a pensioner of the British by signing a treaty with
RS.53 lakhs per year.
 In 1772, the British East India Company completely abolished the pension scheme
and took over the administration of Bengal directly.

 Treaty Of Allahabad

Lord Robert Clive signed two important treaties with Shuja-Ud-Daula and Shah Alam-II
at Allahabad after the Battle of Buxar in 1765.

The First treaty of Allahabad with Shuja-Ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awad

 Shuja-Ud-Daula was forced to cede Allahabad and Kara to Shah Alam-II.

 He also agreed to pay an indemnity of Rs.50 lakhs to the East India Company.
 His full possession of the estate was handed over to Zamindar of Banaras, Balwant
Singh.
 Even though the Shuja-Ud-Daula was defeated, Awadh was never annexed but left as
a buffer state to protect against foreign invasion.

Second treaty of Allahabad with Shah Alam

 Shah Alam was to reside under the Company’s protection at Allahabad, which he got
from Shuja-Ud-Daula under the first treaty of Allahabad.
 The districts of Bihar and Orissa were to be ceded to the company.
 Shah Alam had to provide a Farman granting Diwani rights of Bengal to the
company. In return for the Nizamat function, that is, defence, police, and justice
administration, Shah Alam had to pay Rs.53 Lakhs per annum to the Company for
the Districts of Bihar, Orissa, and Bengal.

 Importance of the Battle Of Buxar

 It demonstrated the English’s continued military dominance and revealed the

fundamental frailties of the native troops.
 The defeat of Mir Kasim marked the end of the independent Nawab’s power.
 Although the Battle of Plassey in 1757 saw the British East India Company put an
end to the Nawab of Bengal’s independence, the Battle of Buxar, which took place
 after the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765, gave the Company complete political control
over the Awadh Mughal empire.
 It opened the door for Shah Alam II, the Mughal Emperor, to grant Diwani to the East
India Company.
 After the British won the Battle of Buxar, they crowned rulers of Bengal, Bihar, and
Orissa. As a result, they gained power and influence over Awadh and the Mughal
emperor.
 British East India was able to establish a firm foothold in India during the Battle of
Buxar and lay the foundation for its colonial authority, which remained until 1947.

 Impacts of the Battle of Buxar

Here are some of the key impacts of the Battle of Buxar:

 The defeat at Buxar was a major blow to the Mughal empire's prestige and power.
The Mughal emperor, Shah Alam II, was forced to become a puppet of the British.
The Mughal Empire effectively ceased to be a major political force in India.
 The Battle of Buxar established the British East India Company as the dominant
power in India.
 The Battle of Buxar secured British control over Bengal and Bihar. This gave the
British a solid economic base from which to expand their power into other parts of
India.
 After the Battle of Buxar, the British East India Company began to expand its
influence into other parts of India.
 The defeat of the Mughal Empire and the rise of British power led to a growing sense
of resentment among Indians. This resentment eventually boiled over into the
Indian Independence Movement.

 Key Facts About the Battle Of Buxar

 The battle of Buxar was fought in 1764 between the combined forces of the Nawab
of Oudh, the Nawab of Bengal, the Mughal Emperor, and the English forces.
 The English did not take control of Awadh even after Shuja-Ud-Daulah was
destroyed following the Battle of Buxar because it would have required the
Company to defend a vast land border against Maratha and Afghan incursions.
 Shuja-Ud-Daulah established Awadh as a barrier state between English and foreign
intrusions by growing into a staunch British ally.
 Shah Alam-II, the second Mughal emperor, became an important “rubber stamp” for
the Company thanks to the Treaty of Allahabad. The Farman of the monarch also
validated the Company’s political triumphs in Bengal.
 The outcome of the fight of Plassey was reaffirmed in the battle of Buxar. If
diplomacy and treachery were used to win Plassey, the British power and strength
were on display in Buxar. The Nawab of Awadh was converted into a grateful
subordinate.
 The Emperor of the Mughals received a pension from the Company. For the
Company, doors to Delhi and Agra were open. The Nawabs of Bengal and Awadh did
not raise further objections to the Company’s dominant position. British became a
major force in Northern India and rivals for countrywide control after their victory
at Buxar.
UNIT:-3 MYSORE, SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE
SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE
The Subsidiary Alliance is an alliance between the Indian States and the British East India
Company. The Subsidiary Alliance was introduced by the French East India Company Governor
Joseph Fran- cois Dupliex with the Nizam of Hyderabad in India. Lord Wellesley, the Governor -
General of British East India Company used this alliance with several States.
Under the Subsidiary Alliance, the Indian rulers were forbidden from making any negotiations
with other rulers without prior permission from the British East India Company. They were also
not allowed to maintain a standing army. With the fall of the Magadha Empire, several States
accepted this Alli- ance with Wellesley for protecting themselves from the neighbouring States.

 Features of Subsidiary Alliance

The Subsidiary Alliance system was used by Lord Wellesley to build an empire in India.
Under this Alliance, the ruler of the concerned state was required to:
 Acknowledge British East India Company as paramount of power
 Permanently station a British army within his territory
 Pay subsidy for maintaining this army.
 Post a British resident in his court.
 Not negotiate with any other rulers without prior consent from the Governor - General.
 Not employ any European in their service without getting approval from the British.
 If the ruler fails to make payment as per the Alliance, then the state would be confiscated by
British East India Company.

In return to this, the British would do the following:

 The state and the ruler would be protected from the enemies.
 Policy of non interference in the internal matters of the allied States.

 Stages of Subsidiary Alliance

The Subsidiary Alliance system involved four stages
 In the First stage, troops were offered by the Company to the friendly Indian state, to fight
the war that it was engaged in.
 In the second stage, a common cause was created with that Indian state and soldiers of
both Company and the Indian state took the field.
 In the Third stage, the ruler was promised a contingent for a fixed sum of money. The sol-
diers were recruited, trained and maintained by the Company.
 In the Fourth stage, the Company usually levied high protection fees to the Indian States. If
the ruler fails to pay, then in lieu of payment certain parts of the territory were ceded to the
British East India Company.

 Effects of Subsidiary Alliance

 Under the Subsidiary Alliance system, many small and big States came under the British
rule.
 Many soldiers and officers were deprived of their livelihood.
 This led to the misery and degradation of the country.
 Many unemployed soldiers began to join the roaming independent soldiers as foragers and
plunderers. pindarees.

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 Advantages of Subsidiary Alliance to the Company
 The Subsidiary Alliance system disarmed the majority of the States and brought vast areas
under the British control.
 A large standing army was maintained by the Company at the cost of the Indian rulers.
 With the Company's troops stationed in most of the States, it was easy for the British East
India Company to counteract the French movements. Under the Alliance, the Indian States
were asked to dismiss all the French men from their services.
 Full sovereignty over many Indian States were obtained by the British and thus they
brought a vast region under their rule.

 States that accepted Subsidiary Alliance

 The First Prince to accept the Subsidiary Alliance was the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1798.
 The last Maratha Confederation to accept the Alliance was the Holkars.
 The order in which different States accepted Subsidiary Alliance is as follows,
 Hyderabad in 1798
 Mysore in 1799
 Tanjore in October 1799
 Awadh in November 1801
 Peshwa in December 1801
 Bhonsle of Berar in December 1803
 Sindhia in February 1804
 Jodhpur in 1818
 Jaipur in 1818
 Macheri in 1818
 Bundi in 1818
 Bharatpur in 1818
 Holkars

Subsidiary Alliance was basically a treaty between the British East India Company and the Indian
princely states, by virtue of which the Indian kingdoms lost their sovereignty to the English. It
also was a major process that led to the building of the British Empire in India. It was framed by
Lord Wellesley, the Governor-General of India from 1798 to 1805. It was actually used for the
first time by the French Governor-General Marquis Dupleix.

The Nawab of Awadh was the first ruler to enter into the subsidiary alliance with the British
after the Battle of Buxar. However, the Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept a well-framed
subsidiary alliance.

 Features of the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty

 The subsidiary alliance in India was planned by Lord Wellesley, but this term was introduced
by French Governor Dupleix.
 An Indian ruler entering into Subsidiary Alliance with the British had to dissolve his own
armed forces and accept British forces in his territory.
 He also had to pay for the British army’s maintenance. If he failed to make the payment, a
portion of his territory would be taken away and ceded to the British.

2
 In return, the British would protect the Indian state against any foreign attack or internal
revolt.
 The British promised non-interference in internal affairs of the Indian state but this was
rarely kept.
 The Indian state could not enter into any alliance with any other foreign power.
 He could also not employ any other foreign nationals other than Englishmen in his service.
And, if he were employing any, on the signing of the alliance, he had to terminate them from
his service. The idea was to curb the influence of the French.
 The Indian state could also not enter into any political connection with another Indian state
without British approval.
 The Indian ruler, thus, lost all powers in respect of foreign affairs and the military.
 He virtually lost all his independence and became a British ‘protectorate’.
 A British Resident was also stationed in the Indian Court.

 Effects of the Subsidiary Alliance

 As a result of Indian rulers disbanding their armies, many people were rendered
unemployed.
 Many Indian states lost their independence and slowly, most parts of India were coming
under British control.
 The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept the Subsidiary Alliance in 1798.
 Lord Clive also introduced the subsidiary system in Oudh and the Treaty of Allahabad was
signed where the British promised the Oudh territory from enemies like Marathas.

 Order in which the Indian States entered into Subsidiary Alliances

1) Hyderabad (1798)
2) Mysore (1799 – After Tipu Sultan was defeated in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War)
3) Tanjore (1799)
4) Awadh (1801)
5) Peshwa (Marathas) (1802)
6) Scindia (Marathas) (1803)
7) Gaekwad (Marathas) (1803)

ANGLO-MYSORE WARS

The Anglo-Mysore Wars was a series of four military confrontations in India between
the British and the rulers of Mysore.

 First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)

Background

3
1) In 1612, a Hindu kingdom under the Wodeyars emerged in the region of Mysore. Chikka
Krishnaraja Wodeyar II ruled from 1734 to 1766.
2) Haider Ali who was appointed as a soldier in the army of Wodeyars became the de-facto
ruler of Mysore with his great administrative skills and military tactics.
 During the second half of the 18th century, Mysore emerged as a formidable power
under his leadership.
3) Mysore’s proximity with the French and Haidar Ali’s control over the rich trade of
the Malabar coast threatened the political and commercial interests of the English and
their control over Madras.
4) The British, after their success in the Battle of Buxar with the nawab of Bengal, signed a
treaty with the Nizam of Hyderabad persuading him to give them the Northern Circars
for protecting the Nizam from Haidar Ali who already had disputes with the Marathas.
 The Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas, and the English allied together against Haidar
Ali.
o Haider diplomatically turned the Marathas neutral and Nizam into his ally against
Nawab of Arcot.
Haider Ali

 Haider Ali (1721-1782), born in an obscure family, started his career as a horseman in
the Mysore army under the ministers of king Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar.

o He was uneducated but intellectual and diplomatically & militarily skilled.

 He became the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761 and introduced western methods of
training into his army with the help of the French army.
 With his excellent military skills, he took over the Nizami army and the Marathas and
captured Dod Ballapur, Sera, Bednur and Hoskote in 1761- 63 and brought to
submission the troublesome Poligars of South India (Tamil Nadu).
o Poligars or Palaiyakkarars were appointed as military chiefs and administrative
governors from the time of the Vijayanagara Empire in parts of Southern India. They
also collected taxes from the cultivators.
 Recovering from their defeat, the Marathas under Madhavrao attacked
Mysore, and defeated Haidar Ali in 1764, 1766, and 1771.
 To buy peace, Haidar Ali had to give them large sums of money, but after Madhavrao’s death
in 1772, Haidar Ali raided the Marathas a number of times during 1774-
76, and recovered all the territories he had previously lost, besides capturing new
areas.
 Course of War

 The war continued for a year-and-a-half without any conclusion.

 Haidar changed his strategy and suddenly appeared before the gates of Madras causing
complete chaos and panic at Madras.
 This forced the English to conclude a treaty with Haidar on April 4, 1769 known as
the Treaty of Madras.

4
 o The treaty provided for the exchange of prisoners and the conquered areas.
o Haidar Ali was promised the help of the English in case he was attacked by any
other power.
 Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)

Background

1) The British failed to adhere to the treaty of Madras when Mysore was attacked by
the Maratha army in 1771.
 Haider Ali accused them for breach of faith.
2) Moreover, Haider Ali found the French more resourceful in terms of fulfilling the army
requirements of guns, saltpetre and lead.
 Consequently, he started importing French war materials to Mysore through
Mahe, a French possession on the Malabar Coast.
3) The increasing friendship between the two raised concern for the British.
 Consequently the British tried to capture Mahe which was under Haider Ali’s
protection.
 Course of War

 Haidar Ali forged an alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam against the British.
o He attacked the Carnatic and captured Arcot and defeated the English army
under Colonel Baillie in 1781.
 In the meantime, the English (under Sir Eyre Coote) detached both the Marathas and
the Nizam from Haidar’s side, but the undeterred Haidar faced the English boldly only to
suffer a defeat at Porto Novo (present day Parangipettai, Tamil Nadu) in November 1781.
o However, he regrouped his forces and defeated the English and captured their
commander, Braithwaite.
 Haidar Ali died of cancer on December 7, 1782.
o His son Tipu Sultan carried on the war for one year without any positive outcome.
 Fed up with an inconclusive war, both sides opted for peace, negotiating the Treaty of
Mangalore (March, 1784) under which both the parties gave back the territories they had
taken from each other.
Tipu Sultan

 Born in November 1750, Tipu Sultan was Haidar Ali’s son and a great warrior also known
as the Tiger of Mysore.
 He was a well educated man fluent in Arabic, Persian, Kanarese and Urdu.
 Tipu, like his father Haider Ali, gave maximum care to the raising and maintenance of an
efficient military force.

o He organised his army on the European model with Persian words of command.

5
 o Though he took the help of the French officers to train his soldiers, he never allowed
them (French) to develop into a pressure group.
 Tipu was well aware of the importance of a naval force.

o In 1796, he set up a Board of Admiralty and planned for a fleet of 22 battleships and
20 large frigates.
o He established three dockyards at Mangalore, Wajedabad and
Molidabad. However, his plans did not fructify.
 He was also a patron of science and technology and is credited as the ‘pioneer of rocket
technology’ in India.

o He wrote a military manual explaining the operation of rockets.

o He was also a pioneer in introducing sericulture to the Mysore State.
 Tipu was a great lover of democracy and a great diplomat who gave his support to the
French soldiers at Seringapatam in setting up a Jacobin Club in 1797.
o Tipu himself became a member of the Jacobin Club and allowed himself to be
called Citizen Tipu.
o He planted the Tree of Liberty at Seringapatam.
 Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92)

Background

1) The Treaty of Mangalore was not enough to resolve the conflicts between Tipu Sultan and
the British.
 Both were aiming to establish their own political supremacy over the Deccan.
2) The Third Anglo-Mysore War began when Tipu attacked Travancore, an ally of the
English and the only source of pepper for the East India Company.
 Travancore had purchased Jalkottal and Cannanore from the Dutch in the Cochin state
which was a feudatory of Tipu, he considered the act of Travancore as a violation of his
sovereign rights.
 Course of War

 The British sided with Travancore and attacked Mysore.

o The Nizam and the Marathas who were jealous of Tipu’s growing power joined the
British.
 In 1790, Tipu Sultan defeated the British army under General Meadows.
 In 1791, Lord Cornwallis took the leadership and at the head of a large army marched
through Ambur and Vellore to Bangalore (captured in March 1791) and from there
to Seringapatam.

o Coimbatore fell to them, but they lost it again, and at last with the support of the
Marathas and the Nizam, the British attacked Seringapatam for the second time.

6
 o Tipu offered serious opposition, but the odds were against him.
 The war was concluded with the Treaty of Seringapatam, 1792.
o Under this treaty, nearly half of the Mysorean territory was taken over by the
alliance of the British, Nizam and the Marathas.
 Baramahal, Dindigul and Malabar went to the British, while the Marathas got
the regions surrounding the Tungabhadra and its tributaries and the Nizam
acquired the areas from Krishna to beyond the Pennar.
o Besides, a war damage of three crore rupees was also taken from Tipu.
 Half of the war indemnity was to be paid immediately while the rest was to be
given in installments, for which Tipu’s two sons were taken as hostages by the
English.
 The Third Anglo-Mysore War destroyed Tipu’s dominant position in the south and firmly
established British supremacy there.
 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

Background

1) The period of 1792-99 was used by both the British and Tipu Sultan to recoup their losses.
 Tipu fulfilled all the terms of the Treaty of Seringapatam and got his sons released.
2) In 1796, when the Hindu ruler of the Wodeyar dynasty died, Tipu declared himself as the
Sultan and decided to avenge his humiliating defeat in the previous war.
3) In 1798, Lord Wellesley, an imperialist to the core, succeeded Sir John Shore as the new
Governor General.
4) Tipu’s growing friendship with the French raised concerns for Wellesley.
 Aimed at annihilating Tipu’s independent existence, he forced him into submission
through the system of Subsidiary Alliance.
5) Tipu was accused of plotting against the British by sending emissaries to Arabia,
Afghanistan and to the Isle of France (Mauritius) and Versailles, with treasonable intent.
Tipu’s explanation did not satisfy Wellesley thus the fourth Anglo-Mysore war began.
Subsidiary Alliance

 In 1798, Lord Wellesley introduced the Subsidiary Alliance system in India, under
which the ruler of the allying Indian state was compelled to pay a subsidy for
the maintenance of British army in return for getting protection from the
British against their enemies.

o It provided for the posting of a British Resident at the ruler’s court restricting the
ruler from employing any European in his service without the approval of the British.
o Sometimes the ruler ceded part of his territory instead of paying annual subsidy.
o The first Indian ruler to sign the Subsidiary Alliance was the Nizam of Hyderabad.
 Those native princes or rulers who would enter into Subsidiary Alliance were not free to
declare war against any other power or enter into negotiations without the consent of the

7
 British.

o The princes who were comparatively strong and powerful were permitted to retain
their armies, but their armies were placed under British generals.
 The Subsidiary Alliance was a policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of the
allied state, but this was a promise seldom kept by the British.
 The payment of the arbitrarily-fixed and artificially-bloated subsidy invariably disrupted
the economy of the state and impoverished its people.
 On the other hand, the British could now maintain a large army at the cost of the Indian
states.

o They controlled the defence and foreign relations of the protected ally, and had a
powerful force stationed at the very heart of his lands.
 Course of War

 The war began on April 17, 1799 and ended on May 4, 1799 with the fall of Seringapatam.
Tipu was defeated first by British General Stuart and then by General Harris.

o Arthur Wellesley, the brother of Lord Wellesley, also participated in the war.
 The Marathas and the Nizam again helped the British as the Marathas had been promised
half of the territory of Tipu and the Nizam had already signed the Subsidiary Alliance.
 Tipu Sultan died in the war and all his treasures were confiscated by the British.
 The British chose a boy from the earlier Hindu royal family of Mysore as the maharaja and
also imposed the subsidiary alliance system on him.
 It had taken the English 32 years to subjugate Mysore. The threat of French revival in the
Deccan was permanently eliminated.
 Post War Scenario

 Lord Wellesley offered Soonda and Harponelly districts of Mysore Kingdom to

the Marathas, which the latter refused.
 The Nizam was given the districts of Gooty and Gurramkonda.
 The British took possession of Kanara, Wayanad, Coimbatore, Dwaraporam and
Seringapatam.
 The new state of Mysore was handed over to the old Hindu dynasty (Wodeyars) under a
minor ruler Krishnaraja III, who accepted the subsidiary alliance.

8
UNIT:-4 MARATHA WAR
The 18th century witnessed a fierce struggle for supremacy in India, pitting the
Marathas, a powerful indigenous force, against the formidable British East India
Company. The Marathas controlled vast territories and played a pivotal role in shaping
the subcontinent's political landscape, receiving tributes from regions beyond their
direct rule. However, internal divisions and the defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat in
1761 weakened their position.

Amidst this backdrop, the ambitious British East India Company sought to capitalise on
the Marathas' decline and establish their governance along the lines of their success in
other regions. The ensuing Anglo-Maratha Wars, spanning the late 18th and early 19th
centuries, marked pivotal moments in India's history.

 Rise of Marathas

The Marathas, who controlled a large portion of the country and received tributes from
areas not directly under their control, were in Lahore thinking of becoming rulers of the
north Indian empire and in the court of the Mughals playing the role of kingmakers.

 Defeat at Panipat: After their defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the
Marathas re-grouped, regained their strength, and within a decade, achieved a
position of power in India.
 Bajirao I: He is considered the greatest of all the Peshwas, had started a confederacy
of prominent Maratha chiefs to manage the rapidly expanding Maratha power and,
to some extent, appease the Kshatriya section of the Marathas led by the Senapati
Dabodi.
 Maratha confederacy: Under the arrangement of the Maratha confederacy, each
prominent family under a chief was assigned a sphere of influence which he was
supposed to conquer and rule, but in the name of the then Maratha king, Shahu.
 Families of the confederacy: The prominent Maratha families that emerged were: (i)
the Gaekwad of Baroda, (ii) the Bhonsle of Nagpur, (iii) the Holkars of Indore, (iv)
the Sindhias of Gwalior, and (v) the Peshwa of Poona.
 Peshwaship weakened: The defeat at Panipat, and later the death of the young
Peshwa, Madhavrao I, in 1772 weakened the control of the Peshwas over the
confederacy.
o Even though the confederacy's chiefs occasionally worked together, as they
did when fighting the British (1775–82), they quarrelled more frequently
among themselves.

 Entry of English into Maratha Politics

The years between the last quarter of the 18th century and the first quarter of the 19th
century witnessed the Marathas and the English clashing thrice for political
supremacy, with the English emerging victorious in the end.

 The cause of the conflicts: The inordinate ambition of the English and the divided
house of the Marathas encouraged the English to hope for success in their venture.
  English ambitions: The English in Bombay wanted to establish a
government along the lines of the arrangement made by Clive in Bengal, Bihar, and
Orissa.
o So it was a longed-for opportunity for the English when dissensions over
succession divided the Marathas.

 First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)

The First Anglo-Maratha War set the tone for the upcoming tense relations between the
Anglo-Maratha relations that were later decisive in the future of India.

 Madhavrao I, his child, succeeded him. He recovered pieces of the Maratha authority
and region lost during the Battle of Panipat.
 The English were very much aware of the developing force of the Marathas.
 There was a fight for control in the Maratha camp after Madhavrao I passed away.
 His sibling Narayanrao succeeded him as Peshwa. However, his uncle Raghunathrao
tried to remove the position. Thus, he looked for help from the English for this.
 In this way, in 1775, Raghunathrao marked the Treaty of Surat, where he surrendered
Salsette and Bassein to the English in return for 2500 men.
 The British and Raghunathrao armed forces attacked the Peshwa and crushed them.
 The Treaty of Purandar, made in 1776 between the British Calcutta Council and Nana
Phadnavis, a Maratha servant, was refuted by the British Calcutta Council under Warren
Hastings.

1) Background:
 After the death of Madhavrao in 1772, his brother Narayanrao succeeded him as
the fifth Peshwa.
 However, Narayanrao’s uncle, Raghunathrao, had his nephew assassinated and
named himself the next Peshwa, although he was not a legal heir.
 Narayanrao’s widow, Gangabai, gave birth to a son after her husband’s death.
 The newborn infant was named ‘Sawai’ Madhavrao, and he was legally the next
Peshwa.
 Twelve Maratha chiefs (Barabhai), led by Nana Phadnavis, tried to name the
infant as the new Peshwa and rule for him as regents.

2) Treaties of Surat and Purandar:

 Raghunathrao, unwilling to give up his position in power, sought help from
the English at Bombay and signed the Treaty of Surat in 1775.
 Under the treaty, Raghunathrao ceded the territories of Salsette and Bassein to the
English, along with a portion of the revenues from the Surat and Bharuch districts.
 In return, the English were to provide Raghunathrao with 2,500 soldiers.
3) Condemnation of the treaty:
 The British Calcutta Council condemned the Treaty of Surat (1775) and
sent Colonel Upton to Pune to annul it and make a new treaty (Treaty of
Purandar, 1776) with the regency renouncing Raghunath and promising him a
pension.
 The Bombay government rejected this and gave refuge to Raghunath.
 In 1777, Nana Phadnavis violated his treaty with the Calcutta Council by granting
the French a port on the west coast.
 The English retaliated by sending a force towards Pune.

4) The course of the war:

 The English and the Maratha armies met on the outskirts of Pune.
 Though the Maratha army had more soldiers than the English, the latter had
superior ammunition and cannons.
 However, the Maratha army was commanded by a brilliant general named Mahadji
Sindhia (also known as Mahadji Shinde).
 Mahadji lured the English army into the ghats (mountain passes)
near Talegaon and trapped the English from all sides, and attacked the English
supply base at Khopali.
 The Marathas also utilised a scorched earth policy, burning farmland and
poisoning wells.
 As the English began to withdraw to Talegaon, the Marathas attacked, forcing them
to retreat to the village of Wadgaon.
 Here, the English army was surrounded by the Marathas and cut off from food and
water supplies.
 The English surrendered by mid-January 1779 and signed the Treaty of
Wadgaon that forced the Bombay government to relinquish all territories acquired
by the English since 1775.

5) Treaty of Salbai (1782):

 Warren Hastings, the Governor-General in Bengal, rejected the Treaty of Wadgaon
and sent a large force of soldiers under Colonel Goddard, who captured Ahmedabad
in February 1779, and Bassein in December 1780.
 Another Bengal detachment led by Captain Popham captured Gwalior in August
1780. In February 1781, the English, under General Camac, finally
defeated Sindhia at Sipri.
 Sindhia proposed a new treaty between the Peshwa and the English, and the Treaty
of Salbai was signed in May 1782. It was ratified by Hastings in June 1782 and by
Phadnavis in February 1783.
 The main provisions of the Treaty of Salbai were:
o Salsette should continue in possession of the English.
o The whole of the territory conquered since the Treaty of Purandar (1776),
including Bassein, should be restored to the Marathas.
 o In Gujarat, Fateh Singh Gaekwad should remain in possession of the territory
which he had before the war and should serve the Peshwa as before.
o The English should not offer any further support to Raghunathrao, and the
Peshwa should grant him a maintenance allowance.
o The English should enjoy the privileges of trade as before.
o The Peshwa should not support any other European nation.
o The Peshwa and the English should undertake that their several allies should
remain at peace with one another.
o Mahadji Sindhia should be the mutual guarantor for the proper observance of
the terms of the treaty.

 After effects of the First Anglo-Maratha War

 The East India Company kept Salsette and Broach.

 It additionally got a guarantee from the Marathas that they would recover the Deccan
lands from Hyder Ali of Mysore.
 The Marathas additionally expressed that they wouldn’t surrender additional territories
to the French.
 Raghunathrao was to get yearly benefits of Rs.3 lakh.
 After the Treaty of Purandar, the British returned all procured regions to the Marathas.
 Madhavrao II (child of Narayanrao) was recognized as Peshwa by the English.

 First Anglo-Maratha War (1775 – 1782)

Background and course

 The third Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao died in 1761 due to shock after his defeat at the
Third Battle of Panipat.
 His son Madhavrao I succeeded him. Madhavrao I was able to recover some of the
Maratha power and territories which they had lost in the Battle of Panipat.
 The English were aware of the growing Maratha power.
 When Madhavrao I died, there was a tussle for power in the Maratha camp.
 His brother Narayanrao became the Peshwa but his uncle Raghunathrao wanted to
become the Peshwa. For this, he sought the help of the English
 So, the Treaty of Surat in 1775 was signed according to which Raghunathrao ceded
Salsette and Bassein to the English and in return he was given 2500 soldiers.
 The British and army of Raghunathrao attacked the Peshwa and won.
 The British Calcutta Council under Warren Hastings annulled this treaty and a new
treaty, the Treaty of Purandhar was signed in 1776 between the Calcutta Council
and Nana Phadnavis, a Maratha minister.
 Accordingly, Raghunathrao was given a pension only and Salsette was retained by
the British.
 But the British establishment at Bombay violated this treaty and sheltered
Raghunathrao.
 In 1777, Nana Phadnavis went against his treaty with the Calcutta Council and
granted a port on the west coast to the French.
 This led the British to advance a force towards Pune. There was a battle at Wadgaon
near Pune in which the Marathas under Mahadji Shinde secured a decisive victory
over the English.
 The English were forced to sign the Treaty of Wadgaon in 1779.
 There was a series of battles at the end of which the Treaty of Salbai was signed in
1782. This ended the first Anglo-Maratha war.

 Results of the First Anglo-Maratha War:

 The East India Company retained Salsette and Broach.

 It also obtained a guarantee from the Marathas that they would retake their
possessions in the Deccan from Hyder Ali of Mysore.
 The Marathas also promised that they would not grant any more territories to the
French.
 Raghunathrao was to receive a pension of Rs.3 lakh every year.
 All territories taken by the British after the Treaty of Purandhar were ceded back to
the Marathas.
 The English accepted Madhavrao II (son of Narayanrao) as the Peshwa.

 Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05)

The second Anglo-Maratha War is also an important milestone in Anglo-Maratha

relations.

The second war was triggered in December 1802 with the defeat of Peshwa Baji Rao II
by the Holkars (a principal Maratha clan) and as he accepted British protection under
the Treaty of Bassein (1803–05). Lord Lake destroyed the Bhonsle and Sindhia families
at Delhi and Laswari. Sir Arthur Wellesley conquered the Sindhia and Bhonsle families
at Assaye and Aragon (later the Duke of Wellington). After that, the Holkar clan joined
in, and the Marathas were given full reign throughout central India and Rajasthan.

The Second Anglo-Maratha War was fought in Central India between 1803 and 1805.
The Holkars’ victory over Baji Rao II in the Battle of Poona was significant in the Anglo-
Maratha wars event.

As a result, Peshwa surrendered to British protection by signing the Treaty of Bassein in

1802. It required them to cede land in exchange for the maintenance of a subsidiary
 force and an agreement not to sign any further treaties. Other Maratha rulers disagreed
and sought to challenge the British, such as the Scindia rulers of Gwalior and the
Bhonsle rulers of Nagpur and Berar.

In 1803, the second Anglo-Maratha war erupted in Central India. In these battles, the
British defeated all of the Maratha troops. Three important treaties were struck
between the British Empire and the Maratha Empire, with the British acquiring control
of key Indian areas.

These treaties include:

 Treaties of Deogaon and Bhonsle (1803),

 Surji-Anjangaon and Scindia (1803), and
 Rajghat and Holkar (1805).

1) Background:
 The Second Anglo-Maratha War started in circumstances similar to those of the
First.
 After Peshwa Madhavrao Narayan committed suicide in 1795, Bajirao II, the
worthless son of Raghunathrao, became the Peshwa.
 Nana Phadnavis, a bitter foe of Bajirao II, became the chief minister.
 The disagreements among the Marathas provided the English with an opportunity to
intervene in Maratha affairs.
 The death of Nana Phadnavis in 1800 gave the British an added advantage.

2) Course of the war:

 On April 1, 1801, the Peshwa brutally murdered the brother of Jaswantrao Holkar,
Vithuji. Jaswant arrayed his forces against the combined armies of Sindhia and
Bajirao II.
 The turmoil continued, and on October 25, 1802, Jaswant defeated the armies of
the Peshwa and Sindhia decisively at Hadapsar near Poona and placed
Vinayakrao, son of Amritrao, on the Peshwa’s seat.
 A terrified Bajirao II fled to Bassein, where, on December 31, 1802, he signed a
treaty with the English.

3) Treaty of Bassein (1802): Under the treaty, the Peshwa agreed:

 To receive from the Company a native infantry with the usual proportion of field
artillery and European artillerymen attached to be permanently stationed in his
territories.
 To cede to the Company territories yielding an income of Rs 26 lakh.
 To surrender the city of Surat.
 To give up all claims for Chauth on Nizam’s dominions.
 To accept the Company’s arbitration in all differences between him and the Nizam
or the Gaekwad.
 Not to keep in his employment Europeans of any nation at war with the English.
 To subject his relations with other states to the control of the English.

4) Reduced to Vassalage:
 After the Peshwa accepted the subsidiary alliance, Sindhia and Bhonsle attempted
to save Maratha's independence.
 But the well-prepared and organised army of the English under Arthur Wellesley
defeated the combined armies of Sindhia and Bhonsle. It forced them to conclude
separate subsidiary treaties with the English.
 In 1804, Jaswant Rao Holkar made an attempt to form a coalition of Indian rulers
to fight against the English. But his attempt proved unsuccessful.
 The Marathas were defeated, reduced to British vassalage, and isolated from one
another.

5) Significance of the Treaty of Bassein:

 Admittedly, the treaty was signed by a Peshwa who lacked political authority, but
the gains made by the English were immense.
 The provision of keeping English troops permanently in Maratha territory was of
great strategic benefit.
 The Company already had troops in Mysore, Hyderabad, and Lucknow.
o The addition of Poona to the list meant that the Company’s troops were now
more evenly spread and could be rushed to any place without much delay in
times of need.
 Though the Treaty of Bassein did not hand over India to the Company on a platter,
it was a major development in that direction; the Company was now well-placed to
expand its areas of influence.
 In the circumstances, the observation that the treaty 'gave the English the key to
India' may be exaggerated but appears understandable.

 Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803 – 1805)

Background and course

 After Tipu Sultan’s Mysore was captured by the British in 1799, the Marathas were
the only major Indian power left outside of British domination.
 At that time, the Maratha Confederacy consisted of five major chiefs, the Peshwas at
Pune, the Gaekwads at Baroda, the Holkars at Indore, the Scindias at Gwalior and the
Bhonsles at Nagpur.
 There were internal squabbles among themselves.
 Baji Rao II (son of Raghunathrao) was installed as the Peshwa after the death of
Madhavrao II.
 In the Battle of Poona in 1802, Yashwantrao Holkar, the chief of the Holkars of
Indore defeated the Peshwas and the Scindias.
 Baji Rao II sought British protection and signed the Treaty of Bassein with them.
 As per this treaty, he ceded territory to the British and agreed to the maintenance of
British troops there.
 The Scindias and the Bhonsles did not accept this treaty and this caused the second
Anglo-Maratha war in central India in 1803.
 The Holkars also joined the battle against the English at a later stage.

 Result of Second Anglo Maratha War

 All the Maratha forces were defeated by the British in these battles.
 The Scindias signed the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon in 1803 through which the British
got the territories of Rohtak, Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Gurgaon, Delhi Agra region,
Broach, some districts in Gujarat, parts of Bundelkhand and Ahmadnagar fort.
 The Bhonsles signed the Treaty of Deogaon in 1803 as per which the English
acquired Cuttack, Balasore and area west of Wardha River.
 The Holkars signed the Treaty of Rajghat in 1805 according to which they gave up
Tonk, Bundi and Rampura to the British.
 As a result of the war, large parts of central India came under British control.

 Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19)

The third Anglo-Maratha war was the last and decisive War in Anglo-Maratha relations.

It commenced in 1817 when Lord Hastings, a British governor-general, attacked

Maratha territory while fighting Pindari bandit bands. In November 1817, the Peshwa
soldiers revolted against the British, followed by the Bhonsle and Holkar forces, while
Sindhia remained neutral. The Peshwa’s abdication and the absorption of his holdings
followed quickly, assuring the British dominance in India.

The Battle of Koregaon-Bhima was between the British and the Peshwa part of the
Maratha Confederacy in Koregaon Bhima on January 1, 1818. The Mahar Community
played an essential role in the Battle of Bhima Koregaon. This community has been
coming to the location to remember their victory over the Peshwa since 1927. This
battle took place during the Third Anglo-Maratha War. The Marathas were defeated,
Peshwa was imprisoned, and his domains were taken by the British. As a result, the
British gained complete control over India.
1) Background:
 Lord Hastings had the imperialistic design of imposing British paramountcy.
 By the Charter Act of 1813, the East India Company’s monopoly of trade in China
(except tea) ended, and hence the company needed more markets.
 The Pindaris, made up of many castes and classes, were attached to Maratha armies
as mercenaries. When the Marathas became weak, the Pindaris could not get regular
employment.
 As a consequence, they started plundering neighbouring territories, including
those of the Company. The English charged the Marathas with giving shelter to the
Pindaris.
 Pindari leaders like Amir Khan and Karim Khan surrendered while Chitu Khan fled
into the jungles.
 The Treaty of Bassein, described as a treaty with a cipher (the Peshwa), wounded
the feelings of the other Maratha leaders.
 Lord Hastings’ actions taken against the Pindaris were seen as a transgression of the
sovereignty of the Marathas; they served to unite the Maratha Confederacy once
again.
 A repentant Bajirao II made a last bid in 1817 by rallying together the Maratha
chiefs against the English in the course of the Third Anglo-Maratha War.

2) The course of the war:

 The Peshwa attacked the British Residency at Poona. Appa Sahib of Nagpur
attacked the residency at Nagpur, and the Holkar made preparations for war.
 But by then, the Marathas had lost almost all those elements which are needed for
the growth of power. The political and administrative conditions of all the Maratha
states were confused and inefficient.
 The Bhonsle at Nagpur and the Sindhia at Gwalior had also become weak. So the
English, striking back vigorously, succeeded in not allowing the Peshwa to exert his
authority again on the Maratha confederacy.

3) Result:
 The Peshwa was defeated at Khirki, Bhonsle at Sitabuldi, and Holkar at Mahidpur.
 Some important treaties were signed. These were:
o June 1817, Treaty of Poona, with the Peshwa.
o November 1817, Treaty of Gwalior, with Sindhia.
o January 1818, Treaty of Mandasor, with Holkar.
 In June 1818, the Peshwa finally surrendered, and the Maratha Confederacy was
dissolved. The Peshwaship was abolished.
 Peshwa Bajirao became a British retainer at Bithur near Kanpur.
 Pratap Singh, a lineal descendant of Shivaji, was made ruler of a small
principality, Satara, formed out of the Peshwa’s dominions.

 Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817 – 1818)

Background and course

 After the second Anglo-Maratha war, the Marathas made one last attempt to rebuild
their old prestige.
 They wanted to retake all their old possessions from the English.
 They were also unhappy with the British residents’ interference in their internal
matters.
 The chief reason for this war was the British conflict with the Pindaris whom the
British suspected were being protected by the Marathas.
 The Maratha chiefs Peshwa Bajirao II, Malharrao Holkar and Mudhoji II Bhonsle
forged a united front against the English.
 Daulat Rao Shinde, the fourth major Maratha chief was pressured diplomatically to
stay away.
 But the British victory was swift.

 Results

 The Treaty of Gwalior was signed in 1817 between Shinde and the British, even
though he had not been involved in the war. As per this treaty, Shinde gave up
Rajasthan to the British. The Rajas of Rajputana remained the Princely States till
1947 after accepting British sovereignty.
 The Treaty of Mandasor was signed between the British and the Holkar chief in
1818. An infant was placed on the throne under British guardianship.
 The Peshwa surrendered in 1818. He was dethroned and pensioned off to a small
estate in Bithur (near Kanpur). Most parts of his territory became part of the
Bombay Presidency.
 His adopted son, Nana Saheb became one of the leaders of the Revolt of 1857 at
Kanpur.
 The territories annexed from the Pindaris became the Central Provinces under
British India.
 This war led to the end of the Maratha Empire. All the Maratha powers surrendered
to the British.
 An obscure descendant of Chhatrapati Shivaji was placed as the ceremonial head of
the Maratha Confederacy at Satara.
 This was one of the last major wars fought and won by the British. With this, the
British controlled most parts of India barring Punjab and Sindh directly or
indirectly.

Reasons for Maratha Loss

 Lack of unity among the Maratha chiefs themselves.

 Lack of good relations with other Indian princes and ruling dynasties.
 Failure to understand the British political and diplomatic strengths.
UNIT:-5 DOCTRINE OF LAPSE
The Doctrine of Lapse was a policy implemented by the British East India Company in
the mid-nineteenth century under the administration of Lord Dalhousie(1848 to
1856), the then Governor-General of India. This doctrine contributed significantly to the
expansion of British territories in India by annexing princely states without a direct
male heir.

Although the British saw it as a tool for administrative efficiency, Indian rulers despised
the doctrine, which is credited with sparking the Indian Rebellion of 1857. After the
rebellion, the doctrine was abandoned as part of efforts to reconcile with princely
states.

OR

 James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie, known commonly as Lord

Dalhousie, was the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856. He had been a
famous Scottish statesman.

 Now, although he is commonly associated with the Doctrine of Lapse, it was devised
by the Court of Directors of the East India Company as early as 1847 and several
smaller states had already been annexed under this doctrine before Lord Dalhousie
took the position of the Governor-General. The policy was used far more extensively
by him to expand the territorial reach of the East-India Company.

 The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy extensively applied by East India
Company in India until 1859. The doctrine stated that any princely state under the
vassalage of the company will how its territory annexed should the ruler of the said
state fail to produce an heir. The doctrine and its application were regarded by many
Indians as illegitimate.

 The Doctrine of Lapse was one of the underlying factors that led to the revolt of
1857.

OR

 The Doctrine of Lapse was an imperialist approach by the British to expand their
empire in Indian territory.
 The Doctrine of Lapse Policy stated that it was customary for the Indian rulers
without natural heirs to ask permission from the British to adopt a son in order to
succeed him.
 It was stated that the adopted son could inherit only the private property of the
foster father and not the princely state.
 The power to decide on either bestowing the princely state to the adopted son or
annexing it was laid in the hands of the British.
 It was stated that the policy was based on Hindu law. But as per the Hindu Law, an
individual or the ruler without a natural heir can adopt a son and the adopted son
can inherit all the properties of the foster father. Thus, the Doctrine of Lapse was
inconclusive on this point.

 Doctrine of Lapse Background

 The Court of Directors of the East India Company established the Doctrine of Lapse
in 1847.
 Even before Lord Dalhousie was named Governor-General of India, the Doctrine of
Lapse was used to conquer a number of smaller princely states.
 But because of how well he applied the Doctrine of Lapse to strengthen the British
Empire’s sway in India, Lord Dalhousie is frequently linked to the doctrine.

OR

The Doctrine of Lapse arose from the British East India Company's desire
to consolidate and expand its control in India. Many Indian princely states have
traditionally adopted heirs in the absence of a direct male successor to ensure the
continuation of their rule. The Doctrine of Lapse dictated that if an Indian princely state
lacked a surviving male heir or if there was a succession dispute, the British would
annexe the state's territory.

 Based on the principle that Britain, as the paramount power, could accept or reject
adopted heirs of Indian rulers, the doctrine was justified as ensuring good
governance in mismanaged states.
 The Court of Directors introduced this policy in 1847, initially targeting smaller
Indian states. Lord Dalhousie later expanded its use to increase British control
aggressively.
 The annexations also helped the financially struggling East India Company increase
revenue and reduce subsidiary alliance costs.

 Doctrine of Lapse Features

Before the introduction of this doctrine, the princely states had a ritualised method of
adoption practised for centuries An heir apparent would eventually be selected from a
pool of candidates, who were groomed for succession from an early age, called bhayats
if no competent born-to son were produced (an obviously unsuitable or treasonous
born-to son could be excluded from the succession).

If the ruler died before adopting a successor, one of his widows could adopt an heir,
who would immediately accede to the throne. The adoptee would cut all ties with his
birth family. Once the Doctrine of Lapse came into place the following features were
now faced by the Indian rulers.
 According to this doctrine, any princely state under the direct or indirect (as a
vassal) control of the East India Company, should the ruler not produce a legal male
heir, would be annexed by the company.
 This was not introduced by Lord Dalhousie even though it was he who documented
it and used it widely to acquire territories for the British.
 As per this, any adopted son of the Indian ruler could not be proclaimed as heir to
the kingdom. The adopted son would only inherit his foster father’s personal
property and estates.
 The adopted son would also not be entitled to any pension that his father had been
receiving or to any of his father’s titles.
 This challenged the Indian ruler’s long-held authority to appoint an heir of their
choice.

OR

The doctrine of lapse was widely regarded as an imperialist approach by Indian rulers.
They opposed this policy because it increased the power of the British government. The
Doctrine of Lapse had several key features that defined its implementation:

 Annexation of States Without a Male Heir: The primary feature of the Doctrine of
Lapse was the automatic annexation of any princely state where the ruler died
without a natural male heir. The British refused to acknowledge adopted heirs,
which was a common practice among Indian rulers.
 British Approval Required: Even in cases where adoption was previously
accepted, the doctrine required that such adoptions receive explicit British approval
before being considered valid for succession.
 Inheritance: According to the Doctrine of Lapse, an adopted heir could inherit only
the prince's personal belongings and property, not the rulership of the kingdom.
Thus, it directly challenged the traditional Indian practice of adopting an heir to
succeed to the throne.
 Pension and Titles: Under the Doctrine of Lapse, the adopted son of a princely
state’s ruler would be ineligible to receive any pensions previously granted to his
father. It also prohibited the usage of titles that his father might have received
earlier.
 Selective Application: The policy was not uniformly applied to all princely states.
Its implementation often depended on strategic and economic considerations. It
applied to states without a competent ruler or legal heir to the throne.
 Legal Rationale: The Doctrine of Lapse was publicly portrayed as being grounded
in Hindu law, but this was misleading. While Hindu law allowed for the adoption of a
son to ensure succession, the annexation policy under the Doctrine of Lapse did
not recognise adopted heirs, leading to their exclusion from succession rights.
 Misgovernance Clause: In some instances, states were annexed on the pretext of
misgovernance, even when succession was not an issue.

 Doctrine of Lapse Annexed States

The Doctrine of Lapse led to the annexation of several key princely states, significantly
expanding British territories in India. Some of the most notable annexations
include Satara (1848), Nagpur (1854) and Awadh (1856):

 Satara (1848): This was the first major state annexed by Dalhousie under the
doctrine. The Raja of Satara died without a male heir, and despite the adoption of a
son, the British annexed the state, citing the doctrine.
 Jaitpur and Sambalpur (1849): These smaller states were annexed in quick
succession. The British took control, arguing that the absence of a natural heir
nullified the state's sovereignty.
 Udaipur (1852): This was a state in present-day Chhattisgarh, not to be confused
with the more famous Udaipur in Rajasthan.
 Jhansi (1853): The annexation of Jhansi became particularly controversial and led
to Rani Lakshmibai's rebellion during the 1857 uprising.
 Nagpur (1854): One of the largest and most significant annexations under the
doctrine.
 Awadh (1856): Although not strictly annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse (as there
was a natural heir), Awadh was annexed on the grounds of misgovernance, using
similar principles.

 Doctrine of Lapse Effects

The Doctrine of Lapse had profound effects on British India. It led to significant
territorial expansion but also incited widespread resentment among Indian rulers. Its
implementation contributed to the unrest that culminated in the Indian Rebellion of
1857.

 Expansion of British Territories: The doctrine of lapse led to the annexation of key
states, expanding British control and increasing administrative responsibilities.
 Loss of Sovereignty for Princely States: Indian princely states lost sovereignty,
sparking unrest. Rulers like the Rani of Jhansi and Nana Sahib were denied their
thrones.
 Erosion of Traditional Practices: The rejection of adopted heirs disrupted
succession traditions, destabilised the political landscape and weakened India's
cultural fabric.
 Prelude to the Indian Rebellion of 1857: The annexations and policies like the
Doctrine of Lapse fueled discontent, contributing to the 1857 rebellion.
 Change in British Policy: After the rebellion, the British Crown assumed control,
abandoned the doctrine, and adopted a more conciliatory approach toward Indian
rulers.

The Doctrine of Lapse, though short-lived, significantly expanded British control and
revenue, but it alienated Indian rulers and fueled the 1857 rebellion. Its abandonment
marked a shift from aggressive annexation to a more conciliatory approach toward
princely states.

OR
 Under the Doctrine of Lapse, the adopted son of Rani of Jhansi was denied the
throne.
 With the death of Nana Sahib’s foster father, he was denied a pension by the British.
 The Doctrine of Lapse was one of the major political causes for the breakout of
the Revolt of 1857.
 Due to the Doctrine of Lapse, a few Indian princely states lost their independence
and eventually became British colonies.
 This theory holds that the Ruler was not permitted to choose their heir.
 Indian emperors and rulers were hence indignant with the British.
 Due to the altered perception of the British, both the afflicted monarchs and other
kings and queens began to oppose them.
 The corporation was allegedly interfering with internal norms and traditions of
inheritance, according to the nobility and other people who had lost their posts and
lands as a result of the Doctrine of Lapse.
 Nana Saheb and Rani of Jhansi played a significant role in the rulers’ rebellion
against the British.
 The British stopped providing Nana Sahib with a pension after his foster father went
away.
 Even though Rani volunteered to submit to British rule in exchange for the chance to
have her adopted son rule the nation, her efforts were in vain because her adopted
son was removed from the kingdom owing to the law of lapse.

UNIT:- 6 LAND REVENUE SYSTEM

Land Revenue System: On the eve of the British conquest of Bengal, agriculture was
the primary source of income. Due to their mercantilist intentions, the British sought
complete control over this sector, its production methods, and the individuals engaged
in it, including the traditional zamindars and cultivators. Because land was one of the
most important factors in agricultural productivity, Permanent Settlement was
implemented initially, followed by two other land revenue systems. These policies
altered the structure of Indian agriculture, resulting in agrarian stagnation, the growth
of absentee landlordism, and peasant misery.

The Indian peasants had to bear the primary burden of funding the Company's trade
and profits, the cost of administration, and the wars of British colonial expansion in
India and abroad. In fact, if they hadn't levied her a hefty tax, the British would not have
been able to conquer such a sizable nation as India.

 Land Revenue Policy of British in India

The land revenue policy in India was mainly fixed by the Mughal Empire, but the British
felt the urgent need for new policies in their favour. As a result, they introduced three
land revenue policies - Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari Settlement and Mahalwari
System.
 Permanent Settlement (1793)

The Permanent Settlement aimed to establish a permanent amount for the land
revenue. It was introduced in Bengal and Bihar in 1793 by Lord Cornwallis and was
planned by John Shore. It was later extended to Orissa, the Northern Districts of Madras,
and the District of Varanasi.

1) Features:

 The zamindars, who were earlier only tax collectors without any proprietary rights
prior to 1793, were now made the owners of the land.
 The ownership was hereditary until they paid the tax on time, and in case of failure,
the lands were auctioned. Thus, the ownership was made transferable.
 The state was to receive 10/11th of the rent the zamindars received from the
peasantry, with only 1/11th going to the zamindars themselves. However, the
amounts they would be required to pay as land revenue were made permanent.
 Any increase in the rent was to be kept by the zamindars themselves. The state
would not put them under any more demands.
 In order to secure the maximum amount, the initial revenue fixation was made
arbitrarily and without consulting the zamindars.

2) Need for the Settlement:

 To forge political allies: The British understood that they needed local allies who
would serve as a barrier between them and the local populace.
 For financial stability: Prior to 1793, the Company had difficulty adapting to
changes in its primary source of income, land revenue, so they needed a concrete
policy that would provide them with stable income.
 To raise agricultural productivity: There was a belief that the Permanent
Settlement would increase agricultural production. The zamindar would be highly
inspired to boost cultivation and raise agricultural productivity.

3) Impact of the Permanent Settlement:

 Impacts on zamindars:

o Even if the crop failed for some reason, the zamindar was still required to pay his
revenue on time, or else his lands would be sold.
o Almost half of the lands under this settlement were sold between 1794-1807 due
to very high and uncertain land revenue.
o The Policy gave rise to a new class of landlords in place of traditional zamindars.

 Impacts on peasants:

o The actual cultivators of the Land were reduced to the mere tenants of
zamindars.
o High rates of tax compelled zamindars to oppress the peasants in order to meet
the demands of the state, such as seizing the tenants' property, beating, locking,
etc.
 Rise of absentee landlordism: The Policy created a large number of absentee
landlords (subinfeudation) who were collecting the revenue on behalf of the actual
landlords.
 Impact on the agriculture sector: The rise of intermediaries (absentee
landlordism), distress of peasants, and detachment of zamindars from the land
caused the stagnation of agriculture and made land a commodity.

 Ryotwari Settlement (1820)

It was introduced by Alexander Reed and Thomas Munro in parts of the Madras and
Bombay Presidencies.

1) Features:

 The Ryotwari settlement was not permanent.

o After 20 to 30 years, when the revenue demand typically increased, it was
periodically revised.
 The land revenue was collected from each ryot individually. Thus, unlike the
Permanent Settlement, the Ryotwari Settlement recognised peasants as the owners
of the land.
o There was no peasant ownership system prior to the Ryotwari Settlement.

2) Impacts:

 The land revenue fixed in most areas was so high that the ryots were rarely left,
even with basic maintenance. They were impoverished and lacked the resources to
cultivate their land.
o Even when agricultural produce was completely or partially destroyed by
drought or flooding, the ryots were still required to pay revenue.
o The peasants were oppressed by intermediaries and moneylenders, from
whom they were compelled to take loans to meet the taxation demands of the
state.
o The infamous Deccan Riot of 1875was due to the oppression of ryots by the
moneylenders.
 The majority of the land in Madras, as well as the Bombay Presidency, was left
uncultivated due to high taxes and no buyers.

 Mahalwari System (1822)

It was a modified version of the Zamindari settlement, introduced in the Gangetic Valley,
the North-West Provinces, some parts of Central India, and the Punjab. The revenue
policy was conceptualised by Holt Mackenzie in 1819 and introduced by the British in
1822.

1) Features:

 This land revenue settlement was to be made village by village or estate (mahal) by
the estate with landlords or heads of families who collectively claimed to be the
landlords of the village or the estate.
 The settlement under the Mahalwari system was not made permanent. It was
revised periodically after 20 to 30 years when the revenue demand was usually
raised.

2) Impacts:

 The British made direct settlements with the village zamindars; thus, the control and
status of the erstwhile big taluqdars were undermined.
 The taxes were so high that the proprietorship of land used to pass into the hands of
merchants and moneylenders from the village zamindars.
 Thus, the Mahalwari system brought impoverishment to the cultivators of North
India, and their resentment was reflected in the popular revolt of 1857.
o The villagers (peasants), taluqdars, and even new zamindars drove off British
officials and destroyed their courts and official records.

 Implications of Land Revenue Policy of British

With such hefty taxes levied under the three land revenue policies, there were certain
implications, such as:

 Absentee landlordism: The Company's land revenue systems were exploitative in

nature. It created landlordism in some parts and peasant proprietorship in some
other regions.
o In Bengal, it led to the emergence of absentee landlordism.
 Commercialisation of agriculture: Since the rate of revenue under the
Company's land revenue system was excessive, the peasants started producing
all those crops with high market value. It is known as the commercialisation of
agriculture.
 It led to the change from home consumption to market consumption.
 Therefore, cash crops like cotton, sugarcane, jute, etc. began to be cultivated.
 Social impact: Land revenue policies had progressive significance over a
period of time. It led to the disappearance of old rigidities like caste in village
life and led to the emergence of class consciousness.
 Peasant movement: The anger of peasants and traditional zamindars culminated in
a number of minor and major revolts.
 Famines: The periodic recurrence of famines and the economic depression in the
nineteenth century aggravated the situation in rural areas, resulting in many
peasant uprisings.
 Rights of cultivators: The cultivators lost their long-standing claims to the soil and
other customary rights, and they were reduced to the low status of mere tenants.
o For instance, some of their rights were sacrificed, including the use of pasture
and forest lands, irrigation canals, fisheries, homestead plots, and protection
from increases in rent.
o In areas where they were made owners, their conditions are even worse.
 Dеbt traps and stagnant productivity: High rеvеnuе demand and the lack of
investment in land lеd to peasants falling into dеbt traps and hindеring agricultural
productivity.
The drive to collect large revenue was central to British Policy. Sometimes, this led to
the development of a land market - the sale and purchase of land. But at other times, the
State's demands were so heavy that no purchasers were to be found. The need to collect
so much was itself made necessary by the heavy expenditures of the Government in
India and its need to send a lot of money to Britain for its expenses there.

Or
Land Revenue Systems in British India

 Land revenue was one of the major sources of income for Britishers in India. There
were broadly three types of land revenue policies in existence during the British
rule in India.
 Before independence, there were three major types of land tenure systems
prevailing in the country:
o The Zamindari System
o The Mahalwari System
o The Ryotwari System
 The basic difference in these systems was regarding the mode of payment of land
revenue.
1) The Zamindari System

 The zamindari system was introduced by Lord Cornwallis in

1793 through Permanent Settlement that fixed the land rights of the members in
perpetuity without any provision for fixed rent or occupancy right for actual
cultivators.
 Under the Zamindari system, the land revenue was collected from the farmers
by the intermediaries known as Zamindars.
 The share of the government in the total land revenue collected by the zamindars
was kept at 10/11th, and the remainder going to zamindars.
 The system was most prevalent in West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, UP, Andhra
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
The Permanent Settlement Agreement

 According to the Permanent Land revenue settlement the Zamindars were

recognised as the permanent owners of the land.
 They were given instruction to pay 89% of the annual revenue to the state and
were permitted to enjoy 11% of the revenue as their share.
 The Zamindars were left independent in the internal affairs of their respective
districts.
Issues with the Zamindari System
 For the Cultivators: In villages, the cultivators found the system oppressive and
exploitative as the rent they paid to the zamindar was very high while his right on
the land was quite insecure.
o The cultivators often had to take loan to pay the rents, on failing to pay the
rent, they were evicted from the land.
 For the Zamindars: The revenue had been fixed so high that the zamindars found
it difficult to pay, and those who failed to pay the revenue lost their zamindari.
o The zamindars were not so keen about improving the land. As long as they
could give out the land and get rent, they preferred it.
 For the Company: By the first decade of the 19th century, the cultivation slowly
expanded and prices rose in the market.
o Although this meant an increase in the income of Zamindars, it was no gain
for the company since it could not increase a revenue demand that had been
settled permanently.
2) The Ryotwari System

 In the British territories in southern India, there was a move away from the idea of
Permanent Settlement.
 A system that came to be known as the Ryotwari System, was devised by Captain
Alexander Read and Sir Thomas Munro at the end of the 18th century and
introduced by the latter when he was governor of Madras Presidency (1819–
26).
 Under the Ryotwari system, the land revenue was paid by the farmers directly to
the state.
 In this system, the Individual cultivator called Ryot had full rights regarding sale,
transfer, and leasing of the land.
o The ryots could not be evicted from their land as long as they paid the rent.
 It was prevalent in most of southern India, first introduced in Tamil Nadu. It was
later extended to Maharashtra, Berar, East Punjab, Coorg and Assam.
 The advantages of this system were the elimination of middlemen, who often
oppressed villagers.
Issues with the Ryotwari System

 This system gave much power to subordinate revenue officials, whose activities
were inadequately supervised.
 The system was dominated by the mahajans and moneylenders who granted loans
to cultivators by mortgaging their land.
 The moneylenders exploited the cultivators and evicted them from their land in
case of loan default.
3) The Mahalwari System

 By the early 19th century, the Company officials were convinced that the system of
revenue had to be changed again.
o The revenues cannot be fixed permanently at such a time when the Company
needed more money to meet its expenses of administration and trade.
 In 1822, Englishman Holt Mackenzie devised a new system known as the
Mahalwari System in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal
Presidency (most of this area is now in Uttar Pradesh).
 Under the Mahalwari system, the land revenue was collected from the farmers
by the village headmen on behalf of the whole village (and not the zamindar).
 The entire village was converted into one bigger unit called ‘Mahal’ and was
treated as one unit for the payment of land revenue.
o The revenue under the Mahalwari system was to be revised periodically and
not fixed permanently.
 The system was popularised by Lord William Bentick in Agra and Awadh and
was later extended to Madhya Pradesh and Punjab.
Issue with the Mahalwari System

 A major drawback of the system was that the survey was practically based on
faulty assumptions which left a space for manipulations and corruption.
 At times, it made the Company spend more for the collection than the revenue
collected. Consequently, the system was regarded as a failure.

 Some Other Systems

1) Taluqdari System

 The term ‘taluqdar’ has different meanings in different parts of India. In Oudh,
taluqdar is a great landholder.
o But in Bengal, a taluqdar is next to zamindar in extent of land control and
social status.
 The big zamindars themselves had created many taluqs under several
denominations, such as, junglburi taluq, mazkuri taluq, shikimi taluq, and so on.
o These were created partly as a strategy of zamindari management and partly
as a fiscal policy measure for raising zamindari funds for specific purposes.
 After the Permanent Settlement, new varieties of taluqs were created by
zamindars.
o Under the pressure of the Permanent Settlement, many zamindars were
creating dependent taluqs denominated as pattani taluq, noabad taluq and
osat taluq.
2) Malguzari System

 The land tenure prevailing in the erstwhile Central Provinces was known as
Malguzari system in which the Malguzar was merely a revenue farmer under the
Marathas.
o When the Marathas came into power in this region, they farmed out the
revenues of villages to persons of influence and wealth, who were called
Malguzars.
 During the British Rule, they were given proprietary rights and were held
responsible for payment of revenue.
o If the headman of a village was weak or was for any other reason, unable to
answer for the sum the authorities expected, or if a court favourite wanted
the village, the headman was replaced without hesitation by a farmer.
 The farmer, or manager was at first called Mukaddam (the Hindi or Marathi form
of Arabic Mugaddam).
 Under the Malguzari system, the Lambardar/Sadar Lambardar appointed from
among the Malguzars, was the revenue engager.
 Other cultivators were either Absolute occupancy tenant, Occupancy tenant, Sub-
tenant, Raiyat-Malik or lessees, who could be ejected from their holdings on
various grounds. Malguzar (proprietor or co-sharer) held land under special
description, namely, Sir land and Khudkasht land.
 UNIT:-7 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORMS MOVEMENTS
A number of Socio-Religious Reform Movements were carried out throughout India
in the 19th century. These socio-religious reform movements aimed to modernise
Indian society through social restructuring. The Socio-Religious Reform Movements and
their leaders were characterised by a recognition of the interconnection between
religious and social issues. The British invasion of India in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries exposed some significant flaws and shortcomings in Indian social
institutions.

As a result, a number of people and movements worked to change social and religious
customs with the goal of reforming and reviving society. This also has to do with how
Indian society was changing and how new classes were emerging. According to this
viewpoint, the socio-religious movements represent the social aspirations of colonial
India's newly emerging middle class.

 Factors Leading to Socio-Religious Reform Movements

The impact of modern Western education soon gave birth to a new awakening in India.

 Western conquest exposed the weakness and decay of Indian society. They
exposed practices such as sati, infanticide, child marriage etc
 The British rule in India created conditions favourable to intellectual growth. For
example, the freedom of press made it possible to educate society about evil social
practices.
 Thoughtful Indians began to look for the defects of their society and for ways and
means of removing them through legislation as well as social work.
 While a large number of Indians refused to come to terms with the West and
still put their faith in traditional Indian ideas and institutions, others gradually
came to hold that modern Western thought provided the key to the
regeneration of their society.
 They were particularly impressed by modern science and the doctrines of
reason and humanism.
 Moreover, the new social groups, the capitalist class, the working class, the modern
intelligentsia etc., demanded modernisation due to their own interests.

 Features of Socio-Religious Reform Movements

The nineteenth-century Socio-Religious Reform Movements advocated for religious

reform for political advantage and social comfort. They recognised the interconnection
between religious and social issues and used religious ideas to change social institutions
and practices, such as eradicating caste distinctions.

Reformers /
Reform Features of Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Movements

Raja Raja Rammohun Roy, regarded as the first great leader of modern India, played a key role in
Rammohun the awakening.
Roy
- He was distressed by the stagnation and corruption of caste and convention-driven Indian
society at the time.

- He represented a synthesis of Eastern and Western thought.

- Atmiya Sabha (1814): Founded by Rammohun Roy with a band of young men in Bengal,
mainly to debate philosophical topics such as monotheism in Hindu texts.

 He waged a tenacious battle against the social and religious injustices that Bengali Hindus
were notorious for.
 He was particularly opposed to idolatry, caste rigidity, and the prevalence of pointless
religious rituals.
 He criticised the priestly class for promoting and fostering these customs.
 He believed that monotheism, or the worship of one God, was taught in all of the major
ancient Hindu texts.
 To support his claims, he published Bengali translations of the Vedas and five of the most
important Upanishads.

- He was the earliest propagator of modern education.

 Hindu College (1817): Roy gave the most enthusiastic assistance to David Hare in the
foundation of the college.
 English School in Calcutta (1817): Roy maintained the school at his own cost.
 In this school, mechanics and Voltaire's philosophy were taught alongside other subjects.
 Vedanta College (1825): Founded by Rammohun Roy, in which courses both in Western
social and physical sciences were offered.

- Brahmo Samaj (1828): New religious society founded by Rammohun Roy.

 Its objectives were to preach monotheism and purify Hinduism.

 Based on twin pillars of,
o Reason
o Vedas and Upanishads.
 Additionally, the teachings of other religions were to be included.
 It placed a strong emphasis on human dignity, condemned idolatry, and criticised social ills
like Sati.

- He is known as a pioneer of Indian journalism.

 Sambad Kaumudi (1821): A Bengali weekly started by Raja Rammohan Roy.

o It emphasised issues such as the Indian demand for a jury trial in provincial courts.
o It became the main vehicle of Raja Rammohan Roy’s campaign against Sati.
o It paved the way for the rise of nationalist journalism in India.
 Mirat-ul-Akhbar (1822): It was India’s first Persian weekly started by Roy.
 It was primarily concerned with the political events of the time.
 Roy criticised the British constitution, their foreign policy, how they treated Indians on the
 roads and other things.

- Internationalism: Roy firmly believed in internationalism and unrestricted cross-national

collaboration.

 The poet Rabindranath Tagore rightly remarked: “Rammohun was the only person in
his time, in the whole world of man, to realise completely the significance of the Modern
Age.”

- Opposition by Dharma Sabha: It was an orthodox Hindu society, established mainly to

counter the ongoing Socio-Religious Reform Movements led by reformers like Henry Derozio
and Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

- Associates:

 David Hare
 Dwarkanath Tagore
 Prasanna Kumar Tagore
 Chandrashekhar Deb
 The first secretary of the Brahmo Sabha, Tarachand Chakravarti.

Raja Rammohun Roy’s Brahmo tradition was carried forward after 1843 by Devendranath
Tagore and after 1866 by Keshub Chandra Sen.

- It made an effort to reform the Hindu religion by,

 Removing abuses.
 Establishing it on the doctrine of the Vedas and Upanishads, as well as the worship of one
God.
 Including the best aspects of modern Western thought.

- Most of all, it was based on human reason.

 It was to serve as the deciding factor for what religious practices and principles from the
past or present were valuable and what was not.
 The Brahmo Samaj rejected the requirement for a priestly class to interpret religious texts
as a result.
 Every person had the right and capacity to determine, with the aid of his or her own
intellect, what was right and wrong in a religious book or principle, it was stated.

- Keshab Chandra Sen: He expanded Samaj's activities beyond Bengal to include the states of
UP, Punjab, Madras, and Bombay.

 He radicalised the Samaj by

 Attacking the caste system
 Underlining women’s rights
 Promoting widow remarriage
 Raising the issue of caste status of Brahmo preachers, which was earlier reserved for
 Brahmins
 He laid stress on universalism in religion.
 Due to his radicalism, he and Debendranath were in conflict.
 In 1866, the Samaj was formally divided into Adi Brahmo Samaj (headed by Debendranath)
and the Brahmo Samaj of India (headed by Keshab Chandra).

Young Anglo-Indian Henry Vivian Derozio was its leader.

- This Socio-Religious Reform Movement was part of a radical trend in Bengal that arose in the
late 1820s and the 1830s.

- From 1826 to 1831, he taught at Hindu College.

- He gave students the inspiration they needed to think critically and freely, to challenge all
forms of authority, to value liberty, equality, and freedom, and to admire truth.

- Old and decadent customs, rites, and traditions were attacked by the Derozians.

 Derozians advocated for women’s rights and demanded education for them.
Young Bengal  Social conditions were not yet ripe for Derozians ideas to flourish, thus they failed to create
Movement a movement.
 Derozians failed to take up the peasant’s cause.
 Also, their ideas were ahead of their time, which no social class was able to absorb.
 Derozians did not succeed in maintaining their links with the people.

- Public agitation on public questions was carried on by the Derozians, such as,

 The revision of the Company’s Charter

 Freedom of the Press,
 Indian labourers to be treated properly in British colonies abroad.
 Trial by jury
 Protecting ryots from oppressive zamindars, and
 Employing Indians in the higher grades of services.

Debendranath was imbibed with traditional Indian learning and the modern thoughts of the
West.

- Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839): Founded by Debendranath Tagore to propagate Rammohun

Roy’s ideas independent of the Brahmo Samaj.
Debendranath
 It countered the rapid progress of Christianity in India
Tagore
 It advocated the development of Vedantism.
 Under its aegis, the emphasis on indigenous language and culture became much more
pronounced.
o Bengali texts in all subjects were published.
 With time, it included most of the prominent followers of Rammohun and Derozio
 Other independent followers included Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Akshay Kumar Dutt.
  A systematic study of India’s past in the Bengali language was promoted by its organ
Tatvabodhini Patrika.
 It spread a rational outlook among the intellectuals of Bengal.

- Debendranath Tagore reorganised the Brahmo Samaj in 1843 and put new life into it.

 The Samaj actively supported,

o the movement for widow remarriage,
o abolition of polygamy,
o women’s education,
o improvement of the ryot’s condition and temperance.
 He repudiated the doctrine that the Vedic scriptures were infallible.

He endured hardship to further his education and became principal of the Sanskrit College in
1851.

- He put in place the study of Western thought in the Sanskrit College.

- He opened the gates of Sanskrit College to non-Brahmin students.

- He wrote a Bengali Primer and helped evolve a distinct modern prose style in Bengali.

- He contributed largely to the field offemale emancipation.

Ishwar
Chandra  It was due to his active mobilisation of support that the Widows’ Remarriage Act was
Vidyasagar passed in 1856, legalising all widow remarriages.
 Under Vidyasagar's supervision, the first legal Hindu widow marriage among the upper
castes in India was celebrated in 1856.

- Bethune School (1849): With Vidyasagar’s help, John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune established
the first permanent girls' school in India.

 As Secretary to the Bethune School, he was instrumental in leading the movement for
women’s education.

- He also campaigned against child marriage and polygamy.

He was a prominent social reformer and thinker of nineteenth-century India.

- Emancipation of human beings: He dedicated his entire life to relentlessly fighting against
social domination by the majority and striving for the freedom of all people who were
oppressed by this social inequality.
Jyotiba Phule
- Enlightenment: In his views, the enlightenment of women and lower castes was the sole
solution to combat social evils.

- Girl's school: He established a girls' school along with Savitribai in 1851 and later opened
two more schools for the girls and an indigenous school for the lower castes, especially for the
 Mahars and Mangs.

- Widows and abandoned women: He also established an ashram for young widows and
advocated for Widow Remarriage, as society was patriarchal and women were often left
without family support.

- Orphanage: In 1854, Jyotiba established an orphanage to shelter these widows and

abandoned women from perishing at the hands of society.

- Opposed authoritarianism: He opposed upper-caste authoritarianism and urged peasants

to resist restrictions.

- Gender equality: He believed in gender equality and involved his wife in all his social reform
activities.

- Accusations: The orthodox Brahmins of the society were furious at his activities and accused
him of acting on behalf of the Christian Missionaries.

 He, however, was supported by Brahmin friends to make the movement successful.

- Satya Shodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth): He formed this in 1873 to educate
society about caste prejudice and to free downtrodden lower-caste people from the stigmas
created by Brahmins.

 Membership to the Samaj was open to all, irrespective of caste and class.
 Dalit term: Jyotiba coined the term ‘Dalit’ to apply to all people considered lower caste
and untouchables by the Brahmins.

- His works:

 Gulamgiri (Slavery): It critiques the social and political structure of Indian society
under British colonialism.
o It argues against the domination of the Brahmin caste and addresses the issues of
social inequality, caste-based discrimination, and the exploitation of the lower
castes.
 Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak: Published in 1879, this work emphasises the principles
of equality, justice, and human rights.
o It criticises the hierarchical social order, arguing for the equal treatment of all
individuals regardless of caste or gender.
 Satyashodhak Samaj Prakash: This book provides an overview of Phule's social reform
organisation, the Satyashodhak Samaj.

Social reformer and poet who played an important role in women's education and upliftment
in the nineteenth century.
Savitribai
Phule - Mahila Seva Mandal: Started in 1852, it aimed to raise awareness among women about
their rights, dignity, and social issues.
  She actively worked towards empowering women and fighting against customs
like shaving the heads of widows.
 She successfully organised a barbers' strike in Mumbai and Pune to oppose this practice.

- Night School and Stipends: In 1855, Jyotiba and Savitribai established a night school for
agricultural labourers and workers who could not attend during the day.

- Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (1863): An infanticide prohibition home started with Jyotiba.

- Satya Shodhak Samaj: She led the women’s section after the demise of Jyotiba Phule.

 After that, she became the chairperson of the Samaj.

- Famine relief: She and her husband worked dauntlessly during the famines starting in 1876,
distributing free food in different areas and persuading the British government to initiate relief
work during the 1897 drought.

- Gender discrimination: She also raised her voice against caste and gender discrimination.

- Literary works:

 Kavya Phule (1934) and

 Bavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar (1982)

One of the first reformers in Bombay.

- Attacking Brahmanical orthodoxy, he tried to reform popular Hinduism.

Bal Shastri - The Darpan (1832): A weekly started by Jambhekar.

Jambhekar
 Objective: ‘Chasing away the mists of error and ignorance which clouded men’s minds, and
shedding over them the light of knowledge, in which the people of Europe have advanced
so far before the other nations of the world’.

- Founded in Maharashtra by Durgaram Mehtaji and Dadoba Pandurang.

- The Mandali carried out its activities secretly.

- Its founders believed in one God and were primarily interested in breaking caste rules.
Paramahansa
Mandali - It fought against idolatry and the caste system
(1849)
- Members of the Mandali shared food cooked by low-caste people.

- It advocated women's education and widow remarriage.

- Branches of the Mandali were formed in Poona, Satara, and other towns in Maharashtra.
 - He was a champion of social reform and new learning in Maharashtra.

- Famous by the pen-name ‘Lokahitawadi’.

- Broadening the scope of the social movement was his main contribution.

Gopal Hari - In the Prabhakar, a Marathi Weekly, he wrote his hundred letters, the famous ‘Shatpatre’,
Deshmukh between 1848 and 1850.

 All letters are comprehensive in dimension.

 Very few aspects of society are untouched by these letters.

- He also said that ‘if religion did not sanction social reforms then religion should be changed,
for after all religion was made by human beings’.

 Socio-Religious Reform Movements after 1858

Many Indians realised that social and religious reformation was an essential condition
for the all-round development of the country on modern lines and for the growth of
national unity and solidarity. Later on, the movements got strengthened because of the
following factors:

 Growth of nationalist sentiments

 The emergence of new economic forces
 Spread of education
 Western ideas and culture
 Increased awareness of the world.

Thus, after 1858, the earlier reforming tendency and efforts were given a broader shape
and strength.

Reformer /
Features of Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Movement

Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1834-86) was a saintly person who sought religious salvation in
the traditional ways of renunciation, meditation, and devotion.

- In search of religious truth and the realisation of God, he lived with mystics of other faiths,
Muslims and Christians.
Ramakrishna
Paramhansa,
- He emphasised that there are various paths to salvation and man's service as the
and Swami
embodiment of God.
Vivekananda
- He advocated for the preservation of Hinduism's rituals and beliefs as well as the universality
of all religions.

- Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902): A great disciple of his, he popularised his religious

 message and attempted to adapt it to the requirements of modern Indian society.

- Swami Vivekananda stressed social action.

- During his travels from 1893 to 1897, he promoted spiritual Hinduism in America and
Europe.

- He established the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 to carry out humanitarian relief and social
work.

- He set up a Math at Belur

- Vivekananda opposed superstitions, rigid caste systems, untouchability, religious

degeneration, and other issues.

- He remarked, “There is a danger of our religion getting into the kitchen. We are neither
Vedantists, most of us now, nor Pauranics nor Tantrics. We are just ‘don’t touchists’. Our
religion is in the kitchen. Our God is in the cooking pot, and our religion is ‘Don’t touch me, I
am holy’. If this goes on for another century, every one of us will be in a lunatic asylum.”

- He made an effort to establish Hindu spiritual superiority over the arrogant West.

- However, he believed that India had to learn work ethics, forms of organisation and
technological advances from the West.

- He believed in the Indian philosophical tradition's superior approach and subscribed

to Vedanta, which according to him, was a fully rational system.

- Regarding liberty of thought, he said, “Liberty in thought and action is the only condition of
life, growth and well-being: Where it does not exist, the man, the race, and the nation must go
down”.

It was an extremely important social reform in Southern India.

- Established in Madras by Sridharalu Naidu and Keshab Chandra Sen.

- It was highly inspired by Brahmo Samaj, at least in their theistic principles.

Veda Samaj
- It considered marriage and funeral rituals as matters of routine, irrespective of religious
(1864)
significance.

- Strong voices were raised in favour of eliminating all sectarian beliefs, gradually eradicating
caste distinctions, and tolerating the viewpoint of outsiders.

- Samaj was against polygamy and child marriage and supported widow remarriage.

Founded in Bombay by Swami Dayanand Saraswati(1824-1883), earlier known as Mool

Arya Samaj
Shankar.
(1875)
- The important task of this Socio-Religious Reform Movement was reforming the Hindu
religion in North India.

- It promoted social reform.

- It made an effort to better women's conditions.

- It promoted social equality while combating untouchability and the rigidities of the
hereditary caste system.

- He made his ideas accessible to the people of Northern India by the use of the Hindi language
in which he wrote and preached.

- Arya Samaj also played a significant part in the national movement by inculcating the idea of
self-respect and self-reliance.

- The Arya Samaj played a commendable role in encouraging education among the masses.

- Swami Dayanand Saraswati:

 Vedas were considered infallible and the foundation of all knowledge by him.
 Any religious thought which was in conflict with the Vedas was rejected by him.
 He gave the slogan "Back to the Vedas”.
 As per his beliefs, every Individual had the right to direct access to God.
 Shuddhi Movement was started by him with the aim of bringing back those Hindus who
had converted to Islam and Christianity.
 Satyarth Prakash was his most important book.
 Swami opposed idolatry, polytheism, Brahmin-sponsored religion, and superstition.
 He advocated for female education and inter-caste marriages.
o However, his inclination towards the Vedas gave his teachings an orthodox flavour.

- His followers' work:

 They started a network of schools and colleges in the country to impart education on
Western lines.
 Lala Hansraj was the principal of Dayanand Anglo-Vedic School.
 Gurukul was started by Swami Shradhananda.
 He propagated traditional ideals in education.

-The leaders who opposed Anglo-Vedic education included Swami Shraddhanand, Gurudatt,
Lekh Ram and others.

- They insisted that the Samaj’s focus must be on Sanskrit, Aryan ideology and Vedic
scriptures.

- The militant branch believed that Dayanand's words were infallible and that the meaning of
Satyarth Prakash was infallible.
 - On the other hand moderate wing believed that Dayanand was a reformer and not a rishi or
sadhu.

- The differences led to a division of the Arya Samaj in 1893 when Munshiram broke away
along with his supporters to initiate a gurukul-based education.

- Thus, two groups emerged after 1893, the DAV group and the Gurukul group.

Founded by Atmaram Pandurang and Mahadev Govind Ranade.

- This Socio-Religious Reform Movement was founded with the intention of revising Hindu
religious doctrine and practises to reflect current understanding.

- It advocated for the devotion of a single God and worked to rid religion of priestly dominance
and caste orthodoxy.

- The Samaj opposed polytheism and condemned idolatry, priestly dominance, and caste
rigidities.
Prarthana
- It drew inspiration from Buddhism and Christianity in addition to Hindu sects.
Samaj (1876)
- It sought truth in all religions.

- Ranade aimed to establish the idea of a single compassionate God by drawing inspiration
from the Maratha Bhakti saints of the mediaeval era.

- R.G. Bhandarkar, the famous Sanskrit scholar, was one of its great leaders.

- The Brahmo Samaj had a significant impact on it.

- Viresalingam, a Telugu reformer, was responsible for its activities spreading to South India.

The history of Indian society, religion, and culture has been significantly influenced by
Theosophical society.

- Madame H.P. Blavatsky, a Russian spiritualist, and Col. H.S. Olcott, an American, founded it in
the United States in 1875.

- The goal was to promote ancient religions, philosophies, and science and establish a
universal brotherhood.
Theosophical
Society
- Introduced in India in 1879, its headquarters were set up at Adyar near Madras in 1886.

- It spread its influence under Annie Beasant, who played an important role in India’s struggle
for freedom.

 She and her associates advocated the revival and strengthening of the ancient religions of
Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.
 They recognised the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul.
  They also preached the universal brotherhood of man.
 They contributed to instilling a sense of national pride in the educated Indians.
 The Westerners who promoted Indian religious and philosophical traditions were the
leaders and backers of Annie Besant's movement.
o This helped Indians recover their self-confidence.
 The work done by the Theosophical Movement to awaken the Indians was remarkable,
despite the fact that it did not enjoy widespread popularity.

- The society promoted the advancement of women and fought against untouchability.

- Annie Besant spent her entire life advancing Indian society.

 She described her mission in these words: “The Indian work is first of all the revival, the
strengthening and uplifting of the ancient religions. This has brought with it a new self-
respect, pride in the past, belief in the future, and as an inevitable result, a great wave of
patriotic life, the beginning of the rebuilding of a nation”.

- Branches of the Theosophical Society were opened all over India, and its
Journal Theosophist had a wide circulation.

- The Central Hindu School at Benaras, which Madan Mohan Malaviya later transformed into
the Benaras Hindu University, was one of Besant's numerous accomplishments in India.

Deccan Education Society was an influential social reform and political organisation formed in
the Pune district in Maharashtra.

- The establishment of the New English School in Pune resulted in the foundation of the
Deccan Education Society by Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak.

- It was an unprecedented move because the only organisations involved in mass education
were governmental institutions and Christian missionaries.

- As a fervent reformist, Agarkar took a keen interest in social reform initiatives.

Deccan - Tilak was a Puritan when it came to social reforms.

Education
Society (1884)  Once political freedom was attained, he thought, laws could implement such social reform
measures.

- Other leaders of the Society:

 Vishnushastri Chiplunkar
 Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade
 Mahadev Ballal
 Namjoshi
 V S Apte
 V B Kelkar
 M S Gole and
  N K Dharap

- Society established Fergusson College, Pune's first higher education institution.

Founder: Pandit Shiv Narayan Agnihotri

Place of establishment: Lahore

- Dev Samaj rejected contemporary Hinduism.

- Its rituals and deities were replaced by worship of the true ‘guru’, Dev Bhagvan Atma.

- All caste restrictions were rejected.

- Dev Samaj members were expected to practice inter-dining and inter-caste marriage.

- It advocated the education of both men and women.

Dev Samaj  To further this end, it opened a coeducational school at Moga, which later became the Dev
(1887) Samaj High School.
 In 1901, the Samaj opened a separate girls` school, the Dev Samaj Balika Vidyalaya.

- Dev Samaj emphasised morality, prohibiting lying, theft, cheating, bribery, and gambling.

- Pandit Shiv Narayan Agnihotri:

 Initially, he accepted the reformist ideology of the Brahmo Samaj.

 He advocated for marriage reform, opposed child marriage, and supported vegetarianism.
 He defended Brahmo ideals against the new Arya Samaj.
 Agnihotri defended Sikhism against Arya Samaj attacks in 1888-89.
 Factional strife made Agnihotri part its ways from Brahmo Samaj and led to the founding
of Dev Samaj.
 With time, it moved away from Brahmo Samaj and made guru-ship as the central principle.

In the South of India, a leading light of the Socio-Religious Reform Movement in the early
stages was Kandukari Veeresalingam.

- By profession, he was a school teacher.

- Proficient writer, authored numerous tracts and pamphlets on this Socio-Religious Reform
Movement in Telugu, thus considered the father of modern Telugu prose literature.
Veeresalingam
- He became the father figure of the subsequent generation of Andhra social reformers due to
his missionary zeal on issues like the remarriage of widows, female education, the
advancement of women, and the elimination of social vices.

- In 1874, he started a school in Dowlaiswaram.

 - He is frequently compared to Raja Rammohun Roy in Andhra because he built the "Brahmo
Mandir" in Rajahmundry in 1887.

 Socio-Religious Movements Among Muslims, Sikhs and Parsis

Such Socio-Religious Reform Movements were late in emerging among Muslims. The
Muslim upper class tended to avoid contact with Western education and culture which
led to:

Reformer /
Reform Features of Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Movement

- Leader: Syed Ahmed Barelvi of Rae Bareilly

- He was greatly influenced by the teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia and Shah Waliullah,
a Delhi saint.

Wahabi - The roots of this Socio-Religious Reform Movement were primarily religious.
Movement
(1830-1860) - Patna served as the key hub for the Wahabi movement in India. Additionally, it had missions
in Bombay, Bengal, UP, Hyderabad, and Madras.

- In some places, particularly Bengal, it quickly took on the characteristics of a class struggle.

- Regardless of communal differences, peasants banded together to fight their landlords.

- Shariatullah Khan and Dadu Mian spearheaded the first-ever anti-tax campaign against the
British government.

Faraizi - Their volunteer group bravely engaged the armed band of zamindars and indigo planters.
Movement
(1838-48) - It united all of Bengal's farmers in opposition to landlord tyranny and unlawful extractions.

- In the districts of Dhaka, Faridpur, Barisal, Mymensingh, and Comilla, the Faraizi movement
was well received.

- Founded by Abdul Latif in 1863.

The
Mohammedan
- It aimed to spread modern education and remove social practices like polygamy among
Literary
upper and middle-class Muslims
Society of
Calcutta
- It was crucial in advancing Hindu-Muslim unity.

The Dar al-Uloom Deoband was a revivalist movement founded in Deoband, United Province,
Deoband British India, by Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi.
Movement
(1866) - In general, the Deobandis have been outspoken opponents of Sufi devotional practices.
 - ThisSocio-Religious Reform Movement spreaded among Muslims the clear teachings of the
Quran and the Hadis.

- It opposed the thoughts propagated by the Aligarh Movement.

- It was aimed at the moral and religious regeneration of the Muslim community.

- The formation of the Indian National Congress was welcomed by it.

Only after the 1860s, the Indian Muslims started the Socio-Religious Reform Movements.

- Sayyid Ahmed Khan (1817-98) urged the Muslims to reject the decadent mediaeval
thought and to imbibe modern scientific knowledge and outlook.

- He supported the abolition of purdah and the expansion of women's education while
denouncing the practice of polygamy.

- He advocated for freedom of thought and tolerance in the populace.

- He spent his entire life working to advance modern education because it was a cause that
deeply concerned him.

- In order to spread Western education, he established the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental

College in Aligarh in 1875.

 This eventually became the Aligarh Muslim University.

Sayyid Ahmed - He believed that for Muslims, the Quran is the most authoritative and rational religious text.
Khan and the
Aligarh - He spoke out against religious fanaticism and bigotry while valuing all religions.
School
- Some of his supporters chose not to participate in the growing national movement because
they thought the two groups might grow in different directions.

- The liberal, social and cultural movement started by him among the Muslims is known as
the Aligarh Movement, as it originated in Aligarh.

 The ensuing Muslim revival was largely brought on by the Aligarh Movement.
 For the dispersed Muslim population spread across the nation, it served as a focal point.
 It provided them with a shared knowledge base and a language, namely Urdu.
 A Muslim press was established for the collection of Urdu-language works.

- He demanded that European science and technology be studied.

- In 1866, he formed the British Indian Association at Aligarh.

- He wrote ‘The Causes of the Indian Revolt’ (1858), in which he criticised the British for
their aggressive expansion into India and their ignorance of Indian culture.
 - In order to create a bridge between India and their British rulers, he argued for Indian
representation in governance and for the education of the Indian populace.

He was one of the greatest poets of modern India.

- Through his poetry, he had a significant impact on both Hindus and Muslims of younger
generations in terms of their philosophical and religious outlook.

- He emphasised the necessity of ongoing change and nonstop action while decrying
resignation, introspection, and peaceful contentment.

- He urged people to adopt a progressive mindset that would contribute to world change.
Muhammad
- He was basically a humanist.
Iqbal (1876-
1938)
 In actuality, he elevated human action to the rank of a fundamental virtue.
 He asserted that instead of submitting to nature or the powers that be, man should
exert constant control over this world.

- The passive acceptance of things as they were, in his opinion, was the greatest sin.

- He urged men to work for and find happiness in this world of the living by denouncing
ritualism, asceticism, and otherworldly attitudes.

- He praised patriotism in his earlier poetry, but later he promoted Muslim separatism.

Founded in Punjab by eminent scholar and defender of Islam Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad.

- Through this Socio-Religious Reform Movement, numerous schools and colleges across the
nation were opened as a result of this movement.

 They emphasised the universal and humanitarian character of Islam.

Ahmadiyya  They favoured unity among Hindus and Muslims.
Movement
(1889) - Hazrat Mirza established a Muslim movement and community in order,

 to defend and spread Islam throughout the entire world and

 to awaken the Islamic principles of mercy, forgiveness, and compassion for all people.

- He named it Ahmadiyya, after the Holy Prophet Muhammad’s other name Ahmad which
symbolises the qualities of tenderness, gentleness, love and mercy.

Sikhs, too, worked hard to eradicate the evils of the caste system, infanticide,
early marriage etc., through several religious reform movements.

Reformer/
Reform Features of Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Movement
 Leaders: Bhagat Jawaharmal and Baba Balak Singh

- This Socio-Religious Reform movement became a powerful force of religio-political revival

among the Sikhs under Baba Ram Singh, a disciple of Baba Balak Singh.

 Baba Ram Singh particularly enjoined upon his followers the worship of one God through
Kuka
prayer and meditation.
Movement
 All of his followers were urged to be involved in worshipping God at all times by the
(Namdhari
Rehatnamas (moral codes) he created and enforced.
Movement,
 He also preached against social evils such as the caste system, infanticide, early marriage
1872)
and barter of daughters in marriage and popularised simple and inexpensive Anand
Marriage.
 The teachings of Baba Ram Singh seem to have had a wide appeal to the Sikh masses.

- The rising popularity of Baba Ram Singh's mission was of great concern to modern European
officials.

The year following the persecution of the Kukas and the suppression of their movement saw
the birth of this Socio-Religious Reform Movement.

- Its activities had a much wider appeal among the Sikh masses and, consequently, made a
far greater impact.

- The majority of the Singh Sabha movement's supporters, who were from the educated middle
class, also had ties to other social and religious movements in Punjab.

- Through the dissemination of education, the Singh Sabha primarily sought social and religious
reform.

 Hence they consciously refrained from discussing political questions.

Singh Sabha
Movement
- The Singh Sabha leadership did not want to offend the British authorities, either because of
(1873)
their own vested interests as large landholders or because of their conception of the 'interests
of the Sikhs'.

- They contrasted the current deplorable state of the Sikhs with the past sufferings under the
Mughals, citing the prosperous times of Ranjit Singh's rule in Punjab.

- The major contribution of the Singh Sabha leadership lay in the creation of a network of
Khalsa schools, colleges and other centres of learning.

 The founding of Khalsa College in Amritsar in 1892 contributed to the advancement of

Punjabi literature, Sikh education, and Gurmukhi.
o British assistance was used to establish the college.

Akali The formation of the two Singh Sabhas at Amritsar and Lahore in the 1870s was the beginning
Movement of this Socio-Religious Reform Movement among the Sikhs.
(1920-1925)
 - It rose in Punjab in 1920.

 The Akalis' main aim was to clean up the administration of the Gurudwaras, or Sikh shrines.
 These gurudwaras had been heavily endowed with land and money by devout Sikhs, but
they had come to be managed autocratically by corrupt and selfish mahants.
 A powerful Satyagraha against the mahants and the government, which supported them,
was launched by the Sikh masses under the leadership of the Akalis in 1921.
 A new Sikh Gurudwaras Act was passed in 1922 as a result of pressure from the Akalis.
o It was later revised in 1925.
 In a few instances, with the aid of this Act, and more through direct action, the Sikhs
gradually turned out of the gurudwaras, the corrupt mahants.

Likewise, many Parsi intellectuals worked diligently for the reforms of their socio-
cultural evils like

Reformer / Reform
Features of Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Movement

Leading social reform society of Bombay.

- Also known asthe Religious Reform Association, it was started by Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai
The Rehnumai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee and others.
Mazdayasan Sabha
by  It waged a campaign against the deeply ingrained orthodoxy in the religious community.
 It started the modernisation of Parsi social customs relating to women's education, marriage,
Dadabhai Naoroji and general social status.
 It agitated for uniform laws of inheritance and marriage for the Parsis.

- In the course of time, the Parsis became socially the most Westernised section of Indian society.

 Nature of Socio-Religious Reform Movements

These movements were characterised by rationalism and humanism. The humanist aspect of
the reform movement could be seen in the form of rejection of priestly domination.

 Foremost importance to education: The movements considered education to be the

foremost instrument for bringing about social change.
o Illiteracy, in general, and among women, in particular, was criticised.
 No sharp change in the society: Reformers did not advocate a sharp rupture in the social
structure but only wanted to remove distortion and evil that had crept into the society.
 Limited appeal: Despite the efforts of reformists, their message was limited to the urban
educated middle class.
o Thus, a vast number of Indians remained untouched by the movements.
 Revivalist character: Some of the movements and leaders turned to revivalism.
o This led to unnecessary glorification and distortion of the past.
 Trendsetters: It is important to keep in mind that the importance of the nineteenth-century
reformers lay less in their sheer numbers than in the fact that they set the trends.
o It was their thoughts and activities that were to have a decisive impact on the making of
a new India.
 QUICK REVISION MODULE (UPSC PRELIMS 2024)
MODERN INDIAN HISTORY
SOCIO RELIGIOUS
REFORM MOVEMENTS

THE GAVE RISE TO

INDIAN PROCESS OF DESIRE FOR
RENAISSANCE REAWAKENING. REFORMS.
 FACTORS FOR THE REFORM MOVEMENTS

NEW
IMPACT SOCIAL OPPOSITION AWARENESS
OF BRITISH CONDITIONS TO WESTERN AMONG
RULE RIPE FOR CULTURE ENLIGHTENED
REFORM INDIANS

Religious and An attempt to

Social Ills. Modern Western
Re-unification reinvigorate culture and
and consolidation. traditional new awakening
Depressing Position institutions and and consciousness
of Women. revival. about defeat

Caste Problem/
divide.
 NATURE OF THE MOVEMENTS:

NATURE

Different parts Without Intellectual

of India in Leadership religious Criteria:
different period by emerging reformation, Rationality &
but having Intellectual there cannot be
considerable Religious
middle class any social
similarities. Universalism
reformation

Rationalism

Raja Ram Akshay Kumar Religious

Mohan Roy Dutt Universalism

Rejected Supernatural Explanations. Rationalism is our only

preceptor.
Affirmed the principle of causality.
Demonstrability was the sole criterion
of the truth.

Raja Ram Sir Syed Keshub Chandra

Mohan Roy Ahmed Khan Sen

Different religion as All prophets had the same Our position is not that truth are
national embodiments din (faith) and every to be found in all religions, but all
of Universal theism. country and nation had established religions of the world
different prophets. are true.
 TIMELINE OF MAJOR REFORM MOVEMENTS

Atmiya Establishment Young Bengal Widow Marriage

Sabha (1814) of vendanta Movement
Collage (1825) (1820s-30s) Association 1850s

Founding of Brahmo Samaj

Brahmo Samaj Tattvabodh
Tattvabodhini
ini of India and Adi
Hindu Collage Sabha (1839) Brahmo Samaj
(1817) (1828)
(1866)

Social Sadharan Satyashodhak Prarthana

Conference
Confrenece Brahmo Samaj Prarthana
Samaj (1873) Samaj
Samaj (1867)
Movement (1887) (1878) (1867)

Arya Samaj (1875) Poona

Ramakrishna Arya Mahila Arya Samaj (1875) Sarvajanak
Samaj (1881) Theosophical Society
Mission (1897) Theosophical
(1875) Society Sabha (1870)
(1875)

Sri Narayana
Guru Dharma Self Respect
Paripalana (SNDP) Movement (1920)
Yogam (1902)

Servants of Vaikom
India Society Satyagraha
(1905) (1924-25)
TIMELINE OF LEGISLATIVE MEASURES FOR WOMEN
Bengal
Regulation Hindu Widow’s Sarda Act,
(1829) Remarriage Act,
Banning Sati 1856 1929

Bengal Regulation
(1795, 1804) declaring Age of Consent Special Marriage
Act, 1891 Act, 1954
infanticide illegal

Dowry Prohibition Maternity Hindu Marriage

Act,1961 Benefits Act,1961 Act, 1955

Equal Hindu Succession act,

remuneration 1956, Hindu Adoption
Act, 1976 and Maintenance Act

REFORM MOVEMENTS (AMONG HINDUS)

PAN INDIA MOVEMENT

Ramkrishna Movement
Arya Samaj
Theosophical Movement

1. Student’s Library and 1. Brahmo Samaj.

Scientific Society. 2. Tattvabodhini Sabha.
2. Paramhansa Mandalis 3. Brahmo Samaj of India
3. Satyashodhak Samaj 4. Young bengal Movement.
4. Servants of India Society 5. Prarthana Samaj.

1. SNDP Movement.
2. Vokkaliga Sangha.
3. Justice Movement.
4. Self-respect Movement.
5. Temple Entry Movement.
 MOVEMENT/
MAIN IDEAS BOOKS, JOURNALS,
REFORMER ORGANIZATION AND PRINCIPLES AND NEWSPAPERS
ASSOCIATED

Raja Ram Atmiya Sabha(1814) Denounced polytheism, Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin

Mohan Roy idol worship, practices like (A Gift to Monotheism).
Brahmo Sabha (1828) Sati.
later renamed as Brahmo Precepts of Jesus (1820).
Samaj. Discarded faith in
incarnations. Translation of Veda's and
Note: Dharma Sabha by Upnishads into Bengali.
Primacy of human reason
Radhakant Deb for and conscience over any
countering Brahmo Samaj. Samvad Kaumudi.
scripture.
Miratul-Akbar(Persian).
Worship of eternal,
unsearchable, immutable Atmiya Sabha Publication
god. (Bengal Gazette).
Criticism of caste system.
Promotion of charity,
morality, benevolence, etc.
No definite stand on
doctrine of Karma.

Maharishi Tattvabodhini Sabha Promoted systematic Tattvabodhini Patrika

Debendranath (1839). study of India's past in Bengali.
Tagore Joined Brahmo Samaj with a rational outlook
in 1842. and propagation of
Rammohan's ideas.
Adi Brahmo Samaj.
A new vitality and
strength of member-
ship of Brahmo Samaj.

Keshab Branches of the Brahmo Popularization of

Samaj were opened Samaj outside Bengal.
Chandra outside Bengal.
Sen Cosmopolitanisation
Brahmo Samaj of India in of the Samaj's
1866. meetings by inclusion
of aspects from all
religion.
Strong views against
caste system.
Support to inter-caste
marriages.
Ishwar Principal of Sanskrit Pioneer of higher Associated with:
Chandra College. education for women.
Tattvabodhini Patrika.
Vidyasagar Secretary of Bethune Legalization of widow
School. remarriage. Somprakash.
Sarbashubhankari Patrika.
Against child marriage and
polygamy. Hindu Patriot.

Swami Arya Samaj Vision for classless and Satyarth Prakash

Dayananda casteless society, a united (The True Exposition).
Dayananda AngloVedic
Saraswati (D.A.V.) College in 1886.
India (religiously, socially
and nationally).
Shuddhi (purification)
movement. India free from foreign
rule, with Aryan religion
being the common religion
of all.
“Back to the Vedas”.
Revival of Vedic learning
and Vedic purity of religion
and not Vedic times.
Attacked Hindu
orthodoxy, caste rigidities,
untouchability, idolatry,
polytheism, belief in magic,
charms and animal
sacrifices, etc.

Swami Ramakrishna Math at Objective was to bridge

Vivekananda Belur. gap between Paramartha
(service) and Vyavahara
(behaviour).
Fundamental oneness of
God.
Attended the Parliament of
Religions held at Chicago in
1893.
Subscribed to Vedanta
system.
The service of jiva (living
objects) is the worship of
Siva.
Mahadeo Prominent role in Disapproval of caste Newspaper: Induprakash
Govind Prarthana Samaj system.
Ranade (Established by Atmaram
Women education.
Pandurang).
Widow Remarriage.
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha.
Raising the age of
Social conference marriage for both
movement.
male and female.
Widow Remarriage
Association. Regarded as father of
Indian economics.
Founding member of INC.
Emphasised the term
Indian National Social retrograde movement.
Conference.
Member of Bombay
legislative council.
Judge of the Bombay High
Court.

OTHER PROMINENT PERSONALITIES (REGION-WISE):

EASTERN INDIA:

AKSHAY KUMAR DUTTA:

Progressive Bengali
thinker behind the
reformist Brahmo
Samaj.
Formulated treatises
1. Bahya Bastur Sahit
RAMAKRISHNA PARAMAHAMSA: Manavprakritir Sambandha
Ramakrishna Math Vichar.
Spreading the ideals of Vedanta. 2. Dharmaneeti
preaching, philanthropic and
charitable work, all men, women and
children, irrespective of caste, creed, HENRY VIVIAN DEROZIO:
etc. as equal. Inspirer of progressive trend, influence
of French revolution, supported women’s
right and education, first nationalist poet
of modern India.
 Brahmo Samaj (1828) by Raja Rammohan Roy

Split in Brahmo Samaj in 1866:

1. Keshab Chandra Sen formed Brahmo Samaj of India.
2. Debendranath Tagore’s samaj became Adi Brahmo Samaj.

In 1878, Cooch-Behar controversy: 13 year-old daughter

married to the minor Hindu Maharaja of Cooch-Behar.
New faction is Sadharan Brahmo Samaj started by Ananda
Mohan Bose, Shibchandra Deb and Umesh Chandra Datta.

WESTERN INDIA:

BALSHASTRI JAMBHEKAR: Father of Marathi

Journalism, attacked orthodoxy.
STARTED NEWSPAPER: Darpan in 1832, as 1st
Marathi Newspaper, Digdarshan in 1840.
Bombay Native General Library and Native
Improvement Society.

Jyotiba Phule: Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873.

Aim: Complete abolition of caste system and
socio economic inequalities, education among
women and lower caste people.
Works: Sarvajanik Satyadharma and Gulamgiri.
Awarded by title of Mahatma.

Pandita Ramabai: Arya Mahila Samaj, Mukti

Mission, Sharda Sadan.
Work areas: Against child marriages, promotion
of girls education and improvement of
conditions of women.

Gopalhari Deshmukh Gopal Ganesh Gopal Krishna

‘Lokahitawadi’ Agarkar Gokhale
Weekly Prabhakar Educationist and social reformer. Servants of India Society
under the pen name of in 1905.
Lokahitawadi. Co-founder: New English School,
the Deccan Education Society and To train national missionaries.
Other works: Gyan
Prakash, Indu Prakash Fergusson College. Works like the Hitavada.
and Lokahitawadi. 1st editor of Kesari and
started Sudharak.
 SOUTH INDIA:

MOVEMENT/ORGANIZATION MAIN IDEAS AND

REFORMER PRINCIPLES
ASSOCIATED

SRI NARAYANA Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Removal of much discrimination

GURU Paripalana (SNDP) Movement in Kerala's society.
Aruvippuram movement. Held all religions are same.
Against divisiveness on the
basis of caste, race or creed.
Took issues like right of
admission to public schools,
government services, access
to roads and entry to
temples, etc.

E.V. Self-Respect Movement. Rejection of the Brahminical

RAMASWAMY religion.
NAICKER

KANDUKURI Hitakarini (Benefactor). Influenced by the ideals of

VEERESALINGAM Brahmo Samaj.
 OTHER HINDU REFORM MOVEMENTS:

THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY VAIKOM SATYAGRAHA

Founded in the United States by Lead K P Kesava

Madam H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel Demanding throwing open
H.S. Olcott.
of Hindu Temples and roads to
Headquarters at Adyar. untouchables.
Preaching the wisdom of Krishna
and Gita.

DEVA SAMAJ RADHASWAMI MOVEMENT

Shiv Narain Agnihotri Tulsi Ram (Shiv Dayal Sahab).

Eternity of the soul, the One Supreme Being, supremacy
Supremacy of the guru and the of the guru, a company of pious
need for good action. people (satsang), and a simple
social life.

JUSTICE MOVEMENT VOKKALIGA SANGHA TEMPLE ENTRY MOVEMENT

Madras Presidency In Mysore: Mainly by T.K. Madhavan on
C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair and An anti-brahmin movement. the ideals of Sree Narayana
P. Tyagaraja Guru and N. Kumaran Asan.
For representation of
non-brahmins.
 MUSLIM REFORM MOVEMENTS:

FARAIZI MOVEMENT AHMADIYA MOVEMENT DEOBAND MOVEMENT

Founded by Haji Shariatullah Mirza Ghulam Ahmed in Mohammad Qasim Nanautavi

in East Bengal. 1889. (1832-1880) and Rashid Ahamd
Eradication of social Principle of Universal religion Gangohi (1828-1916)
innovations current among of all humanity, opposing Propagating pure teachings of
the Muslims of the region. jihad. Quaran and Hadis among
Muslims and keeping alive the
spirit of jihad against the
foreign rule.

WORKS:
1. Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind
2.Tahdhib AI-Akhlaq
Reconcile Western scientific
education with the teachings
SIR SYED AHMED KHAN of the Quran.
Aligarh Movement.
Social reforms among Muslims
Member of the Imperial Legislative
related to Purdah, polygamy,
Council. widow remarriage, etc.
Knighthood in 1888.
Anglo-Oriental College. Growth among Indian muslims
through better education and
employment opportunities.

SHAH WALLIULLAH
MUSLIM Revivalist response to Western influences.
SOCIAL Harmony among the four schools of Muslim
REFORMERS jurisprudence.
Recognition of the role of individual
conscience in religion.

TITU MIR

Adopted wahabism.
Organised the Muslim peasants of Bengal
against the landlords.
 SIKH REFORM MOVEMENTS:

SINGH SABHA KHALSA SCHOOLS & AKALI MOVEMENT, 1920

MOVEMENT, 1873 COLLEGES, 1892
Modern western education Promote Gurumukhi, Sikh Gurudwara Reform Movement.
to the Sikhs. learning and Punjabi Shiromani Gurudwara
To counter the proselytising literature. Prabandhak Committee (SGPC)
activities. as the Apex body.

PARSI REFORM MOVEMENTS

Rahnumai
Mazdayasnan
Sabha 1851 with
leaders like Naoroji
Furdonji, Dadabhai
Naoroji, K.R. Cama
and S.S. Bengalee.
Rast Goftar
(Truth-Teller)
Anglo-Gujarati
paper started by
Dadabhai Naoroji.
Seva Sadan
by Behramji
M. Malabari
in 1885.

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13
Vision IAS
www.visionias.in GUWAHATI
UNIT:-8 REVOLT OF 1857

The Indian Mutiny of 1857-59 was a widespread but unsuccessful rebellion against the rule of
British East India Company in India which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the
British crown.

 The Revolt

It was the first expression of organised resistance against the British East India Company
It began as a revolt of the sepoys of the British East India Company’s army but eventually
secured the participation of the masses.
The revolt is known by several names: the Sepoy Mutiny (by the British Historians), the
Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion (by the Indian Historians), the Revolt of 1857, the
Indian Insurrection, and the First War of Independence (by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar).

 Causes of The Revolt

1) Political Cause

 British policy of expansion: The political causes of the revolt were the British policy of
expansion through the Doctrine of Lapse and direct annexation.
 A large number of Indian rulers and chiefs were dislodged, thus arousing fear in the minds of
other ruling families who apprehended a similar fate.
o Rani Lakshmi Bai’s adopted son was not permitted to sit on the throne of Jhansi.
o Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi were annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse.
o Jaitpur, Sambalpur and Udaipur were also annexed.
o The annexation of Awadh by Lord Dalhousie on the pretext of maladministration left
thousands of nobles, officials, retainers and soldiers jobless. This measure converted
Awadh, a loyal state, into a hotbed of discontent and intrigue.
Doctrine of lapse:

The notable British technique called the Doctrine of Lapse was first perpetrated by
Lord Dalhousie in the late 1840s.
It involved the British prohibiting a Hindu ruler without a natural heir from adopting a
successor and, after the ruler died or abdicated, annexing his land.
To those problems added the growing discontent of the Brahmans, many of whom had been
dispossessed of their revenues or had lost lucrative positions.

2) Social and Religious Cause

 The rapidly spreading Western Civilisation in India was alarming concerns all over the
country.
o An act in 1850 changed the Hindu law of inheritance enabling a Hindu who had converted
into Christianity to inherit his ancestral properties.
o The people were convinced that the Government was planning to convert Indians to
Christianity.
The abolition of practices like sati and female infanticide, and the legislation legalizing
widow remarriage, were believed as threats to the established social structure.
Introducing western methods of education was directly challenging the orthodoxy for
Hindus as well as Muslims
Even the introduction of the railways and telegraph was viewed with suspicion.

3) Economic Cause

In rural areas, peasants and zamindars were infuriated by the heavy taxes on land
and the stringent methods of revenue collection followed by the Company.
Many among these groups were unable to meet the heavy revenue demands and
repay their loans to money lenders, eventually losing the lands that they had held
for generations.
Large numbers of sepoys belonged to the peasantry class and had family ties in villages, so
the grievances of the peasants also affected them.
After the Industrial Revolution in England, there was an influx of British manufactured
goods into India, which ruined industries, particularly the textile industry of India.
Indian handicraft industries had to compete with cheap machine- made goods
from Britain.

4) Military Causes

The Revolt of 1857 began as a sepoy mutiny:

o Indian sepoys formed more than 87% of the British troops in India but were considered
inferior to British soldiers.
o An Indian sepoy was paid less than a European sepoy of the same rank.
They were required to serve in areas far away from their homes.
In 1856 Lord Canning issued the General Services Enlistment Act which required that the
sepoys must be ready to serve even in British land across the sea.

Lord Canning

 Charles John Canning was the statesman and governor general of India during the Indian
Mutiny of 1857.
 He became the first viceroy of India in 1858.
 The important events during his tenure include:
 o The Mutiny of 1857, which he was able to suppress successfully
o Passing of Indian Councils Act, 1861 which introduced portfolio system in India
o Withdrawal of “Doctrine of Lapse” which was one of the main reasons of mutiny of 1858
o Introduction of Code of Criminal Procedure
Enactment of Indian High Courts Act
o Indian Penal Code (1858)

5) Immediate Cause

 The Revolt of 1857 eventually broke out over the incident of greased cartridges.
o A rumour spread that the cartridges of the new enfield rifles were greased with the fat
of cows and pigs.
o Before loading these rifles the sepoys had to bite off the paper on the cartridges. Both
Hindu and Muslim sepoys refused to use them.
 Lord Canning tried to make amends for the error and the offending cartridges were
withdrawn but the damage had already been done. There was unrest in several places.
 In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a sepoy in Barrackpore, had refused to use the cartridge and
attacked his senior officers.
o He was hanged to death on 8 th April.
o On 9th May, 85 soldiers in Meerut refused to use the new rifle and were sentenced to ten
years’ imprisonment.

 Centres of The Revolt

The revolt spread over the entire area from the neighbourhood of Patna to the borders of
Rajasthan. The main centres of revolt in these regions namely Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly,
Jhansi, Gwalior and Arrah in Bihar.

 Lucknow: it was the capital of Awadh. Begum Hazrat Mahal, one of the begums of the ex-
king of Awadh, took up the leadership of the revolt.
 Kanpur: the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
o He joined the revolt primarily because he was deprived of his pension by the British.
o The victory was short- lived. Kanpur was recaptured by the British after fresh
reinforcements arrived.
o The revolt was suppressed with terrible vengeance.
o Nana Saheb escaped but his brilliant commander Tantia Tope
o continued the struggle.
o Tantia Tope was finally defeated, arrested and hanged.
 Jhansi: the twenty-two-year-old Rani Lakshmi Bai led the rebels when the British refused to
accept the claim of her adopted son to the throne of Jhansi.
o She fought gallantly against the British forces but was ultimately defeated by the English.
 Gwalior: After Rani Lakshmi Bai escaped, she was joined by Tantia Tope and together they
 marched to Gwalior and captured it.
o Fierce fighting followed where the Rani of Jhansi fought like a tigress but died, fighting to
the very end.
o Gwalior was recaptured by the British.
 Bihar: the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh who belonged to a royal house of Jagdispur, Bihar.

 Suppression and The Revolt

 The Revolt of 1857 lasted for more than a year. It was suppressed by the middle of 1858.
 On July 8, 1858, fourteen months after the outbreak at Meerut, peace was finally proclaimed by
Lord Canning.

Places of Revolt Indian Leaders British Officials who suppressed the revolt
Delhi Bahadur Shah II John Nicholson
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal Henry Lawrence
Kanpur Nana Saheb Sir Colin Campbell
Jhansi & Gwalior Lakshmi Bai & Tantia Tope General Hugh Rose
Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan Sir Colin Campbell
Allahabad and Banaras Maulvi Liyakat Ali Colonel Oncell
Bihar Kunwar Singh William Taylor

 Why did the Revolt Fail?

 Limited uprising: although the revolt was fairly widespread, a large part of the country
remained unaffected by it.
o The revolt was mainly confined to the Doab region. Sind, Rajputana, Kashmir, most parts
of Punjab.
o The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as
the smaller ones of Rajputana, did not join the rebellion
o The southern provinces did not take part in it.
 No effective leadership: the rebels lacked an effective leader. Although Nana Saheb, Tantia
Tope and Rani Lakshmi Bai were brave leaders, they could not offer effective leadership to
the movement as a whole.
 Limited resources: the rebels lacked resources in terms of men and money. The English,
on the other hand, received a steady supply of men, money and arms in India.
 No participation of the middle class: The English educated middle class, the rich
merchants, traders and zamindars of Bengal helped the British to suppress the revolt.

 Results of The Revolt

 End of company rule: the great uprising of 1857 was an important landmark in the
history of modern India.
  The revolt marked the end of the East India Company’s rule in India.
 Direct rule of the British Crown: India now came under the direct rule of the British
Crown.
o This was announced by Lord Canning at a Durbar in Allahabad in a proclamation issued
on 1 November 1858 in the name of the Queen.
o The Indian administration was taken over by Queen Victoria, which, in effect, meant the
British Parliament.
o The India office was created to handle the governance and the administration of the
country.
 Religious tolerance: it was promised and due attention was paid to the customs and
traditions of India.
 Administrative change: the Governor General’s office was replaced by that of the Viceroy.
o The rights of Indian rulers were recognised.
o he Doctrine of Lapse was abolished.
o The right to adopt sons as legal heirs was accepted.
 Military reorganisation: the ratio of British officers to Indian soldiers increased but the
armoury remained in the hands of the English. It was arranged to end the dominance of the
Bengal army.

OR
 QUICK REVISION MODULE
(UPSC PRELIMS 2024) MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

REVOLT OF 1857

The Revolt of 1857 is a watershed event in history of

India’s struggle against the foreign rule. But it was no
sudden occurrence rather it was the culmination of a
century long traditions of fierce popular
resistance to British domination in India.

Prior to this, the mutinies and rebellions remained

sporadic or local affairs. However, the scale and spread
of the Revolt of 1857 was larger. Sepoys at many centre
mutinied and this was accompanied by civil
disturbances.

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 CAUSES OF THE REVOLT

ECONOMIC CAUSES POLITICAL CAUSES SOCIO-RELIGIOUS OTHER CAUSES

CAUSES

Policies such as Racial overtones Administrative

Peasants were „Effective and a Causes:
impoverished by Control‟, superiority Rampant
heavy taxation. „Subsidiary complex of British corruption in the
Alliance‟ and and activities of Company’s
„Doctrine of Christian administration.
Lapse‟. missionaries.

Socio-religious British suffered

Moneylenders Annexation of reform like serious losses
and traders Awadh in 1856 abolition of sati, in 1st Afghan
emerged as the on the pretext of widow remarriage War (1838-42),
new landlords. maladministration. and women’s Punjab War
education. (1845-49),
Crimean Wars
(1854-56),
Santhal rebellion
(1855-57).

Attempt to take
Annexation of cut Government’s Immidiate
away the nominal
off the source of decision to tax Cause:
authority of the
patronage for mosque and Discontent
native Princes
artisans and temple lands. amoung the
and their
handicraftsmen. Indian Sepoys.
pensions were
greatly reduced.

Satara (1848), Legislative

Land rights
Nagpur, measures, like
zamindars
Sambalpur and Religious
were often
Baghat (1850), Disabilities Act,
forfeited with
Udaipur (1852) 1856 declared
frequent use of
and Jhansi that change of
a quo
(1853) were religion did not
warranto.
annexed unsing debar a son from
Doctrine of Lapse. inheriting the
property.

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 DISCONTENT AMONG SEPOYS

Restrictions on wearing General Service Unequal emoluments There had been a

caste and sectarian Enlistment Act compared to his British long history of
marks and rumors of decreed that all counterpart and denial revolts in the
proselytizing future recruits to the of Foreign Service British Indian Army
activities of Bengal Army would allowance (bhatta) - Bengal (1764),
chaplains. have to give an when serving in Sind or Vellore (1806),
undertaking to serve in Punjab. Barrackpore (1825)
anywhere as might and during the
be required by the Afghan Wars
Government. (1838-42).

BEGINNING OF THE REVOLT

May 10, 1857
March 29, 1857 Mutiny started at
Mangal Pandey of 34th Merrut
Native Infantry killed
Hugeson and Baugh on May 11,1857
parade at Barakpore. Marching soldiers arrived in
Delhi.
April 23, 1857 82 year old, Bahadur Shah
80 soldiers of the 3 Light Zafar was declared the
Cavalry who refused to use Shahenshan-e-Hindustan
the cartridges were court (Emperor of the India).
martialled.

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All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of Vision IAS.

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 SPREAD OF THE REVOLT, ASSOCIATE LEADERS
AND BRITISH SUPPRESSORS

DELHI

Leaders: Bahadur Shah|| „Zafar

and Gen Bakht Khan.
Suppressors: Archdale Wilson, BAREILLY
FAIZABAD
Nicholson and Sir John Lawrence Leaders:Khan
Note: Bahadur Shah||surrendered Leaders: Maulvi
Bahadur.
and was exited with his favourite Ahmadullah
Queen zinnat MAHAL in Note: Ahmadullah killed
Rangaoon.He died on November in an encounter in June
7,1862. 1858.
Three of his younger sons were shot
dead publicity at khooni darwaza
,Delhi.

KANPUR

Leaders: Nana Saheb

Note: Nana Sahib was
LUCKNOW defeated and escaped to Nepal
Suppressors: Sir Huge
Leaders: Begam Hazrat Wheeler and Sir Colin
Mahal .Suppressor:Henry Campbell.
Lawrence,Brigadier
Inglis,Hennry
Havelock,James Outram
and Sir Colin Campell.
NOTE:Begam hazar mahal JAGDISPUR
escaped to Nepal.
(Arah) Leaders: Kunwar
Singh (and his brother Amar
Singh)
Supressors: William Taylor
and Vincet Eye
Note: Kunwar Singh was
wounded and died on 26th
April 1858.
JHANSI

Leaders: Rani laxmibai

Suppressor: sir Hugh Rose
Note: she was joined by Tantya Tope, A close associate by Nana
saheb,after the loss of kanpur.
She met her death on june 17,1858,during the battle for
Gwalior.
Betrayed by a Zamindar friend, Tope was captured while sleeping
and was sentenced tp death on April 15,1859.

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 OTHER LEADERS

Azimullah Kadam
Liyaqat Ali Devi Singh Shah Mal
Khan Singh
(Allahabad) (Mathura) (Baghpat)
(Fatehpur) (Merrut)

NOTE: By the end of 1859, British authority over India was fully re-established:
British adopted the policy of „no prisoners‟, which meant that the rebels were
executed en masse. This British retaliation is called „the Devil‟s Wind‟.
Large numbers of rebels were tied to the mouth of the cannons and
blown to bits. Sometimes the entire pro-rebel villages were wiped out.

REASONS FOR FAILURE OF THE REVOLT

Lacked all India participation

The eastern, southern and western part of the country mostly
remained unaffected. The revolt was mainly localised in central
India.

Poor participation from all section of the society.

Educated Indians, money lenders, talukdars, and merchants didnot
particpate in the revolt. Also, most of the Indian rulers refused to join.
Example: Scindia of Gwalior, Holkars of Indore, etc.

Weak leadership with lack of coordination

The principal leaders, Nana Sahib, Tantya Tope, Kunwar Singh, and
Laxmibai, were no match to their British opponents in generalships like
Lawrence Brothers, John Nicholson, etc.

Indian Soldiers were poorly equipped materially

They fought generally with swords and spears and very few guns and
muskets. Whereas, British troops were well trained and equipped with
Enfield rifles and electric telegraph.

Other Resons
Punjab didn’t rise in revolt because of which the British army deployed
in large numbers in the region could be redeployed for tackling the
rebels. Gurkha soldiers sided with the British.

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 CHANGES INTRODUCED AFTER THE
SUPPRESSION OF THE REVOLT

English East India Governor- Board of Directors Indian Army was

Company’s rule General of India and Board of thoroughly
came to an end. was given an Control were reorganized. It had
Government of additional title, abolished and office a higher proportion
India Act, the Viceroy and of the Secretary of of Europeans in it
1858, declared was a State for India was and were
Queen Victoria as representative of created who was responsible for
the sovereign of the Crown. assisted by an manning the
British India. Indian Council of artillery and the
15 members. field.

Concrete efforts Administrative Unconditional British actively

were made to changes were pardon was pursued the policy
woo the Native made in the granted to the of “Divide and
Princes as allies. executive, rebels except Rule” towards the
The policy of legislative and those who had general population.
ruthless conquest judicial arenas been responsible British adopted a
in India was given with greater for the murder of conservative attitude
up. participation the British during towards the
of Indians. the revolt. Muslims.

SIGNIFICANCE OF REVOLT OF 1857

Voiced the grievances

of various classes.

It had seeds of nationalism and

It acted as an inspiration for later
anti- imperialism. But the concept
phase of Indian freedom struggle.
of common nationality and nationhood
was not inherent to the revolt of 1857.

It was written about and discussed

not only within Indai but also It led to reforms in Indian
outside by Benjamin Disraeli, Karl admistrative, legislative and
Marx, etc. executive setup.

There was complete cooperation

between Hindus and Muslims at
all levels- people, soldiers, leaders.

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 HINDU-MUSLIM UNITY

The events of 1857 demonstrated that the India was not communal before 1858:
Complete cooperation between Hindus and Muslims at all the levels—people,
soldiers, leaders.
All leaders acknowledged Bahadur Shah Zafar, as the emperor.
Rebels and sepoys, both Hindu and Muslim, respected each other’s sentiments. For example:
immediate banning of cow slaughter.
Both Hindus and Muslims were well represented in leadership. For example: Nana
Saheb had Azimullah, an expert in political propaganda, as his aide. Similarly, Rani Laxmibai
had the solid support of Afghan soldiers.

NATURE OF THE REVOLT

“The Indian War of Savarkar called the revolt as the first war of Indian
Independence, 1857” - V.D. independence. He interpreted it as a “planned war of
Savarkar national independence”.

“Eighteen FiftySeven” - Dr He considers the revolt as having begun as a fight for

S.N. Sen religion but ending as a war of independence.

Dr R.C. Majumdar He considers it as neither the first, nor national, nor a

war of independence as large parts of the country
remained unaffected and many sections of the people took no
part in the upsurge.

“Discovery of India” - He considered the revolt of 1857 as essentially a feudal

Jawaharlal Nehru uprising though there were some nationalistic
elements in it.

M.N. Roy He felt the revolt was a last ditch stand of feudalism
against commercial capitalism.

R.P. Dutt He saw it as revolt of the peasantry against foreign

domination.

James Outram “A Mohammedan conspiracy making capital of Hindu

grievances”

S.B. Chaudhuri The revolt was “the first combined attempt of many
classes of people to challenge a foreign power.”

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UNIT:-9 NATIONAL MOVEMENT
The rise of national consciousness in India took place towards the latter half of the 19th
century only. Before that, there were struggles and battles against British colonialism
but they were all confined to smaller areas and in any case, did not encompass the
whole of India. In fact, some scholars at the time did not consider India to be a country.
Though political union had occurred in the past under great kings like Ashoka and
Akbar and under the Marathas to an extent, they were not permanent. However,
cultural unity was always seen and foreign powers always referred to the subcontinent
as India or Hind as being one entity, despite being ruled by many rulers.

It can be said that the national movement, with the political and social emancipation of
the people as its aim, arose in India in 1885, with the formation of the Indian National
Congress.

 List of 14 National Movements in India - From 1885 to 1947

British dominance reached its pinnacle in the nineteenth century. The "Revolt of 1857"
or the "Mutiny of 1857" was a revolt by peasants and unemployed soldiers in response
to the dissatisfaction and discontent of the local authorities. From here, the list of
national movements in India was triggered and led to major Indian freedom
movements.

The national movements in India from 1857 to 1947 are documented below.

i. 1857 - Revolt of 1857; Sepoy Mutiny

ii. 1885 - Foundation Of Indian National Congress
iii. 1905 - Swadeshi Movement
iv. 1906 - Muslim League Founded
v. 1914 - Gadar Party Movement
vi. 1916-1918 - Home Rule Movement
vii. 1917 - Champaran Satyagraha
viii. 1917 - Kheda Satyagraha
ix. 1918 - Ahmedabad Mill Strike
x. 1919 - Rowlatt Satyagraha
xi. 1920 - Khilafat And Non-Cooperation Movement
xii. 1930 - Civil Disobedience Movement
xiii. 1940 - Individual Satyagraha
xiv. 1942 - Quit India Movement est Re-Attempts

 Indian National Movements - In Brief

The Indian National Movements refer to various mass movements that emerged in India
during the colonial period. Various political parties and organizations led these
movements. They worked tirelessly to bring an end to British colonialism in India.
Here's a brief overview of the major Indian National Movements:
1) Revolt of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny)

The Revolt of 1857, also known as India's First War of Independence or the first
freedom movement in India, took place on May 10, 1857. It occurred in various
locations, including Meerut, Delhi, Agra, Kanpur, and Lucknow.

 Causes

o Introduction of ‘Enfield’s rifle and rumor spread that its cartridge was greased
with pig & cow fat.
o Introduction of land revenue policies by the British East India Company.
o Inefficient and Ineffective administration of the British East India Company
o Introduction of Doctrine of Lapse by Lord Dalhousie
o Introduction of the Religious Disabilities Act to modify Hindu customs

 Impact

o End of Dualism, company and crown rule

o Appointment of British officials in civil and military administration.
o Reduction in Indian troops and increase in British troops.
o Pursuance of Divide and Rule policy
o The passing of the Indian Civil Service Act of 1861

 Key Personalities

o Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope, Rani Laxmi Bai, Bahadur Shah Zafar, and Mangal
Pandey, Man Singh, and Kunwar Singh.

 Outcome

o The 1857 revolt failed because of the lack of participation of the local masses and
no central leadership.
o Many Indian rulers, such as Maharaja of Kashmir and Holkar of Indore Sindhia of
Gwalior, did not join the 1857 revolt.

2) Partition of Bengal

The Partition of Bengal was a political act of the British Indian government in 1905. It
divided the province of Bengal into two parts:

o a Muslim-majority Eastern Bengal and Assam, and

o a Hindu-majority Bengal, with its capital at Calcutta.

 Date/Year

o Announced on 20 July 1905 and carried out on 16 October 1905

 Causes

o Britishers Divide and Rule Policy

o To segregate Indians on religious grounds.
o Rise of Nationalism in India

 Impact

o Boycott of British products

o Start of nationalism

 Outcome

o Radical nationalism was triggered due to the partition of Bengal.

3) Swadeshi Movement

The Swadeshi Movement was a socio-political movement that began in India in the early
20th century in Kolkata.

 Date/Year

o August 7, 1905

 Causes

o Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon

o Lack of political power with Indians

 Impact

o Self-reliance or Atma Shakti asserting pride, honor, and confidence in one's

country.
o People learned how to oppose and disobey the British government.

 Key Personalities

o Dadabhai Naoroji, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Ganesh Vyankatesh Joshi, Gopal Krishna
Gokhale, and Mahadev Govind Ranade,

 Outcome

o Revival of the Indian Cottage Industry

o Establishments of Swadeshi textile mills and soap factories.
o Rise of nationalism
4) All India Muslim League

All India Muslim League was founded by Agha Khan on 30th December 1906 in Dhaka,
Bangladesh.

 Objective: To represent Indian Muslims and convey their distinct identity to the
British government.
 Causes: To protect Muslims' political rights, express such rights to the government,
and stop Muslims from developing intolerance toward other communities in India.
 Impact: It established the presumption that because Hindus and Muslims belong to
separate cultures, they cannot coexist in the same nation.
 Key Personalities: Khwaja Salimullah, Syed Amir Ali, Syed Nabiullah, and Mustafa
Chowdhury.

5) Surat Split

The Surat Split was a significant event in the history of the Indian National Congress. It
occurred in 1907 during INC's 22nd session in Surat, Gujarat.

 Causes: Controversies between Moderates and Extremists

 Impact: Minto-Morley Reform of 1909
 Key Personalities: Moderates and Extremists
 Outcome: The Surat Split gave the Indian National Congress a boost because it gave
the British administration a chance to distinguish between moderates and
extremists.

6) Minto-Morley Reforms or Indian Councils Act

The Minto-Morley Reforms was also known as the Indian Councils Act of 1909. It was a
significant constitutional reform in British India. It introduced limited elected
representation for Indians in the legislative councils of the British Indian government.

 Objective: To increase Indian participation in the Central and Provincial

Administration.
 Key Personalities: John Morley, Secretary, and Viceroy Lord Minto
 Outcome: Introduction of the system of communal representation for Muslims and
the idea of a separate electorate was introduced.

7) Ghadar Party Movement

The Ghadar Party was a political and revolutionary movement founded in 1913 by
Indian expatriates in North America. The party was formed to overthrow British
colonial rule in India.

 Date/Year: 15 July 1913

 Objective: To free India of revolutionary activities through their newspaper
"Ghadar," which they propagandized against the British and their allies.
 Key Personalities: Lala Har Dayal, Pandit Kanshi Ram Maroli, Mohammed
Barkatullah, Bhagwan Singh, Taraknath Das, Bhai Parmanand, Harnam Singh
‘Tundilat’.

8) Komagata Maru Incident

In April 1914, a group of British Indians sought to immigrate to Canada on the Japanese
ship "Komagata Maru." Most of them were turned away and compelled to return to
Calcutta, India. Read more on Komagata Maru Incident with the linked article.

 Date/Year: April 4, 1914

 Location: Calcutta
 Impact: After a two-month standoff in the waters just outside Vancouver, the ship
was eventually towed back out to sea by the Canadian Navy. After the ship reached
India, 19 passengers were shot dead as they exited, and others were detained.
 Outcome: The incident angered the populace and served as a venue for attacks
against British citizens.

9) Home Rule Movement

The Home Rule Movement was political and social. It emerged in India during the early
20th century. It aimed to demand self-rule and self-governance for India within the
British Empire.

 Date/Year: 1916-1918
 Founders: Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak
 Location: Madras
 Objective: To build confidence among Indians to speak against the government's
suppression.
 Outcome: Unification of Moderates and Extremists; Annie Besant was elected
President in the Calcutta Session in 1917

10) Champaran Satyagraha

The Champaran Satyagraha was a civil disobedience movement. It was led by Mahatma
Gandhi in the Champaran district of Bihar, India, in 1917.

 Objective: First satyagraha led by Mahatma Gandhi.

 Causes: Under British rule, farmers were compelled to grow indigo on their
property.
 Key Personalities: Mahatma Gandhi
 Outcome: Champaran Agrarian Act 1918 was signed by the Governor General of
India

11) Kheda Satyagraha

The Kheda Satyagraha was a nonviolent civil disobedience movement. It was led by
Mahatma Gandhi in the Kheda district of Gujarat, India, in 1918.
 Causes: Farmers protested against the collection of taxes in the wake of the famine
 Key Personalities: Mahatma Gandhi
 Outcome: British suspended the tax for two years ( current and next year).

12) Rowlatt Act

The Imperial Legislative Council passed Rowlatt Act to counter the militant nationalist
upsurge. It was also known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act.

 Date/Year: 1919
 Objective: To allow the British Government to Jail any suspected terrorist activities
without trial.
 Founder: Rowlatt Committee, Sir Sydney Rowlatt.
 Outcome: Due to protests and following Jalliawala Bagh Massacre, it was repealed in
1922.

13) Jalliawala Bagh Massacre

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, also known as the Amritsar Massacre, was tragic on
April 13, 1919. It occurred in the Jallianwala Bagh public garden in Amritsar, Punjab,
India.

 Causes: To protest against Rowlatt Act

 Key Personalities: British General Reginald Dyer, who ordered shot fire.
 Outcome: This massacre led to unrest in India

14) Non-Cooperation Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement was a significant civil disobedience movement. It was

launched by the Indian National Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi in
1920 to achieve India's independence from British colonial rule.

 Objective

o To oppose British rule and get complete independence in India.

 Causes

o Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and Resulted in Punjab Disturbance

o Dissatisfaction with Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
o Economic hardships due to World War I

 Key Personalities

o Mahatama Gandhi, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, M.N. Roy, Debi
Basanti
 Outcome

o The goal of Purma Swaraj was not achieved. However, along with the
establishment of numerous Indian institutions and universities, the nation's
unity was enhanced.

15) Moplah Rebellion

The Moplah Rebellion was also known as the Malabar Rebellion. It was an armed
uprising by Muslim peasants and tenant farmers against the British colonial authorities
and Hindu landlords. It occurred in the Malabar region of Kerala, India, in 1921.

 Causes

o Suppression of poor peasants by Muslims

 Impact

o The uprising launched a counter-campaign against the "fanaticism" of Muslims in

other regions of the nation.
o In Malabar, the revolt also inspired educated Muslim groups to join the fighting
to save their community.
o The post-rebellion Muslim reform movement in Malabar received its impetus
from the Moplah Rebellion.

 Key Personalities

o Variyamkunnath Kunhamed Haji

16) Bardoli Satyagraha

The Bardoli Satyagraha was a nonviolent civil disobedience movement led by Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel. It occurred in the Bardoli taluka of Gujarat, India, in 1928.

 Causes: The British government forced the farmers of Bardoli to pay higher and
unfair taxes.
 Key Personalities: Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel
 Outcome: The land seized from the peasants was given back to them. The revenue
decreased by 6.03 percent.

17) Simon Commission

The Simon Commission was a British parliamentary commission. It was sent to India in
1927 to review and recommend changes to the Indian constitutional system. Sir John
Simon headed the commission. It was composed entirely of British members and had no
Indian representation.
 Objective: To assess the effectiveness of the Government of India Act 1919 and
determine the country's political future
 Impact: Young people from a new generation started participating in politics. They
took part in the demonstration in the most vigorous fashion.
 Key Personality: Sir John Simon, Clement Attlee
 Outcome: India opposed it because the commission had no Indian representatives.

18) Civil Disobedience Movement

The Civil Disobedience Movement was a nonviolent campaign of civil disobedience and
non-cooperation. It was launched by Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress
in 1930.

 Location: Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, Gujarat

 Objective: To protest about tax against the British salt monopoly
 Key Personalities: Mahatma Gandhi, Sarojini Naidu, C Rajagopalachari
 Outcome: It became a mass satyagraha and created awareness among people.

19) Gandhi-Irwin Pact

The Gandhi-Irwin Pact is also known as the Delhi Pact. It was an agreement signed
between Mahatma Gandhi, representing the Indian National Congress, and Lord Irwin,
the then Viceroy of India, in 1931.

 Objective

o To revoke all laws and prosecutions.

o To allow the free gathering or production of salt
o To release all political prisoners
o To restore the satyagraha's confiscated property.

 Key Personalities

o Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin

20) Government of India Act, 1935

The Government of India Act 1935 was a significant constitutional reform passed by the
British Parliament to govern British India.

 Objective: An Act to make provisions related to the Government of India.

 Enacted by: Parliament of the United Kingdom
 Territorial Extent: Territories under direct British control
21) August Offer

The August Offer was a proposal made by the British government in August 1940
during World War II. The offer was made in response to growing demands for Indian
independence.

What is August's Offer?

Viceroy Linlithgow presented the "August Offer" in 1940. He made the following
pledges:

 to include more Indians on the Executive Council of the Viceroy of India,

 to establish an advising war council,
 to give full weight to the minority opinion, and
 to recognize Indians' freedom to create their constitution.

Outcome

o In a conference held at Wardha on August 21, 1940, the Congress Government

rejected the August Offer.
o Due to the British only guaranteeing the country's Dominion Status and not full
sovereignty, the proposal was rejected.

22) Quit India Movement

The Quit India Movement was a mass civil disobedience movement. It was launched by
Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress in 1942, demanding an end to
British colonial rule in India.

 Location: UP, Bihar, Midnapore, Karnataka, Maharashtra

 Objective: To end British rule in India
 Key Personalities: Mahatma Gandhi
 Outcome: INC was declared an unauthorized organization and mass participation of
people in a positive way.

23) Cripps Mission

The Cripps Mission was a delegation sent by the British government to India in 1942. Sir
Stafford Cripps led it. It was sent to negotiate a constitutional framework for India's
post-independence political future.

 Objective: To ensure complete Indian cooperation and assistance for their World
War II efforts.
 Outcome: The British and the INC viewed the Cripps measures as too conservative
and radical, respectively. The Muslim League, the INC, and other Indian
organizations rejected the Mission.
24) Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference

The Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference were two related events in 1945. These
occurred as part of the British government's efforts to negotiate a solution to the Indian
independence question.

 Objective: Wavell Plan was introduced to resolve the deadlock in India, and Shimla
Conference was a meeting held to discuss Wavell Plan.
 Founder: Lord Wavell, Viceroy of India
 Outcome: Disagreement over the question of Muslim participation caused the
failure of Wavell's plan at the Shimla Conference.

25) Cabinet Mission Plan

The Cabinet Mission Plan was a proposal made by a British delegation in 1946. It was
led by Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A.V. Alexander. It aimed to
resolve the deadlock between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League over
India's independence.

 Founder

o Clement Attlee, then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.

 Objective

o To ascertain how India can peacefully assume independence.

 Key Personalities

o Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade

o Pethick Lawrence, Secretary of State for India
o A.V. Alexander, the first Lord of Admiralty

26) Partition of India 1947

The Partition of India in 1947 divided British India into two separate countries, India
and Pakistan, based on religious lines.

 Objective: Lord Mountbatten set the partition date as 15 August 1947.

 Outcome: British India was divided into two independent Dominions, India and
Pakistan.

 Causes of the rise of the National Movement in India

1) Western education
Macaulay had instituted a western educational system in India with the sole aim of
creating a class of educated Indians who could serve their colonial masters in the
administration of the ‘natives’. This idea sort of backfired because it created a class of
Indians who became exposed to the liberal and radical thoughts of European writers
who expounded liberty, equality, democracy and rationality. Also, the English language
united Indians from various regions and religions.

2) Vernacular languages
The 19th century also saw the revival of vernacular languages. This helped the
propagation of the ideas of liberty and rational thought to the masses.

3) End of the old social order

British imperialism put an end to the old social order of the country. This was resented
by many Indians.

4) Socio-religious reform movements

Socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century helped a great deal in the rise of
nationalism in India. These movements sought to remove superstition and societal evils
prevalent then, and spread the word of unity, rational and scientific thought, women
empowerment and patriotism among the people. Notable reformers were Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotiba Phule and so on.

5) Economic policies of the British

The oppressive economic policies of the British led to widespread poverty and
indebtedness among the Indians especially farmers. Famines which led to the deaths of
lakhs were a regular occurrence. This led to a bitter sense of suppression and sowed the
seeds of a yearning for liberty from foreign rule.

6) Political unity
Under the British, most parts of India were put under a single political set-up. The
system of administration was consolidated and unified throughout all regions. This
factor led to the feeling of ‘oneness’ and nationhood among Indians.

7) Communications network
The British built a network of roads, railways, post and telegraph systems in the
country. This led to increased movements of people from one part of the country to
another and increased the flow of information. All this accelerated the rise of a national
movement in India.

8) Growth of the modern press

This period also saw the rise of the Indian press, both in English and in the regional
languages. This also was an important factor that helped in the dissemination of
information.

9) Lord Lytton’s policies

Lord Lytton was the Viceroy of India from 1876 to 1880. In 1876, there was a famine in
south Indian which saw the deaths of almost 10 million people. His trading policies
were criticised for having aggravated the famine. Also, he conducted the grand Delhi
Durbar in 1877 spending huge amount of money at a time when people were dying of
hunger.

Lytton also passed the Vernacular Press Act 1878 which authorised the government to
confiscate newspapers that printed ‘seditious material’. He also passed the Arms Act
1878 which prohibited Indians from carrying weapons of any kind without licenses. The
act excluded Englishmen.

10)Legacy of the Revolt of 1857

After the Revolt of 1857 and its bitter crushing by the British, there was deep racial
tension between the British and the Indians.

11)Ilbert Bill controversy

In 1883, the Ilbert Bill was introduced which gave Indian judges the power to hear cases
against European, by the then Viceroy Lord Ripon and Sir Courtenay Ilbert, the legal
advisor to the Council of India. But there was a huge outcry against this bill from
Britishers in India and in Britain. Arguments made against this bill displayed the deep
racial prejudice the English had for Indians. This also exposed the true nature of British
colonialism to the educated Indians.

12)National movements outside the country

There were many national movements outside the country that inspired the Indian
nationalists like the French Revolution, the American War of Independence and so on.

OR
Indian National Movement
The Indian National Movement, a pivotal chapter in the annals of India’s history,
represents a stirring saga of determination, resilience, and collective aspiration for
independence from British colonial rule. Spanning several decades and marked by a
diverse array of leaders, ideologies, and strategies, this movement became the crucible
in which the Indian subcontinent’s destiny was reshaped. It was a monumental struggle
that galvanized millions of Indians across the length and breadth of the nation,
 transcending barriers of language, religion, and caste, and ultimately led to the
emergence of independent India in 1947. The Indian National Movement remains a
testament to the power of unity, non-violent resistance, and the pursuit of justice, and it
continues to inspire nations around the world in their quests for self-determination and
freedom. This introduction sets the stage for a deeper exploration of the multifaceted
and dynamic journey of the Indian National Movement.

The period between 1885 and 1905 is commonly referred to as the Moderate Phase, led
by moderate leaders. During this time, influential figures like Dadabhai Naoroji,
Pherozshah Mehta, D.E. Wacha, W.C. Bonnerjea, and S.N. Banerjee held prominent
positions in Congress and shaped its policies. These leaders were strong advocates of
“liberalism” and pursued moderate political approaches. They were known as
Moderates to differentiate them from the extremists who emerged in the early
twentieth century. The emergence of Indian nationalism in the late 19th century was
influenced by various factors such as the spread of Western education, socio-religious
reforms, British policies, and other contributing elements.

 Moderate Phase – Features

 During the Moderate Phase, which took place between 1885 and 1905, the Early
Nationalists, commonly known as the Moderates, emerged as a significant group of
political leaders in India, marking the beginning of the organized national movement.
Two prominent moderate leaders were Pherozeshah Mehta and Dadabhai Naoroji.
 The Moderates consisted primarily of educated middle-class professionals, including
lawyers, teachers, and government officials, many of whom had received their
education in England. Their political activities followed a constitutional approach,
focusing on lawful agitation and demonstrating a gradual and orderly political
progression.
 The Moderates held the belief that the British authorities genuinely intended to be fair
to the Indians but lacked awareness of the actual conditions in India. They believed that
by shaping public opinion within the country and presenting public demands through
resolutions, petitions, meetings, and other means, the authorities would gradually meet
these demands.
 To achieve their objectives, the Moderates employed a two-pronged strategy. Firstly,
they aimed to create strong public opinion to awaken consciousness and foster national
spirit among the people. They also worked towards educating and uniting individuals
on common political issues. Secondly, they sought to persuade the British government
and public opinion to implement reforms in India in line with the nationalist agenda.
 In 1899, a British committee of the Indian National Congress was established in London,
serving as its representative body. Dadabhai Naoroji played a significant role in
advocating for India’s cause on international platforms, dedicating a considerable
portion of his life and resources to this endeavor.
 Although there were plans to hold a session of the Indian National Congress in London
in 1892, the proposal was postponed due to the British elections in 1891 and was
subsequently not revived.
  Moderate Phase – Objectives
The objectives of the Moderate Phase during the late 19th and early 20th century in
India were as follows:
 Establish a democratic, nationalist movement: The Moderates aimed to create a
movement that would advocate for the rights and aspirations of the Indian people
within a democratic framework.
 Politicize and politically educate people: The Moderates sought to raise political
awareness among the Indian population, particularly the educated middle class, and
educate them about their rights and responsibilities as citizens.
 Establish a movement’s headquarters: The Moderates aimed to establish a central
headquarters or organization that would serve as a platform for coordinating and
directing nationalist activities throughout the country.
 Promote friendly relations among nationalist political workers: The Moderates
emphasized the importance of fostering friendly relationships and cooperation among
nationalist political workers from different regions of India, to create a unified front
against colonial rule.
 Create and spread an anti-colonial nationalist ideology: The Moderates aimed to
develop and propagate an ideology that emphasized the need to oppose and challenge
British colonial rule in India.
 Formulate and present popular demands to the government: The Moderates believed in
formulating popular demands related to economic and political reforms, which would
serve as a rallying point to unite the Indian people behind a common agenda. These
demands would be presented to the government for consideration.
 Develop and consolidate a sense of national unity: The Moderates worked towards
fostering a sense of national unity among people of all religions, castes, and provinces in
India. They aimed to transcend divisions and create a shared identity based on the idea
of Indian nationhood.
 Promote and cultivate Indian nationhood with care: The Moderates recognized the
importance of nurturing and preserving the concept of Indian nationhood, paying
attention to its development and ensuring its growth thoughtfully and deliberately.

 Moderate Phase – Important Leaders

The Moderate Phase of the Indian national movement was characterized by the
leadership of several prominent figures. Here are some important leaders from that
period:
 Dadabhai Naoroji: Often referred to as the “Grand Old Man of India,” he was the first
Indian to be elected to the British House of Commons. Naoroji authored the influential
book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India,’ which highlighted the economic drain
caused by British policies in India.
 Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee: He served as the first president of the Indian National
Congress (INC). Bonnerjee, a lawyer by profession, was also the first Indian to serve as
Standing Counsel.
 G. Subramania Aiyer: He founded the newspaper ‘The Hindu,’ through which he
criticized British imperialism. Aiyer also established the Tamil newspaper
‘Swadesamitran’ and was a co-founder of the Madras Mahajana Sabha.
 Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Gokhale was an influential leader and political mentor to
Mahatma Gandhi. He founded the Servants of India Society, which aimed to promote
social and political reforms in the country.
 Surendranath Banerjee: Known as ‘Rashtraguru’ and ‘Indian Burke,’ Banerjee founded
the Indian National Association, which later merged with the INC. He was also
associated with the Bengalee newspaper. Banerjee faced racial discrimination when he
was fired from the Indian Civil Service.
 Other notable moderate leaders include Rash Behari Ghosh, R.C. Dutt, M.G.
Ranade, Pherozeshah Mehta, P.R. Naidu, Madan Mohan Malaviya, P. Ananda
Charlu, and William Wedderburn. These leaders played significant roles in
advocating for India’s rights and pushing for political and social reforms during the
Moderate Phase.

 The method used by the Moderates

The Moderates employed several methods to advance their objectives during the
Moderate Phase of the Indian national movement. Here are some of the key approaches
they used:
 Reform Demands and Criticism: The Moderates articulated reform demands and
openly criticized government policies. They highlighted the need for social, economic,
and political reforms in India.
 Emphasis on Patience and Reconciliation: The Moderates believed in peaceful and
non-violent methods. They prioritized patience and reconciliation over violent
confrontations, seeking to resolve issues through dialogue and negotiation.
 Constitutional and Peaceful Means: The Moderates relied on constitutional and
peaceful means to achieve their goals. They adhered to legal frameworks and advocated
for reforms within the existing system.
 Education and Political Consciousness: The Moderates placed great emphasis on
educating people and raising their political consciousness. They aimed to inform and
engage the public on matters of national importance, fostering a sense of political
awareness among the masses.
 Formation of Public Opinion: The Moderates organized lectures and discussions in
different parts of India and England to shape public opinion. They utilized platforms to
generate awareness and garner support for their cause. The publication of the weekly
journal ‘India’ aimed at disseminating information among the British people.
 Criticism through Newspapers and Journals: The Moderates utilized various
newspapers and journals to criticize government policies and advocate for reforms.
Publications like the Bengali newspaper, Bombay Chronicle, Hindustan Times,
Induprakash, Rast Goftar, and the weekly journal India were utilized to voice their
concerns and perspectives.
 Advocacy for Government Investigation: The Moderates called for government
investigations into the problems faced by the people and sought viable solutions to
address these issues.
 Organizing Meetings and Discussions: The Moderates regularly held meetings and
discussions to address social, economic, and cultural issues. These gatherings took place
in various locations, including England, Mumbai, Allahabad, Pune, and Calcutta, among
others.
 By employing these methods, the Moderates sought to create awareness, mobilize
public support, and influence policy-making in their pursuit of reform and progress for
  Contributions of Moderate Nationalists
 Economic Critique of British Imperialism
 The Moderate Nationalists made significant contributions to the Indian national
movement. Here are some key areas where they made their mark:
 Economic Critique of British Imperialism: Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt,
Dinshaw Wacha, and others critically examined the political economy of British rule in
India. They put forth the “drain theory,” which explained the British exploitation of
India’s resources and advocated against the conversion of India’s self-sufficient
economy into a colonial one. They created public opinion that British rule was the
primary cause of India’s poverty and economic backwardness. They called for an end to
economic dependence on Britain, the development of an independent Indian economy,
and the involvement of Indian capital and enterprise.
 Demands for Economic Reforms: The Moderate Nationalists demanded various
economic reforms to alleviate the deprivation in India. They called for a reduction in
inland revenue, the abolition of the salt tax, better working conditions for plantation
laborers, and a decrease in military spending, among other measures. Their economic
demands aimed to address the exploitative practices and policies of British imperialism
in India.
 Advocacy for Constitutional Reforms: Despite limited official power, the Moderate
Nationalists actively participated in India’s legislative councils, which were established
by the Indian Councils Act (1861). They used these platforms to push for constitutional
reforms and to advance the cause of the national movement. While the councils were
initially designed as impotent bodies, the work done by the nationalists within them
helped in the growth of the national movement.
 Council Expansion and Reform: From 1885 to 1892, the Moderate Nationalists
focused on demands for council expansion and reform. They called for greater
participation of Indians in the councils and sought more powers for the councils,
particularly in terms of control over finances. These demands aimed to increase Indian
representation and influence in the decision-making processes of the colonial
administration.
 By highlighting the economic exploitation under British rule, advocating for economic
reforms, and pushing for constitutional changes, the Moderate Nationalists played a
crucial role in shaping public opinion, mobilizing support, and laying the foundation for
the broader Indian national movement.

 Campaign for General Administrative Reform

The Moderate Nationalists campaigned for general administrative reform in India,
advocating for various changes and improvements. Here are the key grounds on which
they campaigned:
 Indianisation of Government Service: The Moderates argued for the inclusion of
Indians in government services. They highlighted the economic benefits of employing
Indians, as British civil servants received high salaries and remitted a significant portion
of their earnings out of India, leading to an economic drain on national resources. They
also emphasized the political and moral aspects, arguing that excluding Indians from
positions of power was discriminatory and unjust.
 Separation of Judicial and Executive Powers: The Moderates criticized the existing
system where the judicial and executive powers were not separated. They advocated for
 the separation of these powers to ensure a more efficient and impartial administration
of justice.
 Criticism of Bureaucracy and Judicial System: The Moderates voiced concerns about the
oppressive and tyrannical nature of the bureaucracy. They highlighted the bureaucratic
inefficiencies and the time-consuming judicial system, calling for reforms to make these
systems more responsive, transparent, and accessible.
 Opposition to Aggressive Foreign Policy: The Moderates criticized the aggressive
foreign policy of the British government, which resulted in actions such as the
annexation of Burma, the invasion of Afghanistan, and the suppression of tribals in the
North West. They argued for a more restrained and just approach to dealing with
foreign affairs.
 Increased Spending on Welfare and Development: The Moderates advocated for
increased government spending on welfare measures such as health and sanitation,
education (particularly elementary and technical education), irrigation works,
agricultural improvements, and the establishment of agricultural banks for cultivators.
They emphasized the need to prioritize social and economic development to improve
the conditions of the Indian population.
 Protection of Indian Laborers in British Colonies: The Moderates raised concerns about
the mistreatment and racial discrimination faced by Indian laborers in other British
colonies. They called for better treatment and protection of the rights of Indian laborers,
highlighting the need for fair and just treatment regardless of their location.
 Through their campaign for general administrative reform, the Moderate Nationalists
aimed to address systemic issues, improve governance, and protect the interests and
well-being of the Indian population.

 Protection of Civil Rights

The Moderate Nationalists actively advocated for the protection of civil rights in their
fight for freedom and independence. They recognized the importance of fundamental
rights such as freedom of expression, thought, association, and the press. Here are some
key points related to their efforts:
 Spread of Democratic Ideas: The Moderate Nationalists embarked on a continuous
campaign to promote modern democratic ideals among the Indian population. They
aimed to raise awareness and consciousness about civil rights and the principles of
democracy.
 Integration of Civil Rights in the Freedom Struggle: As the national movement
progressed, the defense of civil rights became an integral part of the struggle for
freedom. The Moderate Nationalists understood that the preservation of civil liberties
was crucial in challenging colonial oppression and establishing a just and democratic
society.
 Outrage over Arrests and Deportation: The arrest of prominent leaders like Bal
Gangadhar Tilak and several journalists in 1897, as well as the arrest and deportation of
the Natu brothers without a trial, sparked widespread public outrage. These incidents
highlighted the violation of civil rights by the colonial authorities and further fueled the
demand for their protection.
 The Moderate Nationalists fought to safeguard civil rights as they recognized their
significance in ensuring individual freedoms, promoting democratic values, and
challenging oppressive colonial policies.
  Achievements of the Moderates
The Moderate Nationalists made significant achievements in their pursuit of
constitutional reforms and political representation. Here are the key accomplishments
of the Moderates:
 Indian Councils Act of 1892: The Moderates’ demands for constitutional reform were
partially met through the Indian Councils Act of 1892. This act increased the number of
members in the Imperial Legislative Councils and Provincial Legislative Councils,
allowing for greater Indian representation.
 Expansion of Legislative Councils: The act granted additional responsibilities to the
Legislative Councils, such as the ability to engage in budget debates and question the
executive. This expansion of their role gave Indian representatives a platform to voice
their concerns and participate in the decision-making process.
 Implementation of Indirect Elections: The Indian Councils Act introduced indirect
elections (nominations) in both the central and provincial legislative councils. While not
fully elected, these nominations allowed for some Indian representation in the councils.
 Demand for Greater Representation and Budget Control: The Moderates, during
Congress sessions, criticized the limited scope of the reforms. They demanded a
majority of elected Indians in the councils and sought control over the budget. They
argued that elected representatives should have the ability to vote on and amend the
budget, emphasizing the principle of “No taxation without representation.”
 The achievements of the Moderates in securing constitutional reforms and expanding
representation laid the foundation for further advancements in the Indian national
movement. While they faced limitations and continued to advocate for more substantial
changes, their efforts marked an important step forward in the struggle for political
rights and self-governance.

 Limitations of the Moderates

The Moderate Nationalists had certain limitations in their approach and goals within
the national movement. Here are some key limitations:
o Limited Mass Involvement: The Moderate Nationalists were predominantly
composed of educated elites, such as lawyers, teachers, and government officials.
They did not actively seek or prioritize the involvement of the masses in their
movement. Unlike leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, who emphasized mass
participation and mobilization, the Moderates relied more on intellectual and
bureaucratic approaches.
o Distanced from the Masses: The Moderates’ attachment to Western political
thought and their emphasis on constitutional methods sometimes created a
disconnect between them and the broader population. Their intellectual and elite
background made it challenging for them to fully connect with and understand the
aspirations and struggles of the common people.
o Limited Goal of Autonomy: Unlike more radical and revolutionary factions within
the national movement, the Moderates did not aim for complete independence from
British rule. They were content with achieving dominion status, which would grant
increased autonomy and self-rule while still being within the British Empire. This
more moderate stance may have limited their ability to rally broader support for
complete independence.
  It is important to note that these limitations should be understood in the context
of the specific time and circumstances in which the Moderate Phase operated.
While they had their constraints, the Moderates played a significant role in laying
the foundation for the subsequent stages of the Indian national movement.

 Evaluation of Early Nationalist

The evaluation of the Early Nationalists, also known as the Moderates, can be seen in
the following light:
o Progressive Forces: The Early Nationalists represented the most progressive forces
in India during their time. They advocated for constitutional reforms, civil rights,
and economic independence from British imperialism. Their ideas and actions were
instrumental in shaping the early stages of the national movement.
o National Awakening: The Moderates played a significant role in creating a
widespread national awakening among Indians. They emphasized the need for unity
and a sense of belonging to one nation, uniting people across regions, religions, and
castes in the common struggle against colonial rule.
o Political Education and Modern Ideas: The Moderates actively worked to educate
people about politics and popularize modern ideas. They played a crucial role in
raising political consciousness and spreading awareness among the masses.
o Exposing Exploitative Colonial Rule: The Moderates effectively exposed the
exploitative nature of colonial rule in India. They highlighted the economic drain and
social injustices caused by British policies, undermining the moral foundations of
colonialism.
o Realistic and Grounded Approach: The political work of the Moderates was based
on hard realities rather than shallow sentiments or religious factors. They focused
on practical reforms and gradual progress within the existing system, aiming to
govern India in the interests of Indians.
o Foundation for a Mass-Based Movement: The Moderates laid the groundwork for
a more vigorous and mass-based national movement that would follow in the years
ahead. Their efforts provided a foundation for future leaders and organizations to
mobilize the masses and broaden the struggle for independence.
o Limitations in Broadening the Base: One of the criticisms of the Moderates is their
limited ability to broaden their democratic base and expand the scope of their
demands. They primarily represented the educated elite and did not actively engage
or involve the larger masses in the movement.
 In conclusion, the Early Nationalists, or Moderates, played a crucial role in the Indian
national movement. They brought progressive ideas, created national awakenings,
exposed colonial exploitation, and laid the groundwork for future mass-based
movements. However, their limitations in broadening their base and expanding
demands are also acknowledged.
UNIT:-10 ARABIC & TURKISH INVASION OF INDIA
 The Arab rule was established in Sindh in 712 A.D. This led to a series of changes
in North India during 1100-1300 AD.
 The reason for these changes can mainly be attributed to the increasing Turkish
attacks in North India.
 The Umayyads ruled the Arab lands during the period of 661-750 AD. Their rule
was followed by the Abbasids in 750 AD who changed the dominance of the
military in Arab administration. The civil wars for succession of this last great
Caliph Harun al Rashid shook the foundations of the Abbasid Empire.
 This gradual decline of the Abbasid Empire gave way to the emergence of a number
of small independent kingdoms during the 10th Century AD, the Jahirids, the
Safavids, the Buwayhids, Qara-Khanids and the Samanids. The Turkish slaves
rose to prominence in the administration and army due to the patronage of
Caliph al-Mu’tasim (833-842 AD).
 These Turks brought with them loot and plunder. Their main method of warfare was
a combination of rapid advances and retreats accompanied with lightning
raids. This method was successful to a large extent as they used horses.
 In India, the arrival of the Turks was overlooked on the northern frontiers as there
was a power struggle growing on in North India due to the breakup of the Gurjara-
Pratihara Empire.

 Ghaznavids

 The state was a product of the acculturation of the Turkish tribesman in the
institutions of settled societies. Considerable changes were seen in the Turkish
organization and direction after they came into contact with the Mongols.
 In the 10th century AD, these Ghaznavids became a prominent force in central Asia
and defenders of Islam from the Central Asian tribes.
 The new class of soldiers emerged during this time known as the Ghazi. Ghazi was a
missionary as well as a fighter as their battle was against Turks, most of who
 worshipped the forces of nature and were heathens in the eyes of the Muslims. The
Ghazi acted as an auxiliary unit and made up for his pay by plunder done by him
during raids.
 Alaptgin, the Samanid governor and slave of the Turkish origin, established an
independent kingdom at Ghazni.
 Abu Mansur Sabuktigin (942-997 AD) was Alaptgin’s slave and married his
daughter. He later founded the Ghaznavid dynasty on the ruins of the declining
Abbasid Caliphate.
 The Ghaznavids rose to prominence under the reign of Mahmud of
Ghazni (998-1030 AD).

 Mahmud of Ghazni

 Mahmud of Ghazni is considered to be a great Islamic hero by medieval historians

for his role in protecting and preserving Islam from the constant attacks of the
Central Asian Tribes that invaded the region.
 He was the son of Sabuktigin, the founder of Ghaznavid dynasty. Mahmud of
Ghazni took over his father’s reigns after defeating Ismail in the Battle of Ghazni.
Mahmud of Ghazni declared himself as Sultan.
 He declared himself free from the protection of Samanid dynasty. Under the
reign of Mahmud of Ghazni, the Ghazi spirit was raised by many folds. He was
responsible for the renaissance of the Iranian spirit. Mahmud of Ghazni is
considered to the predecessor of the Delhi sultanate in India.
 Iranian Renaissance

 The proud Iranians had never accepted the Arabic language and culture.
The Samanid state had also encouraged the Persian language and literature.
 A high water mark in the Iranian Renaissance was reached with Firdausi’s
Shahnama. There was a resurgence of Iranian patriotism and Persian language and
culture now became the language and culture of the Ghaznavids Empire.
 During this period, the Turks not only became Islamized but also Persianized.

 Indian Invasions
 Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Indian kingdoms frequently and plundered Indian
cities and temples. He took away huge quantity of wealth from India and killed
her people in thousands.
 He made the Shahi kingdom out of existence which had been guarding the north
frontiers against foreign invaders. Mahmud also made Punjab and Afghanistan a part
of the Ghazni kingdom. But he did not establish an Islamic rule in India.

 Ghazni’s Battles

 The invasions and battles of Mahmud of Ghazni laid the foundations of the Delhi
Sultanate in India.

 Battle of Peshawar was fought on 27 November 1001 between the Ghaznavid army
under the leadership of Mahmud of Ghazni and the Hindu Shahi army of
Jayapala, near Peshawar . This was a part of series of incursions that became an
annual feature of Mahmud of Ghazni. Jayapala was defeated and captured by
Mahmud of Ghazni.
 In 1015 Mahmud unsuccessfully attacked Kashmir.
 In 1018 he attacked Mathura and defeated a coalition of rulers there while killing a
ruler called Chandrapala.
 In 1021 Mahmud supported the Kannauj king against Chandela king Gauda, who
was defeated. That same year Shahi Trilochana Pala was killed at Rahib and his son
Bhima Pala succeeded him. Lahore (modern Pakistan) was annexed by Mahmud.
 Mahmud besieged Gwalior where he was given tribute in 1023.
 Mahmud attacked Somnath in 1025, and its ruler Bhima Deva I fled. The next year,
he captured Somnath and marched to Kachchh against Bhima Deva.
 Mahmud attacked the Jat people of Jud in 1025.

 Somnath Temple Raids

 India was the proverbially wealthy land that had always appeared rich and
attractive from the barren land of Central Asia. To keep his constant loot and
plunders Mahmud of Ghazni looked at India as place to fill his empty coffers time
and again. These raids on Hindu temples not only provided him with quantities of
wealth but also strengthened his position as a staunch follower of Islam and an
iconoclast.
 The concentration of wealth and the prestige that Somnath temple held was
renowned. The major item of trade at Veraval port was horses which might have
acted as an additional factor for Mahmud of Ghazni to attack the Somnath temple.
 In 1026, Mahmud of Ghazni raided Samantha temple desecrated the temple and
broke the idol of lingam installed in the Somnath temple. Mahmud of Ghazni took
with him loot of 2 million dinars that was gained from the Somnath temple raids.
 The subsequent raids of Mahmud into India were aimed at plundering the rich
temples and cities of northern India in order to continue his struggle against his
enemies in Central Asia. For his plundering raids into India the Ghazis came handy
 to him. Mahmud also posed as a great Shikan or ‘destroyer of the images’ for
the glory of Islam.
 The Ghaznavid conquest of the Punjab and Multan completely changed the political
situation in north India as the Turks had crossed the chains of mountains defending
India’s north-west.
 Death of Muhmad gave rise to Seljuk Empire. The Seljuk Empire reduced the
extent of Ghaznavid Empire to Ghazni and Punjab. Though there were more raids
none were as threatening and as powerful as the previous ones. Meanwhile the
condition of North India also changed with rise of many small states.

 Significance of Muhmud Ghazni’s Invasion

 Exposition of India’s military weakness.

 Exposition of India’s political disunity.
 Weakening of the economic condition of India as Mahmud carried huge wealth out
of the country.
 Great setback to Indian art and sculpture owing to destruction of idols and temples.
 Opening of India to foreign attacks.
 Opportunity for Islam to set its foothold in India
 Growing of the feeling of hatred and fear among the Hindus towards the Muslims.
 Arrival of Muslim saints, called the Sufis, providing impetus to greater Hindu-Muslim
interaction.

 Al Birum

 Al-Biruni was an Iranian scholar who visited India around 1017 CE to explore
Indian culture and Hinduism.
 He was very well connected with nobility and was sought to conduct research and
study to uncover certain findings by nobility and rulers.
 Al-Biruni is regarded as one of the greatest scholars of the medieval Islamic era and
was well versed in physics, mathematics, astronomy, and natural sciences, and also
distinguished himself as a historian, chronologist and linguist.
 Al-Biruni book ‘Tahquiq-e-Hind’ is a very valuable source of information on
economic, political, religious and social conditions prevailing in contemporary India.
He studied Sanskrit in India to study religious texts, philosophical and religious
books of the Hindus.

 Al Biruni’s Account of India

 Religious Conditions: The sole right of reading and interpreting the religious
scriptures vested with the Brahmins. Idol worship was prevalent in India.
 Political Conditions: According to Al Biruni India was a fragmented state. It was
fragmented on basis of dynasties that were jealous of each other and infighting
prevailed amongst them. Another important finding was that feeling of nationalism
lacked amongst the Indians.
 Legal System: The criminal system was corrective and some sections of society like
Brahmins were exempted from capital punishment.
 Economic Conditions: The living conditions in India were far better than the people
of other places like Iran. The king or ruler was not the owner of all lands. Though he
collected the taxes and appropriated them according to the needs of his subjects.
 Philosophical Conditions: Al Biruni was highly impressed with the Indian
philosophy. The religious texts like Bhagvada Gita, Upanishads were some of the
scriptures that mesmerized him.
 Written History: Indians had little written history as elucidated by Al Biruni.
 Social Conditions: According to Al Biruni Indian society was a caste based society.
The society was socially very vibrant and caste distinctions were prominent in
Indian society. Child marriage, prohibition on widow remarriage , ‘Sati’ and ‘Jauhar ’
were prevalent in India during the time.
 Science of India: Alberuni was among the first scholar to study Indiaandthe Hindu
scientific literature. Alberuni was impressed by most of the Indian knowledge of
astronomy, meteorology, arithmetic and geography which he mentioned in Kitab al-
Hind. He discussed all the five siddhantas on the Indian astronomy.

 Firdausi

 Firdausi (940-1020 AD) was Persian poet who penned down the Shahnameh.
Shahnameh is a long epic poem written between 977 and 1010 AD and is the
national epic of Iran. Shahnameh consisting of some 50,000 couplets and is lauded to
be the largest epic poem ever written by a single poet.
 The Shahnameh gives a chronological account of the prehistory and history of
Iran, beginning with the creation of the world and the introduction of civilization
and ended with the Islamic conquest of Persia.
 Evaluation of Mahmud of Ghazni

 Mahmud of Ghazni was the person who was the precursor of the Delhi Sultanate in
political and military terms. He was the first Turk to attack Multan and went inroads in
India. Later he made incursions into the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
 He was the first Turk to realize the importance of temples and the vast amount of wealth
stored in them. He was the first one that used the temple’s wealth to conquer and
consolidate his empire.
 From 1010 to 1026; his invasions were directed towards temple-towns like
Thaneshwar, Mathura, Kannauj and Somnath. This led to the breakdown of Indian
kingdoms as they significantly depended on temples for their economy.
 This ultimately resulted in the breakdown of Indian resistance and exposed its weakness to
Turks. These invasions by Mahmud of Ghazni paved way for more Turkish conquests and
ultimately paved the way for the establishment of Delhi Sultanate.

 Changes in 12th Century

 Towards the middle of the 12th century, another group of Turkish tribesmen who were
partly Buddhist and partly pagan, shattered the power of Seljuk Turks. Two new
powers Khwarizmi empire based in Iran and Ghurid empire based on Ghur in North-
west Afghanistan rose to power contenting against each other .
 With the former being powerful limited left no option for Ghurids but to look for expansion
towards India.

 Muhammad Ghori

 In 1173 AD Shahabuddin Muhammad known Muhammad Ghori ascended the throne

of Ghazni. In a short time, Muhammad Ghori realized that he could gain a lot more by
attacking India than in Central Asia. So he redirected his expansionist ambitious ideas
towards India.
 Muhammad Ghori’s titles included Burshikan (idol breaker) and Jahan-i-Soz (one who
sets the world on fire). His main objective was to popularize Islam in India.
 His campaigns were well organized with an objective to establish an empire in India. He
left generals behind to govern the territories that he conquered in India. His invasions
resulted in the permanent establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
 Punjab and Sind Conquests

 Muhammad Ghori led his first successful expedition in India in 1175 AD against
Multan. In the same campaign he captured Uchch from the Bhatti Rajputs.
 Muhammad Ghori launched a campaign against the Ghaznavid possessions in Punjab
and conquered Peshawar and Lahore with it in 1179-80 AD and 1186 AD
respectively. By the year 1190 AD Multan, Sindh and Punjab were under
Muhammad Ghori’s control.
 While Ghori was over -running Multan, Prithviraja became the king of Ajmer. The
young ruler embarked on the career of conquest. He invaded Bundelkhand are and
defeated the Chandela rulers in a battle near Mahoba. He next invaded Gujarat but
the Gujarat ruler Bhima II who had earlier defeated Muizzuddin Muhammad also
defeated Prithviraj. This forced Prithviraj to turn his attention towards Punjab and
the Ganga valley.

 First Battle of Tarain

 The first battle of Tarain was fought between Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj
Chauhan in 1191 AD. The trigger for the battle was the capture of fort of Bhatinda
by Muhammad Ghori.
 Prithviraj Chauhan marched to Bhatinda and in the middle met the army of
Muhammad Ghori at Tarain. A fierce battle was fought and Prithviraj Chauhan
emerged victorious out of the battle of Tarain.
 Prithviraj Chauhan succeeded in stopping the Ghorian advance towards Hindustan
in the first battle of Tarain.

 Second Battle of Tarain

 After the humiliating defeat of Muhammad Ghori in the first battle of Tarain he
started planning revenge on Prithviraj Chauhan. On reaching Lahore Muhammad
Ghori sent an envoy to Prithviraj Chauhan to demand his submission.
 Prithviraj Chauhan sent an appeal to all Rajput rulers to assist him against
Muhammad Ghori but everyone refused.
 A fierce battle was fought in Tarain. Muhammad Ghori had learnt a lot from his
previous mistakes and now was able to match the well disciplined army of Rajputs.
He had divided his contingent into 5 units and tricked the Rajputs and surrounded
them from the rear and flank side. This led to panic among the disciplined Rajputs
army causing them to retreat.
 A large number of Indian soldiers lost their lives. Prithviraj escaped but was
captured near Saraswati. The Turkish army attacked and captured
Ajmer. Prithviraj was allowed to rule over Ajmer for sometime. Soon after
Prithviraj was executed on a charge of conspiracy and his son succeeded the
throne.
 Following a rebellion, Ghori’s army recaptured Ajmer and installed a Turkish
general. Prithviraj’s son moved to Ranthambore and founded a new powerful
Chauhan Kingdom.
 A victory in the second battle of Tarain boosted the morale of Muhammad Ghori and
he followed up this victory by defeating Jayachandra in the Battle of Chandawar .

 Evaluation of Muhammad Ghori

 The objective of Muhammad Ghori’s entry into India was to gain wealth for
conquests and consolidation of his empire.
 The initial phase of Muhammad Ghori’s invasions was with the military objective to
gain control over Punjab and Sind, the gateway to India.
 His intelligence in strategy making can be understood by the fact that he decided to
enter the Indus plains through the Gomel Pass and not through the more common
Khyber Pass further north. It was a much easier route that majority of his
predecessors overlooked. By 1182 AD Peshawar, Uchh and Multan and Lahore
became a part of his empire.
 The next in the line of his conquests were the Rajput kingdoms which he occupied
within a short time with large scale military operations. With this move Muhammad
Ghori now controlled parts even in the Gangetic plains.
 The Chauhan Rajputs faced the major brunt of Muhammad Ghori as they ruled the
territory from Ajmer to Delhi the next natural frontier . Bhatinda was besieged in
1191 AD by Muhammad Ghori which gave a lot of confidence to the Ghorian army
and hence they attacked the Chauhan garrisons only to be defeated in the first battle
of Tarain.
 In the following year 1192 AD, Muhammad Ghori returned with a larger force to
retaliate against the earlier defeat. At the Tarain fierce battle was fought between
the armies of Prithviraj Chauhan and Muhammad Ghori. This battle was won by
Muhammad Ghori and he inflicted a humiliating defeat on Prithviraj Chauhan.
 Muhammad Ghori returned to his projects in Central Asia to tackle his weakening
position in central Asia after having secured a significant territory in India. He left
Indraprastha (now Delhi) under the command of Qutbuddin Aibak with a significant
army under Aibak’s command. This marked the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate’s
rule in India.

 Ghaznavid Dynasty: Role in Formation of Delhi Sultanate

 The Turkish conquest of India brought radical changes in the political and socio-
economic conditions of people in India.
 The most important and visible political change was to replace the feudal, multi-
centered polity by a centralized state in India. In the new system the king
enjoyed practically unlimited powers. The Delhi Sultanate’s was the first such
system that manifested Turkish centralized polity.
 The most important economic change that was brought by the Turks was
the introduction of the Iqta system.

o The keystone of revenue collection during the Sultanate was the Iqta. The Iqtas,
transferable revenue assignments were first seen in operation in the Abbasid ruled
areas and were popularised by the Seljuk rulers who updated them according to
their own requirements.
o Under the Iqta system, the officers of the king were assigned territories to
realise revenue and maintain their troop.
o Muqti was the title given to the holders of such assignments. Unlike the previous
system wherein the land grantees had acquired rights of ownership, the Turkish
Iqta-holders were regularly transferred and their tenure was normally for 3 to 4
years.

 The Turks led to the unification of Indian administration by the use of

centralization and the Iqta system. The Iqta system made the assignee dependent on
the central authority to a far greater extent than it was possible under the earlier Indian
polity.
 This helped the Turks in establishing an all-India administration by bringing the
chief cities and the great routes under the control of the government of Delhi. Iqta
system provided the base for a despotic state and acted as a means for extracting the
agricultural surplus.
 The Turks had brought with them the tradition of living in the cities and the large
surplus produce of the countryside found its way into the cities in the form of
state taxes leading to a considerable urban economic growth. Turks also brought
with them the Persian wheel which helped greatly in increasing the agricultural
production.
Some Important Points

 Utbi was the court historian of Mahmud of Ghazni.

 Al-Biruni was the first Muslim who studied Puranas.
 The coins of Mahmud Ghazni struck in India with arabic and Sanskrit legends on
observe and reverse respectively.
 Coins issued by Ghori has an image of Goddess Lakshmi while on the opposite side
of the coin Kalma was inscribed in Arabic.
 OR

Arab and Turkish Invasions

The Medieval period in Indian history witnessed significant transformations,

particularly with the advent of Arab and Turkish invasions. These invasions marked
pivotal moments in shaping the socio-political landscape of the Indian subcontinent.
The encounters between the indigenous cultures and the Arab and Turkish forces led to
a fusion of ideas, traditions, and governance structures. To comprehend the intricacies
of this era, delving into the UPSC NCERT Notes on Medieval History becomes
indispensable. These meticulously curated notes offer a comprehensive understanding
of the Arab and Turkish invasions, shedding light on their motivations, strategies, and
lasting impacts on Indian society. Through the lens of these notes, one can navigate the
complex tapestry of medieval India, unraveling the dynamics of power, religion, and
cultural exchange that defined this transformative period.

 Development of Islam in West and Central Asia

 The introduction of Islam to India transpired during medieval times following the
decline of Rajput kingdoms in the North. In the early seventh century, two Major powers
beyond India and China dominated the scene:
 The Sassanid Empire, a Zoroastrian nationalist dynasty, governed Persia (modern-day
Iran).
 The Eastern Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire was an orthodox Christian empire (The
Catholic Western Roman Empire had already fallen around AD 480).

Between AD 602 and 628, these empires engaged in continuous warfare, creating a
constant state of conflict in the regions around modern-day Iran, Jordan, and
Syria. These areas, along with the Arab peninsula, were inhabited by numerous
polytheist tribes.
 The Arab tribes, primarily caravan traders, engaged in the sale of luxury goods to
Constantinople and Persia. The wealth generated from the caravan trade routes
contributed to the prosperity of Mecca and Medina.
 The prolonged conflict between these powers concluded with the Byzantines emerging
victorious over the Persian Sassanid empire. However, the dissolution of the Sassanid
empire and the eventual decline of the Byzantines led to a political and religious power
vacuum in the Middle-East region.
 The extended conflicts between Rome and Persia resulted in an economic downturn in
the region.
 Concurrently, during this era, Muhammad (later known as Prophet Muhammad) was
born, having powerful visions of God and the angel Jibril. These visions led him to the
Quraysh tribe of Mecca, motivating him to preach a new religion centered around the
worship of one God, Allah.
 This nascent religion, Islam, gradually brought together the diverse tribes of Arabia,
fostering unity among them.

Prophet Muhammad is believed to have lived between AD 570 and 632. The migration
 of the Prophet and his followers from Mecca to Medina occurred in AD 622, as per
the Hijri calendar.
 Following the era of the Prophet, the religious and political leaders of Islam (Ummah)
were referred to as the Caliphate.

 Political, Economic, and Social Conditions Before Turkish Invasion in India

 Before the Turkish invasion in the 11th and 12th centuries, India lacked political unity.
It was characterized by the absence of a single dominant ruler, with numerous small
kingdoms engaging in frequent disputes and conflicts.
 Economically, India enjoyed widespread prosperity and held a distinguished
reputation worldwide. Unfortunately, this affluence made it susceptible to foreign
invasions.
 Socially, India grappled with a distressing condition. The caste system had firmly
entrenched itself in society, exerting pervasive and detrimental effects on the overall
social fabric.
Major Kingdoms on the Eve of the Turkish Invasion

Kingdoms Description

Muhammad-bin-Qasim led the Arab invasion of Sindh in AD 712, establishing Arab conquests in Sindh
Arab kingdoms of
and Multan. Arab rulers owed allegiance to the Caliph of Baghdad but asserted political independence,
Sindh and Multan
offering nominal allegiance for diplomatic reasons.

The Hindu Shahi dynasty governed a vast area from the River Chenab to Multan, including the North-
Brahmin Hindu Shahi
West boundary. Due to the emergence of the Ghaznavid empire in Afghanistan, they relocated their
Kingdom
capital to the right bank of the River Indus, relinquishing a portion of their kingdom, including Kabul.

The 12th-century Rajatarangini by Kalhan provides a comprehensive description of the Kashmiri

Kingdom of Kashmir
Kingdom. Kashmir gained independence after the death of Ashoka.

Pratihara rulers of The Pratiharas dominated North India for over two hundred years from the 8th to the 10th century.
Western India They resisted Arab incursions from Sindh and defeated the Arabs in the Battle of Rajasthan in AD 738.

The Pala kingdom, founded by Gopala in AD 750, is considered the golden period of Bengali history.
They built Viharas, magnificent monasteries, and temples like Somapura Mahavihara (in Bangladesh)
Palas of Bengal
and Odantapuri monastery. The Pala Dynasty was replaced by the Sena Dynasty around the 12th
century.

Considered feudatories of the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas had their capital at Manyakheta or Malkhed
Rashtrakutas of
near Solapur. They engaged in constant battles against the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the
Malkhed
Pallavas of Kanchi, as well as the Pandya of Madurai.

 Arab Conquest of Sindh

 Starting from AD 637, Arabs initiated expeditions to the Western coast of India. In the
early AD eighth century, Ceylon’s king dispatched ships to Khalifa (Caliph) Walid, but
pirates intercepted them near Debal, a Sindh port, ruled by Hindu Raja Dahir.
 Governor Al-Hajjaj of Basra sought compensation, met with refusal, and sent an
expedition in AD 712 led by Muhammad-bin-Qasim, his nephew and son-in-law after
previous attempts failed.
Administration under Arab Rule in Sindh
 Arabs governed Sindh for 200 years, introducing an efficient administration with
districts (iqtas) assigned to military officers in exchange for military service.
 They followed a tolerant religious policy, allowing those who paid Jizya (Poll tax) to
remain non-Muslims, known as Zimmis.
 Muhammad-bin-Qasim imposed Jizya, marking the inception of the system in India.

Impact of Arab Rule on Sindh

 In terms of the growth of Islam in India, the Arab conquest of Sindh is regarded as
politically inconsequential, having left no discernible impact on the monarchical
nature of Indian polity.
 Despite this, the conquest did lead to the conversion of the Sindh population to Islam,
albeit on a limited and temporary scale.
 The Arabs, however, failed to make a lasting imprint on the Indian Social System, but
their initial influence laid the groundwork for the establishment of Islam in India.
 The formal slavery system in India was introduced by the Arabs, with the earliest
Muslim settlements taking root during their rule.
 Arab dominance in Sindh bolstered trade and facilitated the settlement of more Arabs
along the East Coast.
 Arab leather workers imparted their expertise to Sindhi tanners, resulting in the
production of high-quality leather that commanded a premium in foreign markets.

Reasons For the Failure of Arabs in India

 The conquest of Sindh by the Arabs proved to be a triumphant but ultimately fruitless
endeavor.
 The failure of the Arab forces can be attributed to several factors:
 New Khalifa’s Policy Towards Sindh: The new Khalifa did not derive any tangible
benefits from the barren lands of Sindh. Consequently, military support to Sindh was
curtailed, leading to a lack of reinforcements.
 The struggle for Khilafat (Caliphate): Infighting over the coveted seat of Khilafat
diverted Arab attention away from Sindh, affecting their focus and commitment to the
region.
 Distance from Baghdad: The considerable distance between Sindh and Baghdad, the
ultimate seat of power for the Arab administration in Sindh, coupled with inadequate
communication and transportation, discouraged further military engagements.

Major causes behind the Indian Ruler’s Defeat Against the Turks
The defeat of Indian rulers against Turkish invasions can be attributed to various
key factors:

 Political Causes: Disunity among rulers, the absence of a robust central authority,
neglect of frontier regions, and the weakening of royal power due to the feudal system
and a lack of political acumen were significant political factors contributing to Indian
defeat.
  Social Causes: Hinduism’s emphasis on societal fragmentation, in contrast to Islam’s
preachings of universal brotherhood, played a crucial role in the social dynamics
leading to defeat.
 Religious Causes: The invaders’ commitment to jihad, a crusade to protect and spread
Islam, contrasted with the fragmented nature of Hinduism with its diverse sects,
contributing to the defeat of the Indian forces.
 Military Causes: The absence of an organized military structure and a defensive
mindset among the Indian forces were notable military factors that led to their defeat
against the Turks.
 Rulers Engaged in Conflict, Defensive Stance, and Indian Rulers’ Defeat by the Turks

 Turkish Invasion
 The Turkish incursion into India occurred in the 11th century, marked by Mahmud of
Ghazni’s raids that extended from Afghanistan into the Indian subcontinent.

Ghaznavids
 The Ghaznavid dynasty commenced with Alaptigin, a Turkish slave under the Samanid
king Amir-Abu-Bakr Lawik in AD 963. Alaptigin seized control of Kabul, establishing
Ghazni as its capital. His capable son-in-law, Subuktigin (AD 977-997), successfully
captured territories between Lamghan and Peshawar from the Hindu Shahi
ruler Jayapala.
 This expansion limited the Hindu Shahi Kingdom’s control over the advancing
Ghaznavids. However, the impact of Subuktigin’s conquests was short-
lived. Ismail, Subuktigin’s son, was overthrown by his brother Mahmud in 998, who
later became renowned as Mahmud Ghazni.

Mahmud of Ghazni
 Son of Alaptigin, Mahmud organized a robust defense against tribal invaders from
Central Asia. Instrumental in the revival of Iranian culture, Mahmud conducted 17 raids
into India while promoting art and literature.
 Firdausi, Mahmud’s court poet, produced the Shah Namah, a pinnacle of the Iranian
Renaissance. Al-Biruni, a scholar versed in Turki, Sanskrit, Mathematics, Philosophy,
Astrology, and History, stayed in Mahmud’s court, composing the famous Kitab-ul-Hind,
an account of India.
 Political turmoil in North India post the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty’s collapse facilitated
Mahmud’s ambitions.
 He launched an assault on the Hindu Shahi Kings, engaging in war with Jayapala and the
Muslim rulers of Multan, Jayapala’s allies. Mahmud’s victory in AD 1001 led to Jayapala’s
self-inflicted demise. Subsequently, Anandapala, Jayapala’s son, ascended to the throne.

The Campaigns of Mahmud of Ghazni in India

Year Description

AD 1000 Hindu Shahi kingdom was attacked.

AD 1001-02 Peshawar and Waihind attacked; Jayapala taken captive but released on payment of ransom.

Attack at the Fort of Bhatya on the trade route from Khyber pass to Multan; Baji/Biji Rai fought heroically
AD 1004-05
but committed suicide to save honor.

AD 1006 Multan attacked; Fateh Daud sought help from Hindu Shahi Anandapala—both were defeated.

Biji Rai of Behra defeated; Behra handed over to Sukhpal, converted to Islam but later repudiated it and was
AD 1006-07
dismissed and taken prisoner.

Second Battle of Waihind; Plundered rulers of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi, and Ajmer were
AD 1008-09
defeated.

AD 1009-10 Narayanpur near Alwar (Rajasthan) was attacked; ruler defeated and had to part with entire treasury.

AD 1010-11 Multan annexed; King Daud taken prisoner and deposed; Turkish military officer appointed as Governor.

AD 1011-12 Thaneshwar was attacked.

AD 1013-14 Nandana was occupied.

AD 1015-16 Kashmir campaign proves abortive.

AD 1018-19 Kannauj plundered.

AD 1020-21 Kalinjar invaded.

AD 1021-22 Lahore invaded.

AD 1025-26 Plunder at Somnath.

AD 1027 Punitive campaign against Jats of the Indus region.

 Battle of Waihind
 Near Peshawar, Mahmud confronted the Hindu Shahi ruler Anandapala, supported by
the ruler of Multan and the Khokhars tribe of Punjab. Mahmud emerged victorious,
capturing the lands of both Anandapala and his allies.
 Mahmud’s Significant Assaults on India:
 In AD 1011, Mahmud raided Nagarkot in the Punjab hills and Thaneshwar near Delhi.
 In AD 1018, he conducted a raid on Kannauj and Mathura, looting both cities before
departing with immense wealth through Kalinjar, Bundelkhand.
 AD 1025 witnessed the infamous raid on the Somnath Temple, a splendid temple
located in the revered coastal town of Kathiawar, amassing substantial wealth.
 Despite his conquests, Mahmud refrained from annexing these states, marching
from Multan to Somnath through Rajputana without encountering resistance.
 Implications of Mahmud’s Invasion:
 The invasions laid bare India’s military vulnerabilities, resulting in the death of
thousands of soldiers in various engagements.
 Following this invasion, which laid the groundwork for Islam in the Indo-Gangetic
Plains, Sufis began arriving in Northern India in significant numbers.
 Mahmud plundered and destroyed numerous temples in India, causing significant
damage to the country’s art and architecture.
 The invasions revealed weaknesses in India’s political system and among its rulers,
rendering the region more susceptible to subsequent invasions.
 By 1186, Eastern Afghanistan and Northern India remained under Ghaznavid control,
until Lahore was captured by the Ghurids.

Ghurid Dynasty
 Centered in North-West Afghanistan at Ghur, the Ghurids initially served as local chiefs
and vassals of the Ghaznavid empire.
 When Muhammad of Ghori seized control of Lahore from Khusrau Malik in AD 1186, the
Ghurid dynasty emerged, ultimately toppling the Ghaznavid empire. Under Sultan
Alauddin, the Ghurids rose to prominence.

Sultan Alauddin earned the title “The Globe Burner” (Jahan Soz) for his mid-12th-century destruction of
Ghazni as retribution for the persecution of his brothers there.

Muhammad Ghori’s Invasions

 In AD 1175, Muhammad Ghori’s initial invasions targeted Multan and the fortress of
Uch, conquering areas governed by old Ghaznavid Governors.
 In AD 1178, he attacked Anhilwara in Gujarat but faced defeat at the hands of King
Bhima II of the Solanki dynasty in the Battle of Kayadara.
 By AD 1190, Muhammad Ghori had conquered Peshawar, Lahore, and Sialkot, poised
for further advances towards Delhi and the Gangetic doab.

 First Battle of Tarain

 In AD 1191, Muhammad Ghori captured the fortress of Bhatinda in East Punjab,
near Prithviraj Chauhan’s lands. Prithviraj marched to Bhatinda and confronted his
adversary at Tarain near the historic town of Thaneshwar.
 The battle commenced with the Ghurid army launching cavalry arrows at the Rajput
center. Prithviraj’s forces counter-attacked from three sides, dominating the battle and
compelling the Ghurid army to retreat.
 In the First Battle of Tarain, Prithviraj successfully halted the Ghurid’s advance into
India.
 Second Battle of Terrain
 After his defeat by Prithviraj Chauhan in the First Battle of Tarain in AD 1191,
Muhammad Ghori retreated to Ghazni. There, he regrouped, focusing on enhancing
firepower, mobility, and discipline as he prepared to re-enter the fray.
 In AD 1192, forces led by Prithviraj Chauhan clashed with the Ghurid army commanded
by Muhammad Chori in the Battle of Tarain. Unfortunately, the Rajputs suffered defeat,
leaving North India susceptible to subsequent invasions and the rule of Turkic tribes.
 Following the Battle of Tarain, Muhammad appointed Outb-ud-din Aibak, one of his
slave Generals, as the Viceroy of the Indian provinces. Aibak successfully conquered
Meerut, Bulandshahar, and Aligarh, among others, establishing Delhi as the capital in AD
1193.

 Reasons for Prithviraj’s Defeat in the Second Battle of Tarain

 Prithviraj Chauhan’s loss in the Second Battle of Tarain was exacerbated by the
absence of allies within his Hindu community. King Jalchand of Kannauj, Prithviraj’s
cousin, supported Muhammad Ghori against him, harboring aspirations of claiming the
throne of Delhi.
 After his defeat, Muhammad Ghori subjected Hindus to enslavement and orchestrated
the destruction of the city and its temples, solidifying the complete dominance of Islam
in the region.

Battle of Chandawar
 In AD 1194, Muhammad Ghori embarked on another campaign against Jayachandra of
Kannauj. The battle unfolded near Chandawar on the River Yamuna, situated between
Etawah and Kannauj.
 King Jayachandra met his defeat and demise in this encounter, granting Muhammad
control over a significant portion of Northern India.
Conquest of Bengal and Bihar
 In AD 1197, Muhammad Bhakhtiyar Khilji, a general under Muhammad Ghori, seized
Bihar, and in AD 1202, he captured Bengal. During this conquest, he obliterated the
renowned universities of Vikramshila and Nalanda, subsequently becoming the Viceroy
of Bihar and Bengal.
Revolt of Khokhars
 In AD 1205, Muhammad Ghori initiated his final campaign in India to quell the Khokhar
rebellion.
 The Khokhars, a formidable tribe in Western Punjab, disrupted communications
between Lahore and Ghazni. Muhammad Ghori met his demise at the hands of Khokhars
near the Dhamyak district of Jhelum while returning to Ghazni. This event marked the
downfall of the Ghur Empire and the establishment of the Slave Dynasty under Qutb-
ud-din Aibak.
 UNIT:- 11 DELHI SULTANATE
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts
of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526). Five dynasties ruled over the
Delhi Sultanate sequentially: the Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290), the Khalji dynasty
(1290–1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414), the Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451), and
the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). It covered large swathes of territory in modern-day
India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh as well as some parts of southern Nepal

 Delhi Sultanate
The period from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. came to be known as the Delhi Sultanate period.
This period witnessed many dynasties and various rulers.

Some of the major dynasties and rulers of the Delhi Sultanate are listed below.

Sl. No. Dynasty Name

1 Slave (Ghulam) or Mamluk Dynasty

2 Khilji Dynasty

3 Tughluq dynasty

4 Sayyid Dynasty

5 Lodi dynasty

 Slave (Ghulam) or Mamluk Dynasty: Delhi Sultanate

Ruler Period Events

Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210) Founder of Mamluk Dynast and Slave of Muhammad Ghori

Aram Shah (1210–1211) Eldest son of Qutb-ud-din Aibak

Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1211–1236) Son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aibak

Ruknuddin Feruz Shah (1236) Son of Iltutmish

Razia Sultana (1236–1240) Daughter of Iltutmish and Grand Daughter of Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
Muizuddin Bahram (1240–1242) Son of Iltutmish

Alauddin Masud (1242–1246) Son of Ruknuddin Feruz Shah

Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246–1266) Razia’s Brother who had died in 1229

Father-in-law of Nashiruddin Mahmud and the most powerful

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266–1286)
ruler of the Slave Dynasty

Muiz ud din Kaiqubad (1287–1290) Grandson of Ghiyasuddin Balban

Kaimur 1290 Son of Muiz-ud-din Kaiqubad

The Slave dynasty ruled from c. 1206 – 1290 CE. It was also named the
‘Mamluk’ dynasty; the word Mamluk is an Arabic word that means “slave/owned”. In
fact, three dynasties were established during this period. They were –

 Qutbi dynasty (c. 1206 – 1211 CE) – Its founder was Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
 First Ilbari dynasty (c. 1211- 1266 CE) – Its founder was Iltumish.
 Second Ilbari dynasty (c. 1266 – 1290 CE) – Its founder was Balban.
 Qutub-ud-din Aibak (c. 1206 – 1210 CE)

 Qutub-ud-din Aibak founded the Slave dynasty. He was a Turkish slave of

Muhammad Ghori who played an important part in the expansion of the Turkish
Sultanate in India after the Battle of Tarain. Muhammad Ghori made him the
governor of his Indian possessions. He raised a standing army and established his
hold over north India even during the lifetime of Ghori.
 After the death of Muhammad Ghori (c. 1206 CE), Tajuddin Yaldauz, the ruler of
Ghazni claimed his rule over Delhi and the governor of Multan and Uchch,
Nasiruddin Qabacha wanted independence. He also had to face many revolts from
Rajputs and other Indian rulers. However, Aibak, by displaying his mighty power as
well as other conciliatory measures, was able to win over his enemies. He defeated
Yaldauz and severed all connections with Ghazni and thus founded the Slave dynasty
as well as the Delhi Sultanate.
 Muslim writers called Aibak “Lakh Baksh” or giver of lakhs because he donated
liberally.
 He was titled “Sultan” and he made Lahore his capital.
 He also started the construction of the Qutub Minar (first storey only) after the name
of the famous Sufi saint Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar. It was later completed by
Iltumish.
 Aibak died suddenly while playing Chaugan (horse polo) in c. 1210 CE.
 Aram Shah (c. 1210 CE)
 Qutub-ud-din was succeeded by his son Aram Shah who was incapable as a ruler. He
was opposed by the Turkish armies and his rule lasted for only eight months.
 Iltutmish (c. 1210 – 1236 CE)

 Iltutmish belonged to the Ilbari tribe and therefore, his dynasty was named the
Ilbari dynasty. His half brothers sold him as a slave to Aibak who made him his son-
in-law by giving his daughter to him. Later Aibak appointed him as Iqtadar of
Gwalior. In c.1211 CE, Iltutmish dethroned Aram Shah and became the Sultan with
the name of Shamsuddin. He is regarded as the real consolidator of Turkish rule in
India.
 During the first ten years of his reign, he mostly concentrated on securing his throne
from his rivals. The commanders of Muhammad Ghori like Yaldauz, Qabacha of
Multan and Ali Mardan of Bengal and Bihar rose against him. Iltutmish defeated
Yaldauz in the battle of Tarain (c. 1215 CE) and also drove away Qabacha from
Punjab.
 In c. 1220 CE, the leader of the Mongols, Temujin, popularly known as Chengiz
Khan, started his march towards Central Asia. He defeated Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni,
the ruler of Khwarizm. Mangabarni escaped from the Mongols and sought asylum
from Iltutmish. Iltutmish refused to provide him shelter in order to save his empire
from the onslaught of the Mongols. This diplomatic policy of Iltutmish helped him to
save his empire from the wrath of Chengiz Khan.
 Iltutmish brought Bengal and Bihar back into the Delhi Sultanate. He also
suppressed the Rajput revolts and recovered Ranthambore in c. 1226 CE and by c.
1231 CE, Iltutmish established his control over Bayana, Mandor, Jalore and Gwalior.
He led an expedition against the Chalukyas of Gujarat but that remained
unsuccessful.
 Iltutmish was a great statesman. In c. 1229 CE, he received ‘mansur’, the letter of
recognition from the Abbasid Caliph by which he became the legal sovereign ruler of
India.
 He completed the construction of Qutub Minar at Delhi, the tallest stone tower in
India (238 ft).
 He also introduced the Arabic coinage in India and the silver tanka weighing 175
grams became a standard coin in medieval India. The silver tanka remained the
basis of the modern rupee.
 Iltutmish organised Turkan-i-Chahalgani, a new class of the ruling elite of forty
powerful military leaders, the Forty.
 He patronised many scholars and a number of Sufi saints came to India during his
reign. Minhaj-us-Siraj (author of Tahaqqat-i-Nasuri), Taj-ud-din, Muhammad Junaidi,
Fakhrul-Mulk-Isami, Malik Qutub-ud-din Hasan were his contemporary scholars
who added grandeur to his court.
 He nominated his daughter as his successor.
 Ruknuddin Feruz Shah (c. 1236 CE)

 He was the eldest son of Iltutmish who ascended the throne with the help of nobles.
When the governor of Multan revolted, Ruknuddin Feroz Shah marched to suppress
 the revolt. Using this opportunity, Iltutmish’s daughter Raziya with the help of the
Amirs of Delhi seized the throne of the Delhi Sultanate.
 Raziya Sultan (c. 1236 – 1239 CE)

 Raziya Sultan was the first and only female ruler of medieval India’s Sultanate
period.
 Raziya appointed an Abyssinian slave, Malik Jamal-ud-din Yaqut as master of the
Royal horses (Amir-i-akhur). The recruitment of a few other non-Turks to important
positions aroused resentment among the Turkish nobles. Raziya Sultan discarded
the female apparel and held the court with her face uncovered which further created
resentment. She even went hunting and led the army.
 In c. 1240 CE, Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda (Sirhaind) revolted against her.
Raziya alongside Yaqut marched against Altunia, but on the way, Turkish followers
of Altunia murdered Yaqut and took Raziya prisoner. In the meantime, the Turkish
nobles put Bahram, another son of Iltutmish on the throne. However, Raziya won
over her captor, Altunia and after marrying him, proceeded to Delhi. But she was
defeated and killed on the way by Bahram Shah.
 Bahram Shah (c. 1240 – 1242 CE)

 The fall of Raziya Sultan paved the way for the ascendancy of ‘the Forty’. During the
reign of Bahram Shah, there continued the struggle for supremacy between Sultan
and the nobles. The Turkish nobles supported Bahram Shah in the beginning but
later became disordered and during this unrest, Bahram Shah was killed by his own
army.
 Alauddin Masud Shah (c. 1242 – 1246 CE)

 He was the son of Ruknuddin Feroz Shah and nephew of Raziya Sultan. After the
death of Bahram Shah, he was chosen as the next ruler. However, he was
incompetent and incapable of handling the affairs in the government and was
replaced by Nasiruddin Mahmud.
 Nasiruddin Mahmud (c. 1246 – 1265 CE)

 He was the grandson of Iltutmish who was young and inexperienced. He had
ascended the throne with the help of Balban/Ulugh Khan, a member of Chahalgani
(the Forty) who himself assumed the position of regent. He married his daughter to
Nasirruddin and therefore, the real power lay in the hands of Balban. Balban was
powerful in the administration but he had to face the intrigues of his rivals in the
royal court. He overcame all the difficulties. In c. 1265 CE, Nasirruddin Mahmud died
and according to some historians like Ibn Batuta and Isami, Balban poisoned him
and ascended the throne.
 Balban (c. 1266 – 1286 CE)

 Balban’s experience as a regent made him understand the problems of the Delhi
Sultanate. He knew that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called
“The Forty”. He, therefore, was sure that by enhancing the power and authority of
the monarchy, he could solve the problem.
  According to Balban, the Sultan was God’s shadow on earth, Zil-e-Ilahi and the
recipient of divine grace, Nibyabat-e- Khudai.
 Balban enhanced the power of the monarchy. He introduced rigorous court
discipline and new customs like prostration (sajida) and kissing the Sultan’s feet
(paibos) to prove his superiority over the nobles. He introduced the Persian festival
of Nauroz to impress the nobles and people with his wealth and power.
 He stood forth as the champion of Turkish nobility. He excluded non-Turks from
administration and Indian Muslims were not given important positions in the
government. To monitor the activities of the nobles he appointed spies and
developed an efficient spy system.
 Balban was determined to break the power of ‘The Forty’. He spared only the loyal
nobles and eliminated all others by fair or foul means. Malik Baqbaq, the governor of
Bedaun, was publicly flogged for his cruelty towards his servants. Haybat Khan, the
governor of Oudh was punished for killing a man who was drunk. The governor of
Bhatinda, Sher Khan was poisoned.
 Balban had to deal with internal as well as external problems. The Mongols were
looking for an opportunity to attack the Sultanate, the Indian rulers were ready to
revolt at the smallest opportunity, distant provincial governors wanted to gain
independence and the outskirts of Delhi were often plundered by the Mewatis. To
handle all these problems, he adopted a stern policy and organised a strong central
army to deal with internal issues and also to repel the Mongols.
 He established a separate military department, Diwan-e-arz and reorganised the
army. He deployed the army in different parts of his country to suppress the
rebellious elements. Balban paid more attention to restore law and order instead of
expanding his kingdom. Balban took stern action against the Mewatis and prevented
such robberies. Robbers were mercilessly pursued and sentenced to death, as a
result of which the roads became safe for travel.
 In c. 1279 CE, Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal revolted against Balban. Balban
sent his forces to Bengal and Tughril Khan was beheaded. Balban appointed his son
Bughra Khan as the governor of Bengal.
 In the northwest, the Mongols reappeared and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud
against them. But the prince was killed in the battle and it was a moral blow to
Balban. Balban died in c. 1287 CE. He was one of the main architects of the Delhi
Sultanate. However, he could not fully safeguard India from the Mongol invasion.
 Kaiqubad (c. 1287 – 1290 CE)

 Kaiqubad was the grandson of Balban and was made the Sultan of Delhi by the
nobles. He was soon replaced by his son, Kaimur. In c. 1290 CE, Feroz, the Ariz-e-
Mumalik (the minister of war) murdered Kaimur and captured the throne. He took
the title of Jalal-ud-din Khalji and established the Khalji dynasty.

 Khilji Dynasty (c. 1290 – 1320 CE): Delhi Sultanate

Rulers Period Events

Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji 1290–1296 Founder of the Khilji/Khalji Dynasty and son of Qaim Khan

Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji’s nephew and the most powerful ruler

Alauddin Khilji 1296–1316
of the Khilji period

Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah 1316–1320 Son of Alauddin Khilji

 Jalal-ud-din Khalji (c. 1290 – 1296 CE)

 Jalal-ud-din Khalji was the founder of the Khalji dynasty. He was 70 years old when
he assumed power. He had been the warden of the marches in the northwest and
had fought many successful battles against the Mongols during Balban’s reign. The
Khaljis were of mixed Turkish-Afghan descent, they did not exclude the Turks from
high offices but the rise of the Khaljis to power ended the Turkish monopoly of high
offices.
 He tried to mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban’s rule. He was the first ruler
of the Delhi Sultanate who clearly put forth his view that the state should be based
on the willing support of the governed and that since the large majority of the
population in India were Hindus, the state in India could not be an Islamic state.
 He adopted the policy of tolerance and avoided harsh punishments. For instance,
Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban was allowed to remain the governor of Kara. When
Chhajju revolted, it was suppressed but he was pardoned. When the thugs (robbers)
looted the country, they were allowed to go after a severe warning. In c. 1292 CE,
when Malik Chhaju revolted again, he was replaced by his nephew and son-in-law,
Alauddin Khalji.
 During the reign of Jalal-ud-din Khalji, Alauddin invaded Devagiri and accumulated
enormous wealth. During the reception in c. 1296 CE, he treacherously murdered his
father-in-law near Kara and usurped the throne of Delhi. He made generous gifts to
the nobles and soldiers to win over them.
 Alauddin Khalji (c. 1296 – 1316 CE)

 Alauddin Khalji was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din Khalji. He was
appointed as the Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of ceremonies) and also Arizi-i-
Mumalik (minister of war) during the reign of Jalaluddin Khalji.
 He followed Balban’s policy of governance that was quite contrary to Jalaluddin’s
policy of tolerance. He was convinced that the general prosperity of the nobles,
intermarriage between noble families, inefficient spy system and drinking liquor
were the basic reasons for rebellions. Therefore, he passed four laws:

o The public sale of liquor and drugs was totally banned.

o The intelligence system was reorganised and all the secret activities of the nobles
were immediately reported to the Sultan.
o He confiscated the property of the nobles.
o Social gatherings and festivities without the permission of the Sultan were not
allowed. By such stringent rules, his reign was free from rebellions.
  Military Campaigns of Alauddin Khalji

 Alauddin maintained a huge permanent standing army. He sent his army six times
against the Mongols. The first two were successful but the third Mongol invader,
Khwaja came up to Delhi but was stopped from entering the capital city. The next
three Mongol invasions were also dealt with severely and thousands of Mongols
were killed. The northwestern frontier was fortified and Ghazi Malik (Ghayasuddin
Tughlaq) was appointed as the Warden of Marches to protect the frontier.
 Conquest of Gujarat – Alauddin Khalji sent an army under two of his
generals, Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan to capture Gujarat in c. 1299 CE. The ruler
Rai Karan and his daughter escaped while the queen was caught and sent to
Delhi. Malik Kafur, a eunuch was also taken to Delhi and later he was made the
military commander.
 Conquest of Rajputana – After capturing Gujarat, Alauddin’s attention turned
towards Rajputana.

o Ranthambore – It was considered to be the strongest fort of Rajasthan. Initially,

the Khalji army suffered losses and Nusrat Khan even lost his life. In c.1301 CE,
the fort fell to Alauddin. The Rajput women committed Jauhar or self-
immolation.
o Chittor – Alauddin next turned against Chittor. It was another powerful state of
Rajputana. In c. 1303 CE, Alauddin stormed the Chittor fort. According to some
scholars, Alauddin attacked Chittor because he coveted Padmini, the beautiful
queen of Raja Ratan Singh. Raja Ratan Singh and his army fought bravely but
were defeated. The Rajput women including Rani Padmini performed Jauhar.
This Padmini episode was graphically mentioned in the book Padmavat written
by Jayasi.
o Malwa and others – In c. 1305 CE, under the able leadership of Ain-ul-Mulk, the
Khalji army captured Malwa. Ujjain, Mandu, Chanderi and Dhar were also
annexed. After this, Alauddin Khalji sent Malik Kafur to the south and himself
attacked Siwana. Raja Shital Deva, the ruler of Siwana fought valiantly but was
defeated. In c. 1311 CE, Jalore – another Rajput kingdom was annexed. Thus, by
c.1311 CE, Alauddin Khalji became the master of north India and captured large
parts of Rajputana.

 Conquest of Deccan and the far South – Alauddin’s greatest achievement was the
conquest of Deccan and the far south. This region was ruled by four important
dynasties – Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra
and the Pandyas of Madurai. Alauddin sent Malik Kafur to lead the Khalji dynasty
invasions to south India.
In c. 1306 – 1307 CE, Malik Kafur attacked Devagiri. The ruler of Devagiri, Rai
Ramachandra surrendered and was treated honourably. He was given a district of
Gujarat and one of his daughters was married to Alauddin. In c. 1309 CE, Malik Kafur
launched his campaign against Warangal. Its ruler Prataparudra Deva was defeated
and an enormous booty was collected from him. Malik Kafur’s next target was the
Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala Ⅲ. He was defeated and a huge booty was seized and sent
to Delhi. Kafur then marched against the Pandyas. Vira Pandya fled the capital
Madurai and Kafur seized enormous wealth from the Pandya kingdom. According to
 Amir Khusrau, Malik Kafur reached as far as Rameshwaram, built a mosque there
and returned to Delhi with huge wealth. Alauddin honoured Malik Kafur by
appointing him Naib Malik of the empire.
 Alauddin Khalji died in c. 1316 CE. Although the Sultan was illiterate, he patronized
poets like Amir Hasan and Amir Khusrau. He built a famous gateway known as Alai
Darwaza and constructed a new capital at Siri. Alauddin assumed the title of
Sikander-i-Azam and gave the title of Tuti-i-Hind to Amir Khusrau.
 Administration of Alauddin Khalji

 Military Reforms – Alauddin Khalji maintained a large permanent standing army

and paid them in cash from the royal treasury. According to historian Ferishta, he
recruited 4,75,000 cavalrymen. He introduced the system of dagh (branding of
horses) and prepared huliya (descriptive list of soldiers). In order to have maximum
efficiency, a strict review of the army from time to time was carried out.
 Market Reforms – Alauddin established four separate markets in Delhi, one for
grain (mandi); another for cloth, sugar, dried fruits, oil and butter; third for horses,
cattle and slaves and the fourth market for miscellaneous commodities. Each market
was under the control of a high officer called Shahna-i-Mandi. The supply of grain
was ensured by holding stocks in government storehouses. There were regulations
in place to fix the price of all commodities. A separate department called Diwan-i-
Riyasat was created under an officer called Naib-i-Riyasat. Every merchant was
registered under the market department. There were secret agents
called munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding the functioning of these
markets. The Sultan also sent slave boys to buy various commodities to check prices.
Any violation of the Sultan’s orders resulted in severe punishment. No hoarding was
permissible and even during famines, the same price was maintained.
 Land Revenue Administration – Alauddin took important steps in the land
revenue administration. He was the first sultan of Delhi who ordered measurement
of land. Land revenue was collected in cash which enabled the Sultan to pay the
soldiers in cash. His land revenue reforms provided a basis for the future reforms of
Sher Shah and Akbar. The state officer measured the land and fixed land revenue
accordingly.
 Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (c. 1316 – 1320 CE)

 After the death of Alauddin Khalji, Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (one of the sons of
Alauddin) ascended the throne. He abolished all the harsh regulations of his father.
He was not able to run the administration efficiently and was murdered.
 Nasiruddin Khusrau Shah (c. 1320 CE)

 He killed Mubarak Shah. His reign did not last long. The governor of Dipalpur, Ghazi
Malik killed Khusrau Shah and ascended the throne of Delhi under the title
of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in c. 1320 CE.
 He was the only Hindu convert to sit on the throne of Delhi.

Tughluq Dynasty (c. 1320 – 1414 CE): Delhi Sultanate

Rulers Period Events

Ghiyath al-Din (Ghiyasuddin) Tughluq 1320–1325

Muhammad bin Tughluq 1325–1351 Also called Muhammad Shah II

Mahmud Ibn Muhammad 1351 (March)

Firoz Shah Tughlaq 1351–1388 Cousin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq II 1388–1389

Abu Bakr Shah 1389–1390

Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III 1390–1393

Ala ud-din Sikandar Shah I 1393

Mahmud Nasir ud din 1393–1394 Also called as Sultan Mahmud II

Nasir-ud-din Nusrat Shah Tughluq 1394–1399 Grandson of Firuz Shah Tughlaq

Nasir ud din Mahmud 1399–1412 Son of Mahmud Nasir-ud- din

This dynasty is also called Qaraunah Turks, as the father of Ghazi Malik was a Qaraunah
Turk in origin.

 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq/Ghazi Malik (c. 1320 – 1325 CE)

 Founder of the Tughlaq dynasty.

 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad (a strong fort) near Delhi.
 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son Jauna Khan/Muhammad bin Tughlaq against
Warangal (Kakatiyas) and Madurai (Pandyas).
 His relationship with the Sufi saint Sheikh Nizam ud din Aulia was not cordial.
 It is believed that Jauna Khan treacherously killed his father and ascended the
throne with the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq in c. 1325 CE.
 Muhammad Bin Tughlaq/Jauna Khan (c. 1325 – 1351 CE)

 He was a very interesting character in the history of medieval times because of his
ambitious schemes and novel experiments. However, his novel experiments and
enterprises failed miserably as they were far ahead of their time.
 He introduced many reforms:

o Transfer of Capital – Muhammad bin Tughlaq wanted to shift his capital

from Delhi to Devagiri so that he might be able to control south India better. He
 forcibly moved the entire population to the new capital, Devagiri which was
renamed as Daulatabad. After two years, the Sultan abandoned Daulatabad and
shifted back to Delhi due to the scarcity of water supply in Daulatabad. The
distance between the two places was more than 1500 kilometres and many
people died during the rigorous journey in summer.
o Token Currency – In c. 1329 CE, Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced a
token currency, made of copper to replace gold and silver coins. It was modelled
based on the Chinese example (Kublai Khan issued paper money in China). Very
few people exchanged gold/silver for copper and the tokens were easy to forge
which led to heavy losses. Later on, Muhammad bin Tughlaq repealed his verdict
and all coins were redeemed in gold/silver, making the treasury empty.
o Taxation in Doab – The failure of the above two experiments resulted in a huge
loss of money. In order to improve the financial condition, Muhammad bin
Tughlaq increased the land revenue on the farmers of the doab land between the
Ganga and Yamuna rivers. It was an excessive and arbitrary step on the farmers.
A severe famine struck the region at that time which made the farmers revolt.
However, the harsh steps taken by Muhammad bin Tughlaq crushed the revolt.
o Agricultural Reforms – He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for
cultivation) were given to the farmers to buy seeds and to extend cultivation. He
set up a separate department for agriculture, Diwan-i-amir-Kohi. A model farm
under the state was created in an area of 64 square miles for which the
government spent around seventy lakh tankas. This experiment was further
continued by Firoz Tughlaq.
 Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a
comprehensive literary, religious and philosophical education.
 He was very tolerant in religious matters. He maintained diplomatic relations with
far off countries like Iran, Egypt and China. The famous traveller Ibn Batuta (author
of Safarnama Rehla) visited India during this period (c. 1334 CE) and was appointed
Qazi at Delhi for a period of eight years.
 During the latter part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign, the kingdom witnessed a
spate of rebellions by the nobles and provincial governors. The Sultanate of Madurai
was established due to the rebellion of Hassan Shah. In c. 1336 CE, the Vijaynagara
kingdom was founded. In c. 1347 CE, the Bahmani kingdom was established. The
governors of Sindh, Multan and Oudh rose in revolt against the authority of
Muhammad bin Tughlaq. In Gujarat, Taghi revolted against the Sultan who spent
nearly three years chasing him.
 Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in c.1351 CE due to the worsening of his health
condition. According to Baduani, the Sultan was freed from his people and the
people from the Sultan. According to Barani, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a mixture
of opposites. His reign marked the beginning of the process of its decline.
 Firoz Shah Tughlaq (c. 1351 – 1388 CE)

 After the death of Muhammad bin Tughlaq in c.1351 CE, Firoz Shah Tughlaq was
chosen as the Sultan by the nobles.
 He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert as wazir (Prime
Minister). He helped the Sultan in his administration and maintained the prestige of
the Sultanate during this period.
 Military Campaigns

 After ascending the throne, he focussed on strengthening his position over north
India instead of claiming his authority over south India and Deccan. He led two
expeditions to Bengal which were unsuccessful and as a result, Bengal became free
from the control of the Delhi Sultanate.
 Firoz Shah Tughlaq also attacked Jajnagar (modern Orissa) and collected large booty
from the temples (such as the Puri Jagannath temple). He also marched
against Nagarkot and made its ruler pay tributes. During this campaign, Firoz Shah
collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from the Jwalamukhi temple library and
Arizuddin Khan translated these into the Persian language. Firoz Shah then marched
against Thatta (Sindh region) and crushed a rebellion there.
 Administrative Reforms

 He ran his administration in accordance with the advice of the ulemas. He pleased
the nobles and assured hereditary succession to their properties. Thus, the iqta
system was revived and was also made hereditary.
 He levied taxes as per the teachings of Islam. Jiziya was imposed on non-Muslims.
The special tax on 28 items was discarded by him since they were against the laws of
Islam. He showed intolerance towards Shia Muslims and Sufis. He regarded Hindus
as second-grade citizens and in this respect, he was the precursor of Sikander Lodi
and Aurangzeb.
 He was the first sultan to impose an irrigation tax. But at the same time, he also built
a number of irrigation canals and wells. The longest canal was about 200 km in
length from Sutlej to Hansi. Another canal was between Yamuna and Hissar.
 During his reign, there were around 1200 fruit gardens in and around Delhi
generating more revenue.
 He developed royal factories called karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were
employed. He also increased the number of slaves by capturing the defeated soldiers
and young persons. There were around one lakh eighty thousand slaves during his
reign.
 New towns (around 300) were built during his reign. The famous one being
Firozabad near Red Fort (now called Firoz Shah Kotla). Monuments like Qutb Minar
and Jama Masjid were repaired and Ashokan pillars from Meerut and Topara were
brought to Delhi during his reign.
 Diwan-i-Khairat, a new department was established to support orphans and
widows. Free hospitals like Dar-ul-Shifa and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims
were also established.
 Firoz patronised scholars like Barani who wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shah, and Fatawa-i-
Jahandari and Khwaja Abdul Malik Islami who wrote Futah-us- Sulatin. He himself
authored the book, Futuhat-e-Firozshahi.
 Firoz Shah Tughlaq died in c. 1388 CE and after that, the struggle for power between
the Sultan and nobles started again. His successors (like Muhammad Khan,
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah Ⅱ, Abu Bakr Shah, Nasiruddin Muhammad) had to face
the rebellions of the slaves created by Firoz.
In the following years, the Delhi Sultanate disintegrated and many provinces like
Gujarat and Malwa declared independence. The invasion of Timur in c. 1398 CE, further
aggravated the situation. Timur was a Mongol leader of Central Asia, and head of the
Chagatai Turks. His kingdom stretched from lower Volga to river Indus, and included
modern Turkey, Afghanistan, Transoxiana, Iran, and portions of Punjab. When Timur
entered Delhi there was barely any opposition. He sacked Delhi for three days killing
thousands of people and gathering huge wealth. He withdrew from India in c. 1399 CE
and his invasion gave a death blow to the Tughlaq dynasty.

Sayyid Dynasty (c. 1414 – 1451 CE): Delhi Sultanate

Rulers Period

Khizr Khan 1414–1421

Mubarak Shah 1421–1433

Muhammad Shah 1434–1445

Alam Shah 1445–1451

 Khizr Khan (c. 1414 – 1421 CE)

 Before Timur left India, he appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan. He captured
Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty in c. 1414 CE. He did not adopt the title of
Sultan and was content with Rayat-i-Ala.
 He is considered to be an important ruler of the Sayyid dynasty. He tried to
consolidate the Delhi Sultanate but in vain. He died in c. 1421 CE.
 Mubarak Shah (c. 1421 – 1433 CE)

 Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah.

 Muhammad Shah (c. 1434 – 1443 CE)

 Muhammad Shah who succeeded Mubarak Shah was always busy acting against
conspirators and gradually lost control over his nobles.
 Muhammad Shah died in c. 1445 CE and was succeeded by his son Alam Shah.
 Alam Shah (c. 1445 – 1451 CE)

 He was the weakest among all Sayyid princes and proved to be incompetent.
 His wazir, Hamid Khan invited Bahlul Lodhi to take charge of the army. Alam Shah
realised that it would be difficult to continue as a ruler, so he retired to Badaun.

Lodi Dynasty (c. 1451 – 1526 CE)

Rulers Period Important points

Bahlul/Bahlol Lodi 1451–1489 Founder of the Lodi Dynasty

Sikander Lodi 1489–1517 The most prominent ruler of the Lodi Dynasty, founded Agra city

Defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat (in 1526) and thus
Ibrahim Lodi 1517–1526
ended the Delhi Sultanate

The Lodhis/Lodis were the last ruling dynasty of the Sultanate period and the first to be
headed by the Afghans, who ruled over Sirhind when the Sayyids ruled in India.

 Bahlol Lodhi (c. 1451 – 1489 CE)

 He founded the Lodhi dynasty.

 In c. 1476 CE, he defeated the sultan of Jaunpur and annexed it to Delhi Sultanate. He
also brought the ruler of Kalpi and Dholpur under the suzerainty of Delhi. He
annexed the Sharqui dynasty and introduced Bahlol copper coins.
 He died in c. 1489 CE and was succeeded by his son, Sikander Lodhi.
 Sikander Lodhi (c. 1489 – 1517 CE)

 He was the greatest of the three Lodhi sovereigns. He brought the whole of Bihar
under his control and many Rajput chiefs were defeated. He attacked Bengal and
forced its ruler to conclude a treaty with him and extended his kingdom from Punjab
to Bihar.
 He was a good administrator, he built roads and many irrigation facilities were
provided for the benefit of the peasantry.
 He introduced the Gazz-i-Sikandari, a new measurement yardstick and a system of
auditing of accounts.
 Despite having applaudable qualities, he was a bigot and was intolerant towards
non-Muslims. Many temples were destroyed and he re-imposed Jiziya on non-
Muslims.
 In c. 1504 CE, he founded Agra and wrote Persian verses under the name Gulrakhi.
 Ibrahim Lodhi ( c. 1517 – 1526 CE)

 Sikander Lodhi was succeeded by his eldest son, Ibrahim Lodhi who was an arrogant
and repressive ruler. He insulted his nobles in the court and the ones who revolted
were put to death. Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab was humiliated and
disaffection between king and courtier became very common during his reign.
Greatly displeased by the attitude of Ibrahim Lodhi, Daulat Khan Lodhi invited
Babur to invade India. Babur marched against Delhi, defeated and killed Ibrahim
Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat in c. 1526 CE. The Afghan kingdom thus lasted for
only seventy-five years.
Thus, the Sultanate of Delhi which had its birth on the battlefield of Tarain (c. 1192 CE),
ended just a few miles away on the battlefield of Panipat (c. 1526 CE).
UNIT:- 12 MUGHAL DYNASTY
The Mughal Empire ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th to
mid-19th centuries. Founded in 1526 by Babur, a Timurid prince descended from
Turkic-Mongol ancestors, the Mughal dynasty expanded its territories under influential
rulers like Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. The Mughals ushered in an
era of political unity, military strength, architectural marvels, and cultural synthesis of
Persian, Central Asian, and Indian traditions.

They left an invaluable legacy, including iconic monuments like the Taj Mahal, Red
Fort, and Fatehpur Sikri, showcasing their architectural brilliance. The Mughal dynasty
ruled over an incredibly prosperous empire until its decline in the early 18th century.

Babur was descended from Timur and Genghis Khan, he invaded Punjab areas
between 1519 and 1524. Crossing the Indus after conquering Kabul and Ghazni, he
capitalised on discontent against the Delhi Sultanate. Defeating Ibrahim Lodi in
the battle of Panipat in 1526, Babur founded the Mughal dynasty in Delhi.

 Mughal Dynasty Rulers

The Mughals, descendants of the Timurid dynasty, ruled the Indian subcontinent
from 1526 to 1857. Notable rulers like Akbar, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb shaped its
culture and expansion.

1. Babur

 His victory over Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 enabled him
to establish the Mughal dynasty in Delhi.
 Babur consolidated his reign through subsequent victories
against Rajput and Afghan forces at Khanwa, Chanderi, and Ghagra.
 He was a scholar of Persian and Arabic languages. He left a literary legacy with his
acclaimed memoir, the Baburnama.
 Key Battles:
o First Battle of Panipat (1526): Defeated Ibrahim Lodi, conquering Delhi and
Agra.
o Battle of Khanwa (1527): Defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar and Afghan allies.
o Battle of Chanderi (1528): Victory over Medini Rai, securing Malwa region.
o Battle of Ghagra (1529): Defeated Afghan rebels led by Mahmud Lodi.

2. Humayun

 Unlike his father Babur, Humayun was known more for his cultural and scholarly
interests than his military skills.
 He faced challenges from a weak financial system, predatory Afghans, and threats
from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
 The rise of Sher Shah in Bihar and UP led to conflicts, including the battles
of Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540), where Humayun lost his kingdom.
o However, as the Sur Empire declined, Humayun invaded and regained Delhi,
becoming Emperor again.
3. Akbar

 Akbar, one of the greatest Mughal emperors, ascended the throne at the age
of 13 after the untimely death of his father Humayun.
 He embarked on an ambitious military campaign, annexing regions like Gujarat,
Bengal, Kashmir, and Kabul, expanding the Mughal Empire immensely.
 Akbar adoptedpolicies of religious tolerance and abolished discriminatory taxes
like jizya, leading to a golden period. Akbar started a syncretic religion “ Din-i-
Ilahi” incorporating elements from various faiths.
 Akbar's era witnessed the blending of Indian, Persian, and Islamic influences,
epitomised by the construction of his capital city, Fatehpur Sikri.

4. Jahangir

 He ascended the throne in 1605 after rebelling against his father Akbar.
 His reign witnessed the consolidation of the Mughal Empire, with the annexation of
Kandahar, Mewar, and Ahmednagar.
 A patron of arts and architecture, he commissioned exquisite buildings like
the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir.
 Jahangir was deeply influenced by his wife Nur Jahan, who enjoyed a prominent
role in the court and administration.
 His autobiography, the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, provides insights into his life and reign.

5. Shah Jahan

 Shah Jahan ascended the Mughal throne in 1628 after revolting against his father
Jahangir.
 His reign marked the golden age of Mughal architecture. He commissioned the
construction of the iconic Taj Mahal as a mausoleum for his beloved wife Mumtaz
Mahal. The Red Fort in Delhi and the Jama Masjid, one of the largest mosques in
India, were also built during his reign.
 However, wars of succession between his sons towards the end of his rule drained
the empire's resources. He was eventually imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb in 1658,
spending his last years under house arrest.

6. Aurangzeb

 His reign witnessed the largest territorial expansion of the Mughal Empire.
 He was an orthodox ruler who attempted to establish Islamic rule by reimposing
the jizya tax and destroying Hindu temples.
 His intolerant policies led to resentment, revolts by Rajputs, Marathas, Sikhs, and the
weakening of the empire.
 Despite military campaigns in the Deccan against Shivaji and the siege of Golconda,
Aurangzeb could not fully subjugate the Marathas.

7. Later Mughals

 After Aurangzeb died in 1707, the Mughal Empire witnessed a steady decline. A
series of weak and ineffective rulers like Bahadur Shah I, Jahandar
 Shah, and Farrukhsiyar could not control the increasing ambitions of provincial
governors and aristocrats.
 The Mughal emperors became mere puppets, with the real power resting in the
hands of their ministers.
 The empire disintegrated rapidly due to court intrigues, civil wars, and relentless
attacks from the Marathas, Afghans, and Persians.
 The invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739 completely stripped the Mughals of their
wealth and glory.
 By the mid-18th century, the once mighty Mughal Empire had been reduced to the
City of Delhi, eventually coming under British control.

 Decline of the Mughals

 Internal conflicts: Power struggles and infighting among the royal family members
weakened the central authority and drained the empire's resources.
 Degeneration of nobility: The decline in nobility's character and capabilities
mirrored the weakening empire.
 Rise of regional powers: The emergence of powerful regional kingdoms, such as
the Marathas and the Sikhs, challenged the Mughal's dominance and sparked
prolonged conflicts.
 Economic decline: The decline in agricultural productivity, coupled with the drain
of wealth through extravagant expenditures and mismanagement of resources, led
to economic instability.
 Declining military strength: The once formidable Mughal army lost its edge due to
outdated military tactics, inadequate training, and a lack of modernization.
 Foreign invasions: The Mughal Empire faced repeated invasions from the Persians
and the Afghans, further eroding its power and territorial holdings.

 Mughal Empire Administrative, Socio-Economic Structure

The Mughal Empirе, a rеmarkablе pеriod in India's history, is known for its wеll-
organizеd administration, thriving еconomy, and divеrsе sociеty.

1) Administration of Mughals

Administrative unit Details

- Emperor (Badshah) held supreme authority

- Aided by a council of ministers (Diwan-i-Kul)

- Key positions
Central Administration
 Wazir: Prime Minister
 Diwan: Head of Finances and Expenditure
 Mir Bakshi: Head of Military
 Sadr-us-Sadur: Head of Religious Affairs
 Mir Saman: Head of Karkhanas
 - Empire divided into provinces (Subas) governed by Subahdars

- Subas further divided into Sarkars (districts) and Parganas (groups of

Administrative Divisions
villages)

- Faujdars (military commanders) maintained law and order

- Sipahsalar: Civil and military head representing the Emperor.

- Diwan: Managed revenue administration.

Provincial
Administration
- Bakshi: Organized the army within the province.

- Sadr: Oversaw judicial affairs

- District Officers:

 Fauzdar: Administrative head ensuring law and order.

 Amalguzar: Responsible for land revenue collection.
District & Village
Administration - Village Officers:

 Muqaddam: Headman overseeing village affairs.

 Patwari: Accountant managing village records

- Land revenue was the primary source of income

 Jagirdari System: Babur distributed land as Jagirs to nobles and high-

ranking officers, to collect revenues instead of cash salaries. Jagirdari
rights were not hereditary, but transferable at the emperor’s will.
 Dahsala System: Introduced in 1580, it standardised land
measurement and revenue collection, enhancing state income and
cultivator conditions
Revenue System  Zabt/Bandobast System: Under Akbar, It was developed by Raja
Todar Mal, land measured and classified based on soil fertility.
 Zamindari System: It emerged during the decline of the Mughal
Empire, granting hereditary rights over landed estates to zamindars
(landowners) who had to pay a fixed annual revenue to the Mughal
court after collecting taxes from peasants.

- Revenue was assessed as a share of the estimated produce (usually one-

third)

- Civilian and military officials were assigned ranks (mansabs)

- Salary and military responsibilities were determined by mansab rank

Mansabdari System
- Mansabdars held dual ranks - zat and sawar
 -The mansab rank was not hereditary & mansabdars were paid by assigning
jagir.

- Based on a combination of Islamic law (Sharia) and local customs

Legal System
- Qazi (judge) administered justice with the assistance of muftis (legal
experts)

2) Economic Conditions

 Agriculture: The Mughal economy was largely agrarian, with agriculture as the
chief economic activity and land revenue as the primary source of income.
 Crops:
 Ain-i-Akbari listed crops for Rabi and Kharif seasons
 Introduction of tobacco, maize, chilli, pineapple, grafted mangoes, potato, tomato,
and guava.
 Indigo and sericulture (silk) were important commercial crops
 Urban economy:
 Craft industries like cotton textiles, iron, copper, diamond mining, and gun making
 Karkhanas (workshops) for expensive craft production
 Trade and commerce:
 Political integration and efficient law and order facilitated trade
 Trading centres: Bengal (rice, sugar, muslin, silk), Coromandel coast (textiles),
Lahore (shawls, carpets)
 Hundi (letters of credit) facilitated the movement of goods
 Prominent trading communities: Banjaras, Bohra Muslims, Marwaris, Chettiars,
Europeans
 Sarais (inns): Network of sarais enabled traders and merchants to travel across the
empire

3) Mughal Society

 The Mughal society was hierarchical and stratified based on birth, occupation, and
religion.
 The dominant groups were the aristocracy, religious scholars, and landowners.
 The nobility comprised Turks, Persians, Afghans, and Indian Muslims who held
administrative and military positions.
 Hindus were allowed to practice their religion but were subject to taxes like jizya.
 Rural society consisted of powerful zamindars, peasants, and artisans organised into
guilds. Urban centres had merchants, bankers, artisans, and intellectuals patronised
by the court.
 Despite limited social mobility, Akbar promoted a more inclusive society.
 The patriarchal society confined women's roles largely to the domestic sphere.

4) Religious Developments

 The Mughals were Muslims, but their religious policies were

generally tolerant towards other faiths.
  Akbar abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims and promoted a syncretistic approach
with Din-i-Ilahi.
 However, the religious orthodoxy was reasserted under Aurangzeb, who reimposed
jizya and pursued a more conservative Islamic policy.
 Sikhism emerged as a distinct religion during this period, shaped byGuru
Nanak and subsequent Gurus.
 The Bhakti movementalso gained momentum, with saints like Mirabai, Tulsidas,
and Surdas promoting devotional Hindu traditions.
 Sufism, a mystical Islamic order, flourished and influenced literature and music.
 Overall, it was an era marked by the coexistence of diverse religious traditions.

 Mughal Art and Architecture

India saw remarkable advancements in painting, architecture, literature, and art during
the Mughal era (1526–1857). Persian, Indian, and Central Asian influences were
uniquely combined in Mughal art and architecture.

1) Mughal Architecture

Ruler Architecture

Babur (1526-1530) - Kabuli Bagh Mosque, Panipat

- Humayun's Tomb, Delhi

Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556) - Purana Qila, Delhi

- Dinpanah (Old Fort), Delhi

- Agra Fort, Agra

- Fatehpur Sikri, Agra

Akbar (1556-1605) - Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri

- Panch Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri

- Jami Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri

- Tomb of Akbar, Sikandra, Agra

Jahangir (1605-1627) - Shalimar Gardens, Lahore

- Tomb of Itmad-ud-Daulah (Baby Taj), Agra

- Taj Mahal, Agra

Shah Jahan (1628-1658)
- Red Fort, Delhi
 - Jama Masjid, Delhi

- Shalimar Gardens, Delhi

- Moti Masjid, Agra Fort

- Badshahi Mosque, Lahore

Aurangzeb (1658-1707) - Bibi Ka Maqbara, Aurangabad

- Musammam Burj, Agra Fort

2) Mughal Painting

 Mughal painting flourished under royal patronage, with Humayun bringing Persian
painters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India.
 Akbar commissioned illustrations of literary and religious texts by Hindu and
Muslim artists like Baswan, Miskina, and Daswant, depicting works like
Mahabharata and Akbar Nama using Indian colours.
 Under Jahangir, painters like Abul Hasan and Bishan Das excelled in portraits,
animal paintings, and scenes influenced by European styles.
 However, reduced patronage by later rulers like Aurangzeb due to religious
orthodoxy led to a decline in Mughal painting.

3) Music and Dance during Mughals

The Mughal era witnessed a golden age for music and dance, with the emperors actively
promoting art forms and providing a platform for renowned artists to showcase their
talents.

 The legendary Hindustani classical singer Tansen, along with Baiju Bawra, Nayak
Bakshu, and Sukhvira, were among the renowned musicians patronized by Akbar.
 Jahangir and Shah Jahan also appreciated and promoted music, continuing the
Mughal legacy
 Classical dance forms like Kathak, incorporating Persian and Central Asian
elements, evolved under Mughal patronage.

4) Literature during Mughals

The Mughal era witnessed a flourishing of literature, with the emperors patronizing
writers and poets.

 Mughal rulers patronized literature in languages like Persian, Urdu, and Turkish,
fostering a rich literary culture.
 Persian was the language of the Mughal administration.
 Sufi and Bhakti movements propelled the growth of regional languages like Hindi,
Bengali, Rajasthani and Gujarati, enhancing cultural diversity.
 Urdu emerged as a common language of communication during Mughal rule.
Book Author Details

- Describes Babur’s military tactics and administrative

Tuzuk -i-Baburi Babur
organisation

Gulbandan
Humayun Nama - Biography of Humayun
Begum

Akbar Nama Abu Fazl - History of Akbar’s reign

Ain-i-Akbari Abu Fazl - Administration of Akbar’s reign

Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh Badauni - Account of Akbar’s reign

Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri Jahangir - Jahangir’s autobiography

Iqbalnamah-i-Jahangir Mutamid Khan - Biography of Jahagir

Abdul Hamid
Padshahnama - History of Shah Jahan’s reign
Lahori

Munsi Mirza
Alamgir Nama Muhamma - History of Aurangzeb’s rule
Kazin

Fatwa-i-Alamgiri Aurangzeb - Sharia law for the empire

Majma-ul-Bahrain (The
Dara Shikoh - Diversity and harmony of religions
Confluence of the Two Seas)

Bhagavad Gita,
Dara Shikoh - Translated into Persian
Upanishads

Shahnameh Firdausi - History of Persian kings.

Nuskho-i- Dilkusha Bhimsen - Analysis of Arungzeb’s rule

Ramcharitmanas Tulsidas - Ramayana in Awadhi

Sursagar Sur Das - Poetry collections (in Brij bhasha)

Rag Darpan Sarang Dev - Treatise on Indian classical music

Malik
Padmavat Muhammad - Story of Padmavati and Alauddin Khilji.
Jayasi

OR
 The Mughal dynasty was one of the longest-reigning dynasties in India before the
colonisation of India by the British. The Mughal dynasty had conquered most of
Northern India from the 16th century to the mid of 18th century. This article will
provide important facts on some of the rulers of the Mughal dynasty.

 Mughal Dynasty – List of the Most Well-Known Mughal Rulers

A list of the most well-known Mughal dynasty rulers is given below:

I. Babur
II. Humayun
III. Akbar
IV. Jahangir
V. Shah Jahan
VI. Aurangazeb

1. Babur – Founder of Mughal Empire

 Babur was the founder of the Mughal Empire and he was the first Emperor of the
Mughal Dynasty.
 Babur was the descendant of Genghis Khan and Timur.
 Babur was born on 14 February 1483.
 Babur was born in Fergana Valley, which is located in present day Uzbekistan.
 The Sultan of Delhi Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat
held in 1526 C.E. After defeating Ibrahim Lodi, Babur established the Mughal
Empire.
 Babur defeated the powerful ruler Rana Sanga of the Mewar Kingdom in the Battle
of Khanwa. This helped Babur to establish control over Northern India.

2. Akbar – The Most Famous Mughal Emperor

 Akbar was the third emperor of the Mughal dynasty.

 Akbar succeeded his father Humayun. The reign of Akbar started from 11th
February 1556 and went on till 27th October 1605, till he died. Bairam Khan was the
regent of Akbar.
 During the reign of Akbar, the empire was divided into 15 Subahs.
 In the Mughal Empire, a State or Province was known as a Subah.
 The subahs were established by Akbar when he carried out his administrative
reforms from 1572 to 1580.
 Subahs were further divided into districts known as Sarkars.
 The further divisions of Sarkars were known as Mahals or Parganas.
 During the end of the empire in the 18th century, the Subahs were conquered by the
British and Marathas.
 Akbar had 6 wives. Mariam-uz-Zamani was the chief consort of Mughal emperor
Akbar. She was a Hindu also famously known as Jodhan Bai.
 Akbar had many children, among them, the most famous was his son Jahangir.
Jahangir succeeded Akbar.
 Akbar was fond of art and culture. He established a massive library which had works
in many different languages.
 His library was staffed with artists, translators, scholars, calligraphers, book binders,
and readers.
 A library was established at Fatehpur Sikri exclusively for women.
 Buland Darwaza was built by Mughal Emperor Akbar, to commemorate his victory
over Gujarat.

3. Shah Jahan – Built the Famous Mughal Architecture

 The fifth Mughal emperor was Shah Jahan.

 Shah Jahan reigned from 1628 to 1658.
 Shah Jahan commissioned the best known Mughal architecture, the Taj Mahal in
Agra.
 The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
recognized the Taj Mahal as a World Heritage Site in 1983.
 Red Fort – UNESCO designated it as a World Heritage Site in 2007. It was built by
Shah Jahan, when he decided to move the capital from Agra to Delhi. It was the
residence of the Mughal rulers.
 Shalimar Gardens – It is a 40 acre garden built by Shah Jahan in 1642. It was
declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1981.

4. Aurangazeb

 Aurangazeb was the sixth Mughal emperor. He kept facing stiff resistance from the
Marathas.
 Aurangazeb ruled over the Indian subcontinent for a period of 49 years.
 Aurangazeb established Sharia Law in the Indian subcontinent.
UNIT:-13 LATER MUGHALS AND SUR DYNASTY
The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangzeb in c. 1707 CE.

 Later Mughals
The period between c. 1707 CE and c. 1761 CE (the time of Aurangzeb’s death to the
period when the Third Battle of Panipat took place, wherein Ahmad Shah Abdali
defeated the Maratha chiefs), witnessed the resurgence of regional identities and
highlighted a sad state of affairs for the once-mighty Mughals. The Mughal court became
the scene of factions among the nobles. The weakness of the empire was exposed when
Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal Emperor and looted Delhi in c. 1739 CE.
After the death of Aurangzeb in c. 1707 CE, a war of succession broke out among his
three sons – Muazzam (the governor of Kabul), Muhammad Kam Baksh (the governor of
Deccan) and Muhammad Azam Shah (the governor of Gujarat). Muazzam emerged
victorious and ascended the throne with the title of Bahadur Shah Ⅰ.

 Bahadur Shah Ⅰ/Shah Alam/Muazzam (c. 1707 – 1712 CE)

Muazzam ascended the throne and assumed the title of Bahadur Shah, at the age of 63.

 He followed a liberal policy towards the nobles, granted them the territories of their
preferences and promoted them. This led to the worsening of the state finances. It is
also believed that the real power was in the hands of the wazir, Zulfiqar Khan.
 He showed a tolerant attitude towards Hindus, though he never abolished jizya.
 During his reign, the independence of Marwar and Mewar was acknowledged.
However, the settlement could not restore these states to become fully committed
warriors for the Mughal cause.
 His policy towards the Marathas was also half-hearted reconciliation. He did not
recognize Shahu (whom he released) as the rightful Maratha king. He granted
Maratha the sardeshmukhi of the Deccan, but failed to grant the Chauth and thus
could not satisfy them fully. Marathas, thus, continued to fight among themselves as
well as against the Mughals.
 Jat chief Charuman and the Bundella chief Chattrasal joined him in his campaign
against the Sikhs. High mansab was granted to the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind
Singh. He, however, had to face rebellion from Banda Bahadur and it was during the
course of his campaign against Banda Bahadur that he died (in c. 1712 CE).
 He was given the title of “Shah-i-Bekhabar” by Mughal historians like Khafi Khan.

 Jahandar Shah (c. 1712 – 1713 CE)

After the death of Bahadur Shah, a new form of politics emerged in the Mughals’
political sphere wherein the nobles became ‘king makers’ and the kings
mere ‘puppets’ in their hands. Jahandar Shah was the first puppet ruler in Mughal India.
He was supported by Zulfiqar Khan (wazir) who had the reins of the executive in his
hands.

 Zulfiqar Khan built friendly relations with the Marathas, the Rajputs and different
Hindu chieftains. He abolished jizya and gave the title of “Maharaja” to Ajit Singh
 (Marwar) and Mirza Raj Sawai to Jai Singh of Amber. He also granted the Chauth and
Sardeshmukhi of the Deccan to Shahu. However, the old policy of suppression was
continued against Banda Bahadur and the Sikhs.
 Zulfiqar also tried to improve the financial situation of the empire by checking
reckless grants of jagirs and offices. He also made mansabdars maintain the official
quota of troops. However, he is infamous in history for introducing the evil practice
of Ijarah (revenue farming).
 Jahandar Shah’s favourite lady, Lal Kanwar (a dancing girl) dominated the court.

 Farrukh Siyar (c. 1713 – 1719 CE)

Farrukh Siyar defeated his brother Jahandar Shah at Agra in c. 1713 CE.

 He ascended the throne with the support of the Saiyyad brothers (the kingmakers) –
Saiyyad Abdullah Khan (Wazir) and Hussain Ali Khan (Mir Bakshi). The Saiyyad
brothers killed Zulfiqar Khan and appointed themselves to key positions.
 The Saiyyad brothers tried to make peace with the Marathas, the Jats, the Rajputs
and were also successful in suppressing the Sikh revolt. It was during this time
that Banda Bahadur, the Sikh leader, was executed.
 In c. 1717 CE, Farrukh Siyar granted many trading privileges to the East India
Company and also exempted customs duties for its trading through Bengal.
 The Saiyyad brothers completely did away with jizya and also abolished pilgrimage
tax at a number of places.
 Due to the overwhelming powers of the Saiyyad brothers, differences grew between
Farukh Siyar and the Saiyyad brothers. The emperor plotted thrice against the
brothers, but failed to overpower them.
 In c. 1719 CE, the Saiyyad brothers forged an alliance with Balaji
Vishwanath (Maratha ruler) and with the help of Maratha troops, the Saiyyad
brothers killed Farrukh Siyar.

 Rafi-us-Darajat (c. 1719 CE)

The Saiyyad brothers placed Rafi-us-Darajat at the throne. In fact, within a short span of
eight months three young princes were raised to the throne by the Saiyyad brothers.

 He died within four months due to excessive consumption.

 Grandson of Aurangzeb, Nikusiyar revolted during his reign and occupied the throne
at Agra with the support of Mitrasen (a Nagar Brahmin).

 Rafi-us-Daula (c. 1719 CE)

Hussain Ali Khan (the Saiyyad brother) marched upon Agra and imprisoned Nikusiyar.

 Rafi-us-Daula was titled as Shah Jahan Ⅱ.

 He ruled for a very short period and died of consumption (Tuberculosis).

 Muhammad Shah (Rangeela)/Roshan Akhtar (c. 1719 – 1748 CE)

 Brother of Jahan Shah who was fond of dancing and was himself an
expert Kathak dancer.

 In c. 1720, he successfully dislodged the Saiyyad brothers with the help of Nizam-ul-
Mulk, Chin Qilich Khan and his father’s cousin Muhammad Amin Khan. He appointed
Muhammad Amir Khan, who killed Hussain Ali Khan, as wazir under the title of
Itmad-ud-Daula. However, independent states emerged during his reign, the Deccan
under Nizam-ul-Mulk, Awadh under the leadership of Saadat Khan and Murshid Quli
Khan reigned Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
 The weakness of the Mughal empire was exposed when Nadir Shah invaded India,
imprisoned the Mughal emperor and looted Delhi in c. 1739 CE.
 Invasion of Nadir Shah (c. 1739 CE)

Nadir Shah was the Emperor of Iran. He was a national hero there who drove the
Afghans out of Iran.

i. Reasons for invasion:

 When Nadir Shah came to power in c. 1736 CE, Muhammad Shah Rangeela withdrew
his ambassador from the Persian court and snapped all diplomatic ties with that
country. Nadir Shah sent three envoys to the Mughal court and his third envoy was
detained by Rangeela which enraged him.
 When Nadir Shah invaded Afghanistan, some of the Afghan nobles took shelter
under Rangeela.
 Also, Saadat Khan and Nizam-ul-Mulk invited Nadir Shah to invade India.
ii. Course of invasion:

 He captured Jalalabad, Peshawar (c. 1738 CE) and then Lahore in c. 1739.
 Battle of Karnal (c. 1739 CE)

o Upon hearing of the advancing Persian army, Muhammad Shah marched his
forces out of Delhi in order to meet the invading army and prevent their entry
into his capital.
o The two forces met at Karnal for battle (about 120 km north of Delhi). The
Persian soldiers wreaked havoc on the Mughal army.

o Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah surrendered and he had to take Nadir Shah
to his capital. The entire treasury was looted and the soldiers indulged in a
gruesome massacre of the general population including women and children at
Delhi.
o The sack of Delhi lasted for several days, after which Nadir Shah asked his men
to cease. In May c. 1739 CE, Nadir Shah and his troops left the city.
o Muhammad Shah was retained as the emperor of the Mughal empire but was
compelled to cede to him all the provinces of the empire falling west of the river
Indus.
o Nadir Shah almost emptied the treasury and also took away the
famous Kohinoor and the Peacock throne.
 o Nadir Shah’s invasion caused an irreparable loss of prestige and exposed the
weaknesses of the empire to the Maratha Sardars and the foreign trading
companies as well.

 Ahmad Shah (c. 1748 – 1757 CE)

Son of Muhammad Shah Rangeela and Kudsiya Begum (a dancing girl).

 Ahmad Shah Abdali (ruler of Afghanistan) invaded Delhi many times, and Punjab
along with Multan was ceded to him.
 The Marathas snatched Malwa and Bundelkhand.
 His wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk, blinded him and imprisoned him at Salimgarh.

 Alamgir Ⅱ (c. 1754 – 1759 CE)

He was the second son of Jahandar Shah and was raised to the throne by Imad-ul-Mulk
after he deposed Ahmad Shah.

 Had to face repeated invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali.

 The famous Battle of Plassey ( 23 June c. 1757 CE) was fought during his tenure. The
Battle of Plassey helped the British East India Company to seize control of Bengal.
 He was also murdered by his wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk.

 Ali Gauhar/Shah Alam Ⅱ (c. 1759 – 1806 CE)

During his reign, the Mughal power was so depleted that it led to a saying in
Persian “Sultanat-e-Shah Alam, Az Dili ta Palam”, meaning “The kingdom of Shah Alam is
from Delhi to Palam,” Palam being a suburb of Delhi.

 Due to his conflict with the wazir, he fled to Awadh (c. 1761 – 1764 CE). He returned
to Delhi when Marathas re-established their hold and invited him to the capital.
 The third Battle of Panipat (c. 1761 CE) was fought during his reign between the
Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
 The Battle of Buxar was fought in c. 1764 CE between the forces under the command
of the British East India Company, led by Hector Munro and the combined armies of
Mir Qasim (Nawab of Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh) and the Mughal
Emperor Shah Alam Ⅱ. The war was brought to an end by the Treaty of Allahabad (c.
1765 CE) under which Diwani rights (right to collect land revenue) of Bengal, Bihar
and Orissa were granted to the British East India Company.
 He was the first Mughal ruler who became an East India Company pensioner.

 Akbar Ⅱ (c. 1806 – 1837 CE)

He was the son of Shah Alam Ⅱ and remained only under British protection as in c.
1803 CE, the British had captured Delhi.

 He conferred the title of “Raja” on Ram Mohan Roy.

 He was a great poet and is credited with the introduction of the Hindu-Muslim unity
festival Phool Walon Ki Sair.
 Bahadur Shah Ⅱ/Zafar (c. 1837 – 1857 CE)
He was the last ruler of the Mughal Empire. He was an accomplished poet and his pen
name was Zafar (victory).

 He participated in the revolt of c. 1857 CE. After the revolt was suppressed, he
was deported to Rangoon (Burma) where he died in c. 1862 CE.

 Decline of Mughal Empire

The decline and downfall of the empire was due to economic, social, political and
institutional factors:

1) Orthodox rule of Aurangzeb – The religious and Deccan policies of Aurangzeb

contributed to the empire’s decline. The attempt to extend the Mughal
administration over Golconda, Bijapur and Karnataka stretched the Mughal
administration to a breaking point. It also laid Mughal lines of communication open
to Maratha attacks so much so, that the Mughal nobles in the area found it
impossible to collect their dues from the jagirs assigned to them and sometimes
made private pacts with the Marathas. His failure to respect the susceptibilities of
his non-Muslim subjects on many occasions, his enunciation of a policy that led to
the destruction of many temples and re-imposition of jizya alienated the Hindus and
strengthened the hands of the section which were opposed to the Mughal Empire for
political or other reasons.
 It is said that by the time Aurangzeb came to the throne, the socio-economic
forces of disintegration were already strong. Aurangzeb lacked the foresight and
statesmanship to effect fundamental changes in the socio-political structure, or
to pursue policies that could, for the time being, reconcile the various competing
elements. Thus, Aurangzeb was both a victim of circumstances and also helped to
create the circumstances of which he became a victim.
2) Weak Successors – The successors of Aurangzeb were weak and were not able to
hold the administration effectively. Most of them were puppets in the hands of
powerful nobles. The war of succession that plagued Delhi from c.1707 – 1719 CE
gradually weakened the empire.
3) Role of nobility – After the death of Aurangzeb, the nobility assumed a lot of powers
and the course of politics and state activities were guided by their individual
interests. The Mughal court consisted of four groups of nobles – the Turanis, the
Iranis, the Afghans and the Indian born Muslims. These groups constantly fought
with each other for more power, jagirs and high offices which eventually led to the
weakening of the empire.
4) Lack of strong finances and foreign invasions – Due to the emergence of many
autonomous states, the revenue resources got depleted and the continuous wars
further emptied the treasury. Also, the foreign invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad
Shah Abdali took a heavy toll on the imperial treasury.
5) Ineffective Mughal army and neglect of naval power – The Mughal army
gradually became inefficient and de-motivated after losing several battles. The
neglect of naval power by the Mughals also cost them dearly.
6) The advent of the British – The emergence of British and other European colonial
powers and their arrival to India was the last nail in the coffin of any hope of
survival of the Mughal empire. The western colonial powers were militarily and
financially superior and politically informed of the Indian conditions.
 Rise of Regional Powers and States

The decline of the Mughal authority gave rise to the emergence of a number of
independent kingdoms. The later Mughal rulers were not in a position to militarily
enforce its regulations in all parts of the empires; as a result, many provincial governors
started to assert their authority. In due course of time, they gained independent status.
At the same time, many kingdoms which were subjugated by the Mughals also claimed
their independence. Some new regional groups also consolidated and emerged as
political powers. The states that arose in India during the decline of the Mughal empire
and the following century (between c. 1700 – 1850 CE) varied greatly in terms of
resources, longevity and essential character. Some of them – such as Hyderabad had
been in a region where there had been an older regional tradition of provincial states in
the immediate pre-Mughal period too, whereas many of the other post-Mughal states
were based on either ethnic or sectarian groupings – the Marathas, the Jats and the
Sikhs.

The regional states that emerged during this period can be divided into three
categories-

1) States formed by former Mughal nobles – The founders of these states were
important and influential high mansab Mughal nobles. They established some of the
formidable provincial kingdoms on the basis of their growing strength and
administrative ability. Though they had declared independence from the Mughal
rule, they never broke ties with the Mughal state. The prominent states that
belonged to this category were Bengal (founder – Murshid Quli Khan), Awadh
(founder – Saadat Khan) and Hyderabad (founder – Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah). The
founders of these states were either former governors of these provinces or
powerful members of the Mughal nobility.
2) Watan Jagirs – The second category of regional states that emerged in the 18th
century had served very well under the Mughals and as a result were allowed to
enjoy considerable autonomy in their watan jagirs such as the Rajput states.
3) Rebellion states – The states that had emerged after rebelling against the Mughal
authority belonged to this category. The Sikhs, the Jats and the Marathas belonged to
this group, and among them, the Marathas over the course of time emerged as a
formidable power.

 Sur Dynasty

The Sur Empire, governed by the Afghan Sur dynasty, dominated northern India for
approximately 16 to 18 years, spanning from 1538/1540 to 1556. Sasaram, located in
present-day Bihar, served as its capital, with Sher Shah Suri as its founder.

Under the Sur dynasty, the empire extended its influence over almost all the territories
of the Mughal Empire along the Indo-Gangetic Plain. This territorial control stretched
from eastern Balochistan in the west of the Indus River to the contemporary Rakhine
region in Myanmar.

 About Sur Dynasty

1) History

 Sher Shah Suri, a Pashtun from Afghanistan, established the Sur dynasty, which
ruled over northern India from 1540 to 1556. Sher Shah Sur succeeded the Mughal
Dynasty during Humayun’s reign.
 India was ruled by the Sur dynasty from 1540 until 1555. Sher Shah Suri, formerly
known as Farid, the son of an Afghan landowner named Hasan Khan Suri, developed
it. The entire number of rulers remained at seven, with just one, Sher Khan or Sher
Shah Suri, ruling effectively.

2) Rise to Power

Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun twice at the Battle of Chausa and Bilgram. Humayun,
Babur’s son, gave up hope and fled to Persia. Sher Shah ruled over Delhi for only five
years, yet his reign was a watershed moment in the Subcontinent.

 Sher Khan had grown to prominence, but he still had a long way to go before
becoming Afghanistan’s national leader.
 After a year, with the entrance of Ibrahim Lodi’s younger brother, Mahmood Lodi, in
Bihar, his stars began to wane.
 He was a genuine contender for the throne of Delhi. Despite being defeated twice, he
never gave up hope.
 He sought to unify all Afghans under his flag once he arrived in Bihar in order to
reestablish Afghan sovereignty in India.
 Sher Khan was forced to fight beside him at the Battle of Ghagra in 1529. Sher Khan
surrendered to Babur shortly after the Afghans were defeated.
 He was returned to his previous position, but he was compelled to pay Mughal
Emperor yearly tribute.
 Sher Khan returned to administration and restored law and order in his territory.
 After the death of Dadu Bibi, the newborn monarch’s mother and regent, Sher Khan
became the regent and de facto ruler of south Bihar.

 Major Rulers of Sur Dynasty

Name Death Date Reign

Sher Shah Suri 22 May 1545 17 May 1538—22 May 1545
Islam Shah Suri 22 Nov 1554 26 May 1545—22 Nov 1554
Firuz Shah Suri 1554 1554
Muhammad Adil Shah 1557 1554—1555
Ibrahim Shah Suri 1567/1568 1555
Sikandar Shah Suri 1559 1555—22 June 1555
Adil Shah Suri April 1557 22 June 1555—1556

 Sher Shah Suri

 Sher Shah Suri founded the Sur dynasty in India. In 1486, he was born in Sasaram,
Bihar, the son of a Jagirdar. His given name was Farid. At the age of 15, he left his
home and moved to Jaunpur.
 There he learned Arabic and Persian. He showed exceptional administrative
abilities, and as a result, his father entrusted him with the administration of his jagir.
o But, for unknown reasons, he departed and entered the service of Mughal
Emperor Babar.
 Although Sher Shah reigned for only five years, his reforms were so successful that
the Mughals and British alike emulated his techniques.
 Sher Shah departed his home at a young age due to his stepmother’s harshness. He
was a fantastic administrator.
 When Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi and became King of India, Sher Shah joined him
and impressed him with his cunning. Babur named him governor of Bihar.
o After Babur’s death, the Mughal administration became unstable, and Sher Shah
took advantage of the situation and declared independence.

 Sher Shah’s Administration

 Sher Shah maintained central administration of the Delhi Sultanate. The Empire was
split into Sarkars by him.
 Each Sarkar had three significant officers:
o Chief Shiqdar or Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (in charge of Police administration or Law
and Order),
o Chief Munsif or Munsif-i-Munsifan (in charge of Revenue administration),
o Poddar (Treasurer).
 Sarkars were subdivided further into
o Parganas. Shiqdar (sub-district Police officer),
o Munsif (sub-district Revenue officer),
o and Khazanadar (sub-district Revenue officer) was also there.
 The village is the final administrative unit. The village administration was overseen
by Patwari.
 He integrated the Patta System into the income stream. He was India’s first monarch
to extend property rights to peasants. He was awarded the title Nyaya Simha after
serving the people with fair justice.
 He built a highway network and upgraded transportation and communication
infrastructure. Along roads, saris (guest homes) were built.
 Some Sarais have been transformed into DakChowkis (Post Offices). He introduced
new coins called Gold Mohar and Silver Rupaiya. The British and Mughals carried
out the Rupaiya.

 Achievements of Sher Shah Suri

Sher Shah Suri instituted the Dagh method, sometimes known as “branding the horses”,
to discourage fraudulent musters. Shershah resurrected the Dak-chaukl, an espionage
system that let him gather intelligence from all around his domain.

He created four important roadways to connect his kingdom’s four corners. He did away
with both old and mixed currencies. He established the ratio of copper to silver coinage.
 He also created gold and silver coins, which were utilized to enhance the nation’s
overall economic situation.

 Death of Sher Shah

In 1545, Sher Shah Suri was killed by a gunpowder explosion while laying siege to
Kalinjar fort. Sher Shah Suri died in 1545 after a five-year reign, yet he constructed a
massive empire and a magnificent and powerful government. The mausoleum he
erected for himself in Sasaram is an architectural wonder.

 Wars and Conquests of Sur Dynasty

The following table describes the series of wars and conquests undertaken by Sher Shah
Suri during his lifetime:

Battle Description
Battle of Chausa o One of Sher Shah Suri’s most notable victories was the Battle of Chausa, in which
his soldiers beat Mughal emperor Humayun’s army in 1539.
o Sher Shah‘s victory in the fight signaled the beginning of the end of Humayun’s
reign and created the groundwork for Suri to build the Sur Empire in North India.

Batttle of Kannauj o The Battle of Kannauj took place on May 17, 1540, at Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh,
India, between Sher Shah Suri and Humayun.
o Humayun was beaten by Sher Shah Suri in this fight, which is also known as the
Battle of Bilgram.

Battle at Surajgarh o He defeated the united armies of the Lohani lords of Bihar and Mohamud Shah of
Bengal in the Battle of Surajgarh (1533 AD).
o With this victory, Sher Shah gained control of the whole state of Bihar.

Suppression of o He put down the turbulent Khokhars of the northern Indus and Jhelum rivers.
Khokhars
Conquest of Bihar o Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah’s army was defeated in the battle of Surajgarh in 1534
by Sher Khan, who seized the whole state of Bihar.

Conquest of Bengal o Sher Khan attacked Bengal in 1538 and defeated Ghiyashuddin Shah. Sher Khan
and Humayun fought the Battle of Chausa in 1539.
o Sher Khan has crowned Sultan of Delhi, and Humayun was expelled from India. He
was given the title Sher Shah at the time.

Battle of Sammel o The Battle of Sammel was also known as the Giri-Sumel Battle. The Afghan Sur
Dynasty led by Sher Shah Suri fought the Rathore army under the command of
Jaita and Kumpa in 1544.

Conquest of Multan o Sher Shah conquered and annexed these provinces into his empire.
and Sind
Conquest of Marwar o He took control of Marwar by forging letters and causing discord in the troops of
 Maldev, the king of Mewar.

 Reforms in Administration

 Sher Shah commanded a large army that included 150,000 horses, 250,000-foot
men, and 5,000 elephants. He personally examined, appointed, and paid the soldiers,
making him the focus of allegiance and subduing clan and tribal jealousies.
 He established a solid imperial administration influenced by Iran’s Safavid Empire.
 During his brief rule, several civic works were completed, including the planting of
trees, the construction of wells, and the construction of Sarai (inns) for travellers.
Roads were developed under his reign, including the Grand Trunk Road from Delhi
to Kabul.

 Trade and Commerce

 He used to rotate officers every two to three years to keep them from having too
much power.
 The emperor oversaw all branches of government. From the most senior to the most
junior officials, he meticulously monitored their job.
 This fostered the development of trade and commerce while also functioning as dak
chowks.

 Justice

 To combat fraud, he resumed the Alauddin Khalji-era practice of branding horses.

The ordinary man received justice.
 Sher Shah Suri was kept informed of what was going on in various parts of the
country.
 He implemented the concept of local responsibility and administered justice with
sternness and impartiality.
 He established the foundation for an administrative framework that was continued
after his death, albeit with slight changes.

 Revenue Policy

 The main improvements associated with tax management are those for which Sher
Shah is renowned. He established a revenue-collecting system based on land
measuring.
 Because of Sher Shah Suri’s weak successors, Humayun was able to recapture the
final empire. Sher Shah Suri held a liberal religious perspective.
 Not only Akbar, but even the British, supported his income plan.

 Farmers and Land Reforms

 Sher Shah was one of India’s few farmers-friendly monarchs. He had every piece of
agriculture in his domain measured and assessed for quality.
 Farmers were given a title deed known as a patta, which is still legally used in India
for comparable documents.
 They agreed to the qabuliyat in return, which specified the annual contribution
payable to the state.
 This amounted to 33% of anticipated production in most places and 25% in others,
far less than the hefty 50% expropriated by Allaudin Khilji and the East India
Company.
 While few farmers understood the patta and qabuliyat, Sher Shah had the
documentation translated into local languages to facilitate the process.
 He established a bureaucracy comprised of muqaddams and patwaris in each village,
district and state officials, and, finally, four central ministers who reported directly
to him.

 Currency System and Demonetization

 Sher Shah’s second major accomplishment was the establishment of a new monetary
system.
 He developed a fixed-weight silver rupiya that remained in use until the twentieth
century.
 His mints also created gold mohurs and copper paisas that could be exchanged for
rupiyas at a predetermined rate.
 Many of these coins have the Devanagari legend “Sri Sersahi” as well as Arabic
interpretations of his name.
 His new trimetallic currency boosted trade and aided farmers who had previously
been compelled to compensate for debased coins by paying extra.
 The currency was also changed to finely minted silver coins called Dam.

 Rah-e-Azam

 The Rah-e-Azam, or Great Road, is Sher Shah’s most well-known infrastructure

project, connecting Chittagong and Kabul.
 He planted trees on both sides of the road and constructed caravanserais at regular
intervals to provide shelter and nutrition to travelers, traders, and their animals.
 Muslims and Hindus alike found food and lodging customized to their specific needs
and taboos.
 The Mughal emperor Akbar recognized Sher Shah’s talent while ensuring that his
historian Abul Fazl despised the man who had vanquished his father.
 On the basis of Sher Shah’s ecumenical, multicultural administration, Akbar
developed a complex political theory, adopted and polished his land tax and
currency systems, and expanded the Rah-e-Azam.

 Decline of Sur Dynasty

During his lifetime, Sher Shah had graves built for both his father, Hasan Khan Suri, and
himself. A third one was started for his son Islam, but it was never finished owing to the
dynasty’s demise. Sher Shah died in 1545 as a result of a gunpowder accident, leaving
his empire to his two sons and grandchildren. Unfortunately, his successors were inept
and fell victim to traditional Afghan rivalries. This culminated in the Suri Dynasty’s
demise.

 Sher Shah Suri Tomb

  Sher Shah Suri’s tomb is located in the town of Sasaram in the Indian state of Bihar.
 Mir Muhammad Aliwal Khan, the architect, created this museum between 1540 and
1545 as an example of Indo-Islamic architecture.
 It is a red sandstone tomb in the center of an artificial lake, and it is known as India’s
second Taj Mahal.

 Architecture of Sur Dynasty

 Rohtas Fort, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Pakistan.

 Numerous structures within Rohtasgarh Fort located in Bihar.
 The Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna, a mosque commemorating his reign.
 In 1545 AD, the city of Bhera in Pakistan was established, featuring the "Grand Sher
Shah Suri Masjid."
 The Qila-i-Kuhna mosque at Purana Quila, Delhi, constructed in 1541 AD.
 The construction of Humayun's citadel began in 1533 AD, later expanded with the
addition of Sher Mandal, an octagonal structure used by Humayun as a library within
the Purana Qila complex.

 Important Facts about Sher Shah Suri

The following table shows the important facts of Sher Shah Suri:

Nick Name Farid khan, Sher Khan

Born 1472 in Sasaram in Rohtas district
Died 22 May 1545 in Kalinjar, Bundelkhand
Father Hasan Khan Sur
Grand Father Ibrahim Khan Sur
Sons Islam Shah Suri
Wives Rani Shah
Siblings Nizam Khan
Reign 17 May 1540 – 22 May, 1545
Predecessor Humayun
Successor Islam Shah Suri
Dynasty Sur Dynasty
Burried His burial chamber is famous as Sher Shah Suri Tomb situated in Sasaram.
Religion Islam.
Monuments o Rohtas Fort
o Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna
o Qila-i-Kuhna mosque at Purana Qila, Delhi

Books o Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi, Abbas Khan Sarwani

o Tarikh-e-Afghani
o Tarikh-i Khan Jahani was Makhzan-i Afghani
o The Chronicles of the Pathan Kings of Delhi
o The Pathans, Sir Olaf Caroe

Death o It was because of a blast that he met his end while battling the Rajputs of Chandel.
UNIT:- 14 MARATHA EMPIRE (1674-1818)
Maratha Empire was an early modern Indian confederation. The Maratha Confederacy
dominated most of the Indian subcontinent in the 18th century. The Maratha Empire
was founded by Chhatrapati Shivaji in the late 17th century. This was founded in
response to the anarchy and misgovernment that characterized the Deccans at the time.
This happened at the same time the Mughal Empire expanded in southern India. Hindu
nationalists hold the Maratha Empire in high regard. The empire reversed centuries of
progressively expanding Muslim political dominance throughout the subcontinent. It
was the biggest state in South Asia by the middle of the 18th century. The Delhi-based
Mughal rulers served as their slaves.
 Historical Background of Maratha Empire

The Maratha Empire was an early modern Indian empire. It rose to prominence in the
17th century. It dominated much of the Indian subcontinent during the 18th century.
The Marathas were a Marathi-speaking warrior group from the western Deccan Plateau.
They rose to prominence by establishing Hindavi Swarajya (meaning "self-rule of
Hindus"). The Marathas became prominent in the 17th century under the leadership of
Shivaji. Shivaji revolted against the Adil Shahi dynasty and the Mughals to carve out a
kingdom. He chose Raigad as the capital of the Maratha kingdom. They are largely
credited for ending Mughal control over the Indian subcontinent.

The Maratha Empire reached its peak in the early 18th century under the leadership of
Bajirao I and his Peshwa successors. The Marathas conquered much of the Indian
subcontinent, from the Deccan Plateau to the Ganges Valley. They also established a
navy and conquered the Konkan coast and the Maldives.

The Maratha Empire began to decline in the late 18th century due to many factors. The
Marathas were defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818),
and the empire was dissolved.

 Map of Maratha Empire

The map of Maratha empire is shown below.

Maratha Empire Map

 Marathas During Peshwa Era

Maratha’s invasion did not stop even after the death of Shivaji in 1680. The Peshwa
Maratha empire is discussed below.

 Reign of Sambhaji

 After the death of Shivaji, the Maratha Empire flourished under the leadership of
Shivaji’s son Sambhaji.
 The Maratha soldiers under Sambhaji never lost a fight to the Aurangzeb-led Mughal
forces for eight years despite the persistent threat from Aurangzeb. But in 1689,
Sambhaji was apprehended and put to death by the Mughals on various charges,
including rape and murder.
 The Maratha Empire was thereafter ruled by a number of different people, including
Sambhaji’s son Shahu, Rajaram, Tarabai, and Rajaram’s widow.
o Balaji Vishwanath was chosen to serve as the Maratha Empire’s Prime Minister
(Peshwa) during Shahu’s reign in 1713.
o Shahu’s Prime Minister Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, used Shahu as a puppet as
time went on, making important choices for the betterment of the empire.

 Plan of Balaji Vishwanath

 In 1714, Balaji Vishwanath devised the ingenious plan to sign the Treaty of Lonavala
(also known as the Lonavala Agreement) with Kanhoji Angre, granting the Maratha's
access to the navy.
 The Marathas’ army continued to expand, giving them the assurance to advance on
Delhi in 1719 when they were able to overthrow the Mughal governor Sayyid
Hussain Ali before toppling the reigning Mughal emperor.
 Following the death of his father, Balaji Vishwanath, Baji Rao I was named the next
Peshwa of the empire in 1720.
 Baji Rao was instrumental in the Maratha Empire’s rapid expansion between 1720
and 1740, and he later rose to prominence as a Peshwa.

 Baji Rai I

 Under Baji Rao I reign it has been said to fight more than 40 battles, including “The
Battle of Palkhed” (1728), “Battle of Delhi” (1737), and “Battle of Bhopal,”.
 Balaji Baji Rao, Baji Rao’s 19-year-old son, was chosen by Shahu to succeed his
father as Peshwa after Baji Rao’s death in April 1740.
o Raghoji I Bhonsale, a Maratha general who oversaw the empire’s Nagpur
Kingdom, was another crucial factor in the rapid rise of the Maratha empire.
 The Maratha Empire was able to capture Odisha when Raghoji launched a series of
six invasions into Bengal.
 The Maratha Empire’s wealth rose when the then-Nawab of Bengal, Alivardi Khan,
consented to pay an annual levy of 1.2 million rupees.
 Marathas also won over the Afghan forces. The Marathas were now well-known in
the north as well after capturing Peshawar on May 8, 1758.
 Shrimant Peshwa Baji Rao II was the last Peshwa of the Maratha Empire.
 Baji Rai I

 AllNotable Rulers of Maratha Empire

The below table discusses the important Maratha rulers and their tenure and
achievements.

List of Maratha Rulers & Their Achievements

Rulers Tenure Achievements
Chhatrapati 1627- o Founder of the Maratha Empire.
Shri Shivaji 1680 o Ransacked the Mughal port of Surat in 1664
Maharaj o Freedom of Hindus from Muslim sultans of Bijapur to the southeast.
o The forts of Chakan, Kondana, and Purandhar were occupied by Shivaji.
He constructed Raigarh Fort.
o He captured a large number of Aurangzeb’s lands and forts.

Sambhaji 1681- Sambhaji defeated the Portuguese and Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore.
1689
Rajaram and 1689- In 1705, Tarabai commanded the Marathas in their battle with the Mughals after
Tarabai 1707 they had entered Malwa, which was then under the Mughal rule.
Shahu 1707- o The Maratha Empire greatly expanded while Shahu was emperor.
1749 o He was also in charge of establishing the Peshwas’ reign within the
Maratha Empire.

Peshwa Balaji – o He is also regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire.
Vishwanath o Balaji Vishwanath was the sixth Prime Minister who took charge of the
empire in the 18th century.
o As Prime Minister, he oversaw the Maratha Empire’s northward
 expansion.

Peshwa Baji 1720- o Maratha Empire continued to grow under Baji Rao. He was instrumental
Rao I 1740 in helping the Maratha Empire flourish under his son’s rule.
o In 1723, he took control of Gujarat and Malwa.
o In 1728, the Maratha Empire’s administrative center was moved from
Satara to the brand-new town of Pune.
o He is credited for founding the kingdoms of the Gaekwads (Pilaji) of
Baroda, Scindias (Ranoji Shinde) of Gwalior, Pawars (Udaiji) of Dhar, and
Holkars (Malharrao) of Indore under the Maratha Empire.

Peshwa Balaji 1740- o Balaji Baji Rao was also known as Nanasaheb.
Baji Rao 1761 o He promoted agriculture, safeguarded the locals, and significantly
improved the condition of the region.

Peshwa Madhav 1761- o Madhav Rao I was the fourth Peshwa of the Maratha empire.
Rao I 1772 o He became a Maratha Peshwa after losing the third battle of Panipat at a
critical time when the Marathas had lost the ‘Third Battle of Panipat
1761.’
o Madhav Rao I largely restored the Maratha empire before it was finally
captured by the Britishers.

 Wars and Conquests of Maratha Empire

There were three Anglo-Maratha Wars between Britishers and Marathas from 1775-to
1818. The Anglo-Maratha wars are discussed below.

1. The First Anglo-Maratha War

The First Anglo-Maratha War was held in 1775 – 1782 between Maratha Empire in
India and the British East India Company. The war started with the Treaty of Surat and
ended with the Treaty of Salbai.

2. The Second Anglo-Maratha War

The Second Anglo-Maratha War took place between 1803 to 1805. It was the second
war between Maratha Empire in India and the British East India Company. The war
ended with the Treaty of Rajpurghat and the Marathas lost the war against the British.
As a result, their power was shattered to a great extent.

3. The Third Anglo-Maratha War

The Third Anglo-Maratha War took place between 1817-1818. It was the last series of
wars between the Maratha Empire in India and the British East India Company. This
war was also known as the Pindaris war because it was fought between the Pindaris
and the Britishers. The Marathas were defeated n the third Anglo-Maratha war by the
British East India Company.
 Marathas and Mughals

Here are a few points on the relationship between the Marathas and the Mughals:

 The Marathas and the Mughals were two powerful dynasties in India during the
17th and 18th centuries.
 The Marathas wanted to establish their own independent kingdom. The Mughals
were ruling over most of India.
 The Maratha warriors resisted Mughal rule and fought for their freedom and
protection.
 The Marathas were skilled in guerrilla warfare. They used their knowledge of the
land to challenge the mighty Mughal army.
 The Mughals tried to suppress the Marathas and bring them under their control.
 The Marathas faced Mughal opposition. Yet, they were able to establish their own
kingdom in western India and expand their territory.
 The Marathas often formed alliances with other regional powers. They countered
the Mughals to protect their interests.
 The conflict between the Marathas and the Mughals continued for many years. Both
sides engaged in many battles and negotiations.
 Eventually, the Marathas became a major force in Indian politics. They challenged
the authority of the Mughal Empire.
 The Marathas played a crucial role in weakening the Mughal Empire. They paved the
way for the rise of other regional powers in India.

 Life under Maratha Empire

The life under the Maratha Empire can be understood in terms of art, literature, and
administration. Let’s discuss this in detail.

 Art

During the Maratha empire, there was a significant advancement in the arts and
paintings. Even though the Maratha School of painting also incorporated elements of
European design, it did not achieve the same heights as the Mughal school. Anuprao,
Mankoji, Ragho, Tanhaji, and others were Maratha artists.

 Literature

Maratha literature flourished greatly during the reign of Shivaji. Later, scholars and
poets were patronized by the Maratha Kings of Tanjore, Tukkoji, Tuljaji, and Sarfoji.
They made significant contributions to the growth of literature. The written literature in
Marathi dates back many years and is an ancient language. One of Maharashtra’s main
languages is Marathi.

 Administration

There were 4 types of administration during the Maratha Empire: Central, Provincial,
Revenue, and military. Let’s discuss each type of administration in detail.
  Central Administration

Ashtapradhan is the group of 8 ministers appointed by Shivaji‘. Each one of the

Ashtapradhan was personally accountable to the emperor.

Types of Ashtapradhan
1 Sari-i-Naubat (Senapati) Commander in chief of the army.
2 Peshwa In charge of the finances and overall administration.
3 Dabir Foreign Secretary
4 Panditrao Ecclesiastical Head
5 Nyayadhish Chief Justice
6 Amatya Responsible for states revenue and expenditure or accountant
7 Surunavis or Chitnis King’s assistance in official correspondence
8 Waqenavis Responsible for personal and family affairs

 Provincial Administration

 Division of Parganas and Tarafs: Shivaji’s kingdom was divided into several
provinces for taxation and administration.
o The division of each province into Parganas and Tarafs was done on a two-tiered
basis. The smallest unit was the village.
o Shivaji ended the practice of contracting out land revenue at the time. Instead, he
instituted having state officials collect taxes directly from the ryots.
 Prants and Sarsubedar: Conquered lands were divided into provinces called prants,
each of which had subedar officers under the command of a sarsubedar.
o The Havaldar served as the district’s officer. Provinces were divided into Tarafs
(districts).
 The District was divided into Parganas (sub-districts), and Deshpande and
Deshmukh were the officers in charge (for law and order).
 The Parganas were separated into the villages of Mauza, Kulkarni, and Patil (law and
order).

 Revenue Administration

 Kathi System: The revenue system was developed using Malik Amber’s Rod or Kathi
system, which determined the value of the land.
 Chauth & Sardeshmukhi Tax: A new taxing system known as Chauthai or Chauth,
which comprised one-fourth of the land earnings from the bordering Mughal
domains, was instituted by Shivaji.
o It served as a form of military assistance in exchange for defending them from
outside threats.
o In addition, a 10% supplemental tax known as Sardeshmukhi was imposed, with
Shivaji claiming to be the kingdom’s master.
o For land income, the local peasants were required to pay 40% of their harvest.
 Establishment of Ryotwari System: He created the Ryotwari agricultural system, in
which the government had open lines of communication with the farmers, or Ryots.
o The middleman corruption was reduced through the Ryotwari system.
 The Mirasdars, a group of people with inherited land rights, were under Shivaji’s
strict control.
o They maintained a strong position in the communities while paying very little
tax.
o They were attacked by Shivaji, who thereafter took control of this area.

 Military Administration

 Cash Salaries: Shivaji had a remarkable military administration. He used to give

salary in cash form to ordinary soldiers, and chieftains also received revenue
payments known as Saranjam.
o The establishment of military discipline was strict.
o Tight regulations prohibited the army from being accompanied by women or
dancing girls.
 During military assaults, the amount of treasure collected by each soldier was
accurately recorded.
 Between 30 and 40, 000 cavalry served as part of the Silahdars‘ regular troop,
known as Paga. They were all under the Havaldars’ control.
 Shivaji was the first Indian king to acknowledge the necessity of a naval force
throughout the Middle Ages.
o For both trade and defense, he constructed dockyards and ships. To prevent
disloyalty, artillerymen and foot soldiers were assigned to forts.
 Soldiers from various Castes were appointed to promote justice and stability.
o For instance, indigenous Pindaris from nearby villages served in the Maratha
army.
 Guerilla Warfare: He trained his troops in guerilla warfare, a distinct fighting style,
and mountain warfare skills in great detail.

 Religion

 Shivaji was a liberal and secular ruler. He was hailed as the defender of Brahmins,
cows, and Hindus.
 Shivaji exhibited respect for all religious literature. None of the mosques were
destroyed by him.
 During the war, Shivaji also provided protection for Muslim women and children.
 Academic Financial Support: He gave Muslim saints and academics financial support.
In the civil and military agencies, he appointed Muslims.
 Secular Environment was built under the Maratha Empire.

 Judicial Systems

 The highest judicial authority in the state was called the ‘Sultan.’ A court of justice
that was chosen from among the top state officials provided him with assistance.
 The chief justice, often referred to as the sadra under bahamanis or the chief qazi
under the rulers of Ahmednagar and Bijapur stood next to him.
 At the lesser level, since the qazis were also included in the province and district
authorities, these authorities—or their representatives usually enforced the verdicts
of the Gotsabha or the majlis in cases of contention.
 Early in his life, while serving as a jagirdar for the Bijapur government, Shivaji
administered the country.

 Decline of the Maratha Empire

The British East India Company had taken control of the eastern part of India after
defeating the Nawab of Bengal, and they were now eyeing the northern region of India,
which was mostly governed by the Marathas. Under General Lake’s command, the
English forces beat the Marathas at the “Battle of Delhi” in 1803. Several treaties in the
British favor were established due to the British soldiers’ victory over the Marathas in
the “Second Anglo-Maratha War,” which lasted from 1803 to 1805. Peshwa Baji Rao II
was finally overthrown by the British during the “Third Anglo-Maratha War,” which
resulted in the fall of the Maratha Empire and ended.

 Maratha Empires’ Legacy

 The Maratha Empire was a powerful regional power in India. It challenged the
Mughal Empire and ruled independently.
 The Marathas were known for their strong military skills. They were well known for
their clever strategies in battles.
 The Marathas helped to spread Hindu culture and values throughout the
subcontinent.
 They promoted and preserved the Marathi language, culture, and traditions. They
created a distinct regional identity.
 The Marathas resisted European colonial powers, such as the British. This inspired
later movements for independence.
 The Marathas introduced several administrative reforms. This included the
decentralization of power and using a merit-based civil service. These reforms
helped to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the government.
 The Marathas encouraged trade and commerce, boosting economic growth in the
region.
 They constructed impressive forts, palaces, and temples, leaving a rich architectural
heritage behind them.
 The Marathas were also a force for social reform. They abolished the practice of sati,
and they promoted education for women.
 The Maratha Empire's influence still inspires the Maharashtra movement for the
rights of Marathi-speaking people.
UNIT:-15 THE VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
The Vijayanagar Empire was one of the most prominent empires of Deccan
India established on the banks of River Tungabhadra in the present day Karnataka
by Harihara and Bukka. Harihara and Bukka, two brothers had served in Muhammad-
bin- Tughlaq's army founded the Vijayanagar state in 1336. In 1336, they declared
independence from the Delhi Sultanate For the formation of their empire, Harihara and
Bukka were assisted and inspired by Vidyaranya, a contemporary scholar and a saint.

 The Vijayanagar Empire - Origin

 The Vijayanagar Empire, also known as the Karnata Kingdom, was founded in
1336 CE on the southern banks of the Tungabhadra River in what is now the Indian
state of Karnataka.
 The city of Hampi served as the Vijayanagar Empire's capital (currently in
Karnataka).
 Geographically, it is near South India's Deccan Plateau.
 The Vijayanagar Empire was founded by the brothers Harihara and Bukka of
the Sangama Dynasty.
 Harihara and Bukka belonged to a pastoralist cowherd community that claimed to
be of Kuruba ancestry.
 Both Harihara and Bukka had previously served under Vira Ballala III,
the Hoysala King.

 Vijayanagar Empire - Dynasties

The Vijayanagara Empire was primarily ruled by four major dynasties. They were:
Sangama Dynasty, Saluva Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty and Aravidu Dynasty.

1) Sangama Dynasty

 It was the first dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, with Harihara Raya I (1336-
1356 AD) as its first ruler.
 Bukka Raya, Virupaksha Raya, Deva Raya, Ramachandra Raya, Mallikarjuna
Raya, and Praudha Raya were some of the dynasty's rulers.

2) Saluva Dynasty

 It was the second dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, with Narasimhadeva

Raya (1485 AD to 1491 AD) as its first ruler. Thimma Bhupala, his son, succeeded
him.
 Narasimha Raya II succeeded his father Thimma Bhupala as the last ruler of the
Saluva Dynasty.

3) Tuluva Dynasty

 The Tuluva Dynasty was the third dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire.
 Tuluva Dynasty rulers included Narasa Nayaka, Viranarasimha Raya,
Krishnadeva Raya, Achyutadeva Raya, and Sadasiva Raya.
 Krishnadeva Raya was the most powerful ruler of the Vijayanagar Empire. From
1509 to 1529, he ruled the empire.
 The empire is said to have reached its pinnacle during his reign.

4) Aravidu Dynasty

 The Aravidu Dynasty was the fourth and final dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire.
 Following the Battle of Talikota, the empire began to decline, and Muslim states
such as Bijapur rose to prominence.

 Geographical Spread of Vijayanagar Empire

 The Vijayanagar Empire ruled over practically all of South India's reigning dynasties
at its peak.
 The rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire also drove the Deccan Sultans beyond the
Tungabhadra-Krishna River Doab region.
 The Vijaynagar Empire also conquered the Gajapati Kingdom of Kalinga, and
annexed modern-day Odisha (formerly Kalinga).

 Administration of Vijayanagar Empire

 Vijayanagar had a centralised administrative structure. The Vijayanagar empire

was divided into two governments: a central and a provincial government.
 The King was the state's most powerful figure and the ultimate decision-maker in all
things.
 A Council of Ministers was also in place to assist the King with administrative tasks.
 Six provinces made up the Vijayanagar Empire. Each province was administered by
a Governor known as 'Naik.'
 The provinces were also subdivided into districts. These districts were then further
subdivided into smaller entities known as villages.
 Those who broke the law were appropriately punished, with fines levelled against
them.
 The provincial governors wielded too much power, resulting in the empire's
downfall.
 The army's organisation was inefficient and had numerous major flaws.
 Various hereditary officers, such as accountants, watchmen, and weights men, as
well as officers in command of the forced labour department, administered such
villages.
 There was also a 'Mahanayakacharya' officer who served as a link between the
villages and the central government and administration.

 Economy of Vijayanagar Empire

 The empire's economy was heavily dependent on agriculture.

 All of the rulers had implemented favourable agricultural policies in various parts
of Vijayanagar.
 The land was very fertile, and most of the land in the countryside was farmed.
 The agricultural wealth was supplemented by a variety of industries.
 The kings' government encouraged the development of industries, the most
common of which are textile, mining, perfumery, and metallurgy.
 There was thriving inland, coastal, and international trade, which was a major
source of general prosperity.
 The main exports were doth, spices, rice, iron, saltpetre, sugar, and so on.
 Horses, elephants, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silks and velvets were
among the most important imports.
 Vijayanagar empire's coins were made of gold, copper, and silver. They bore
emblems of various gods and animals.
 The symbol on coins changed according to the King. As a
result, Harihara and Bukka I engraved a picture of Hanuman (Hindu God) on the
money, while Krishna Dev Raya used Venkatesh and Balkrishna figures.

 Social and Cultural Life of Vijayanagar Empire

 The Vijayanagar Empire maintained a rigid caste system, or cultural hierarchy,

with community delegates for each caste, from lowest to highest. Muslims were also
given the opportunity to speak.
 Brahmins were the highest caste in India, and they were often religious teachers
and authors. They also held judicial positions.
 Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaisyas, and Sudras are the four castes that exist.
 Virupaksha was the family deity of the Sangama monarchs, who were mostly
Saivaites. Other dynasties, though, were Vaishnavites.
 Low caste writers did, in fact, exist and produce popular literature. The caste system
did allow for military advancement, so people born into lower castes had the
potential to make a name for themselves in the empire's service.
 Bracelets, necklaces, anklets, and earrings were worn by both wealthy women
and wealthy men.
 They also used rosewater and musk fragrances to scent themselves. Men
wore silk turbans, which were sometimes adorned with gold.
 Nobles lived in luxury, wore opulent attire, and were pampered by the big staff.
 During this time, the culture placed a strong emphasis on physical fitness, and both
men and women participated in sports.
 Males would wrestle with males and females would wrestle with females,
and gymnasiums were created specifically for the troops to stay in shape.
 Cockfighting was a popular form of entertainment.
 During this time, Indian women enjoyed some liberty and were able to work in
government administration as well as in businesses such as trading. Women could
also use art and writing to express themselves.

 Conflict with Bahmani Kingdom

 The control of Raichur doab (territory between the rivers Krishna and
Tungabhadra), was a major source of conflict between the Bahmani and
Vijayanagar kingdoms.
 The fertile region of Raichur Doab touched the northern Vijayanagar Empire and
southern borders of the Bahmani Kingdom.
 This region has abundant natural resources along with fertility.
 In the eastern portion of the doab region were the renowned Golconda diamond
mines and both kingdoms wanted to control them.
 The terrain of both kingdoms and limited expansion options to the Tungabhadra
region of the Deccan are also other factors.
 The Marathwada region and the Krishna-Godavari delta were the other hotspots
of strife.
 Both regions had productive land and significant ports that governed trade with
other nations.
 For instance, the Konkan belt, which included the port of Goa was a significant
place for trade.
 In this port, export, and import particularly the import of horses from Iran and Iraq,
was a fertile area in the Marathwada region.
 Hindu-Muslim conflicts could also be seen as a cause of clash between the Bahmani
and Vijayanagar states.
 Though the major reasons for the war were purely territorial and commercial.

OR
The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by Harihara and Bukka and the reign was
from 1336 A.D to 1646 A.D.

By the end of the Sultanate Period, Multan and Bengal were the first territories to break
away from the Delhi Sultanate and declare independence and many other territories in
the Deccan region rose to power.

 The Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1646 A.D.)

 Harihara and Bukka are the founders of the Vijayanagar City in 1336 A.D. on the
southern banks of Tungabhadra
 They made Hampi as the capital city.
 They served under Vira Ballala III, the Hoysala King
Vijayanagar Empire was ruled by four important dynasties and they are:

1. Sangama
2. Saluva
3. Tuluva
4. Aravidu
 Harihara I

 In 1336 A.D. Harihara I became the ruler of Sangama Dynasty

 He captured Mysore and Madurai.
 In 1356 A.D. Bukka-I succeeded him
 Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529 A.D.)
 Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty was the most famous king of the
Vijayanagar Empire
 According to Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller “Krishnadeva Raya was the most
feared and perfect king there could possibly be”.
 Krishnadeva Raya‘s Conquests

 He conquered Sivasamudram in 1510A.D and Raichur in 1512A.D

 In 1523 A.D. he captured Orissa and Warangal
 His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River Cauvery in the
south; the Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in the east
His Contributions

 An able administrator.
 He built large tanks and canals for irrigation.
 He developed the naval power understanding the vital role of overseas trade.
 He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese and Arab traders.
 He increased the revenue of his government.
 He patronized art and architecture.
 It was during his period the Vijayanagar Empire reached its zenith of glory.
 Krishnadeva Raya was a great scholar.
 Ashtadiggajas: A group of eight scholars adorned his court and they were:
o Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram, he was also known as
Andhra Kavitapitamaha
o Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
o Madayagari Mallana
o Dhurjati
o Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi
o Pingali Surana
o Ramaraja Bhushana
o Tenali Ramakrishna
 Battle of Talikota (1565 A.D.)

 The successors of Krishnadeva Raya were weak

 The combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Bidar declared war on
Vijayanagar during the rule of Aliya Rama Raya
 Aliya Rama Raya was defeated. He and his people were killed mercilessly.
 Vijayanagar was pillaged and ruined.
 The Glories of the Vijayanagar Empire
1) Administration

 Well-organized administrative system

 The king was head of all powers in the state.
 Council of Ministers – to assist the King in the work of administration.
 The Empire was divided into six Provinces.
 Naik – a Governor who administered each Province.
 The provinces were divided into districts and the districts were further divided into
smaller units namely villages.
 The village was administered by hereditary officers like accountants, watchmen, the
weights men, and officers in charge of forced labour.
 Mahanayakacharya: He is an officer and the contact point between the villages
and the Central administration.
2) The Army

 The army consisted of the infantry, cavalry and elephantry.

 The commander-in-chief was in charge of the army.
3) Revenue Administration

 Land revenue was the main source of income

 The land was carefully surveyed and taxes were collected based on the fertility of
the soil.
 Major importance was given to agriculture and in building dams and canals.
4) Judicial Administration

 The king was the supreme judge.

 Severe punishments were given for the guilty.
 Those who violated the law were levied.
5) Position of Women

 Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the political, social and
literary life of the empire.
 They were educated and trained in wrestling, in the use of various weapons of
offence and defence, in music and fine arts.
 Some women also received an education of high order.
 Nuniz writes that the kings had women astrologers, clerks, accountants, guards and
wrestlers.
6) Social life

 The society was systemized.

 Child marriage, polygamy and sati were prevalent.
 The kings allowed freedom of religion.
7) Economic conditions

 Controlled by their irrigational policies.

 Textiles, mining, metallurgy perfumery, and other several industries existed.
 They had commercial relations with, the islands in the Indian Ocean, Abyssinia,
Arabia, Burma, China, Persia, Portugal, South Africa, and The Malay Archipelago.
8) Contribution to Architecture and Literature

 The Hazara Ramasami temple and Vittalaswamy temple was built during this period
 The bronze image of Krishnadeva Raya is a masterpiece.
 Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada literature were developed.
 Sayana wrote commentaries on Vedas.
 Krishnadevaraya wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu and Usha Parinayam and
Jambavathi Kalyanam in Sanskrit.
9) The decline of the Empire

 The rulers of the Aravidu dynasty were weak and incompetent.

 Many provincial governors became independent.
 The rulers of Bijapur and Golconda seized some areas of Vijayanagar.
UNIT:- 16 BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENTS

The Bhakti and Sufi movements in India emerged as religious reform

movements that emphasised devotion, personal experience, and social equality. Both
movements significantly impacted Indian society, culture, and religious thought,
promoting inclusivity and challenging established orthodoxies.

 What is the Bhakti Movement?

1) About: The Bhakti movement aimed to bring religious reforms through devotion
(bhakti).
 Bhakti refers to devotional surrender to a personally conceived God for
attaining salvation.
 It started in South India (Kerala and Tamilnadu) in the 8th century and
gradually spread to North and East India.
 The movement peaked during the 15th to 17th centuries, emphasizing singing
and chanting of devotional compositions.
2) Factors for the Rise of the Bhakti Movement: Bhakti challenged evils like the
caste system and untouchability, promoting inclusivity for all.
 Before the Turkish conquest, the Rajput-Brahman alliance dominated
Northern India. The Turkish conquest weakened Brahminical power by
removing their temple wealth and state patronage.
o The decline in Brahmin influence paved the way for non-conformist
movements like the Nathpanthis and later, the bhakti movement.
 Bhakti saints voiced the common people's frustrations with feudal
oppression, though they didn't directly challenge feudalism.
o Their teachings emphasised religious equality, appealing to lower-caste
groups and artisans dissatisfied with the traditional Brahmin
hierarchy.
3) Evolution of Bhakti Movement Traditions: Bhakti traditions were inclusive,
accommodating both women and people from lower castes.
 Two main streams of Bhakti traditions developed namely Saguna
Bhakti (worship of deities with attributes like Shiva and Vishnu)
and Nirguna Bhakti (worship of a formless god).
 Alwars and Nayanars in Tamil Nadu emerged as key Bhakti saints.
o Alwars: Devotees of Vishnu, including the notable female saint Andal.
Their hymns were compiled into the "Nalayira Divyaprabandham."
o Nayanars: Devotees of Shiva, including the famous female saint Karaikal
Ammaiyar. Their hymns were compiled in works like the "Tevarams."
 o The Alvar and Nayanar saints used the Tamil
language and not Sanskrit for preaching and composing devotional
songs, and marked shrines that later became major temples.
 Bhakti Movement in Karnataka: Led by Basavanna, marked a significant
religious and social reform in South India.
o Lingayatism is a Shaivite tradition founded by Basavanna in the
12th century as a social reform movement in Karnataka. It aimed to
challenge the rigid caste system, Brahmanical dominance, and
rituals of Hinduism, emphasising equality and devotion to Shiva in the
form of the Ishtalinga.
 Vachana literature, a unique form of devotional poetry in
Kannada, emerged as the voice of this movement, authored by
saints like Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, and Akka Mahadevi.
o Unlike the Veerashaiva sect in Karnataka which adheres to Vedic
traditions and caste distinctions, Lingayatism promotes social
equality and rejects Brahmanical notions.
4) Influence on Society and Culture: Bhakti traditions gained the support of
the Chola rulers (9th to 13th century), who built temples and institutionalized
the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns.
 These rulers also made land grants to Bhakti temples and played a key role in
integrating Bhakti traditions with Brahmanical practices.
5) Bhakti and the South Indian Acharyas:
 Ramanuja (11th Century): First among the South Indian scholars to defend
the Bhakti movement philosophically. Balanced orthodox Brahmanism with
popular bhakti open to all, including Sudras and outcastes.
o Advocated bhakti as a mode of worship but did not support lower caste
access to the Vedas.
o He is famous as the chief proponent of Vishishtadvaita subschool of
Vedānta.
 Nimbarka: A Telugu Brahmin and younger contemporary of Ramanuja.
Focused on devotion to Krishna and Radha, emphasizing bhakti.
 Madhava (13th Century): He did not dispute orthodox Brahmanical
restriction of the Vedic study by the Sudras, and believed that bhakti provided
an alternate avenue of worship to the Sudras.
o His philosophical system was based on the Bhagvat Purana, and he is
believed to have toured North India.
 The last two prominent Vaishnava acharyas were Ramananda (late 14th and
early 15th century) and Vallabha (late 15th and early 16th century)
emphasised bhakti.
6) Bhakti Movement in North India: From the 13th to 15th century, socio-religious
movements flourished in North and East India, emphasizing bhakti and religious
equality.
 Tukaram (1598-1649) was a prominent Bhakti saint in Central India who
worshipped Krishna as Vithoba.
 Vallabhacharya (1479-1531) popularized Krishna Bhakti in the Mathura
region, which became a vital center for Krishna devotion.
o Key Bhakti figures in North India include
Surdas, Mirabai, and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, who emphasized
personal devotion to Krishna.
 Many scholars argue that Sant Kabir Das, Chaitanya, and other leaders of
the North Indian bhakti movements were influenced by South Indian
scholars such as Ramananda and Madhava.
 Though the Northern bhakti movements advocated religious equality,
they generally did not reject the caste system, Brahmanical scriptures, or
privileges.
 North Indian bhakti movements were diverse, with figures
like Kabir and Guru Nanak advocating monotheism, while vaishnava
movements like those of Mirabai, Surdas, and Tulsidas differed in
approach.
 What is the Impact of the Bhakti Movement?

 Bhakti saints encouraged simple and ethical living as a path to

salvation, challenging immoral societal norms, challenging social evils
like untouchability and encouraging individuals to live justly.
o The movement fostered critical thinking by questioning entrenched
religious and social institutions.
 The Bhakti movement made salvation accessible to women and lower castes,
breaking down rigid caste barriers and creating a more inclusive society.
 Bhakti saints popularized religious teachings in vernacular languages,
enhancing social awareness. The movement vocally opposed societal evils like
infanticide, sati, adultery, and substance abuse, contributing to the gradual
erosion of these practices.
o Music and dance forms such as kirtana, and devotional dance forms
like Sattriya flourished, enriching India’s cultural heritage. The movement
integrated music and poetry into religious worship, creating a lasting
legacy in Indian performing arts.
 The convergence of Bhakti with Sufi ideals fostered an environment of tolerance,
amity, and peaceful coexistence between different religious communities.
 What is the Sufi Movement?
1) About: The Sufi Movement refers to the rise and spread of Sufism, or Islamic
mysticism, which emphasizes personal experience and direct communion with
God.
 It emerged as a response to the formalism and rigidity of institutionalised
religion, focusing on inner spiritual experience and the purification of the
heart.
2) Core Practices and Beliefs: Sufis organized themselves into communities
centered around khanqahs (hospices), led by a master (shaikh or pir). They
formed spiritual lineages (silsilas) that linked disciples to the Prophet
Muhammad.
 Sufi tombs, or dargahs, became sites of pilgrimage (ziyarat), where people
sought spiritual blessings.
 Practitioners engage in spiritual exercises, including self-mortification,
zikr (remembrance of God), sama (musical recitals), and Fana-o-
Baqa(dissolution of self for union with God) to induce mystical states of
ecstasy.
3) Growth of Sufi Movement in the Islamic World: Early Sufism was marked by
esoteric interpretations of the Quran, focusing on virtues like repentance,
abstinence, and trust in God. Major early centres included Mecca, Medina, Basra,
and Kufa.
4) Growth of Sufism in India: Sufism entered India with the establishment of the
Delhi Sultanate in the early 13th century, bringing new orders and practices to the
region.
 Al-Hujwiri was the earliest prominent Sufi in India, settled in Lahore, and
authored Kashf-ul Mahjub.
 The 13th and 14th centuries marked the growth of Sufism, spreading messages
of compassion and love for all, known as sulhe-kul.
5) Sufi Orders in India: By the 14th century, Sufi orders had established a strong
presence across India from Multan to Bengal. Sufi orders in India were categorised
into two broad types; they are Ba-shara (Follow Islamic law (Sharia)) and Be-
shara (Not bound by Islamic law). By the 12 century, the Sufis were organised in
12 orders or Silsilas.
 Major Sufi Orders:
o Chishti Order: Most influential Sufi order in India. Founded by Khwaja
Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer during Muhammad Ghori's reign. Akbar
followed this order and was devoted to Salim Chishti.
 Key saints: Hamiduddin Nagori, Qutbuddin Bhaktiyar Kaki,
Baba Farid, and Nizamuddin Auliya.
 Ziyarat (pilgrimage) to the tombs of Sufi saints and qawwali
(mystical music) became key elements of Chishti devotionalism,
promoting religious pluralism.
  Chishti Order emphasised love as the bond between God and
individuals, tolerance of different faiths, and simplicity. Chishtis
avoided contact with the ruling class.
o Suhrawardi Order: Introduced by Bahauddin Zakaria in Multan. This
order is known for living in luxury and accepting state assistance.
Bahauddin Zakaria served in the court of Iltutmish and was made
Shaikh-ul-Islam.
 Unlike the Chishtis, the Suhrawardis accepted gifts and posts from
the government and advocated combining religious knowledge
with mysticism.
o Naqshbandi Order: Emphasised the primacy of Shariat and opposed
innovations (biddat) and rejected Sufi traditions like musical assemblies
(sama) and pilgrimages to saints’ tombs.
 Key figures include sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, who promoted the
doctrine of Wahdut-ul-Shuhud (apparentism).
o Rishi Order (Kashmir): The Rishi order of Sufism flourished in
Kashmir during the 15th and 16th centuries. It was established by Shaikh
Nuruddin Wali, prospered in the rural environment of Kashmir and
influenced the people's religious life, drawing inspiration from the
popular Shaivite bhakti tradition and being rooted in the socio-
cultural milieu of the region.
 What is the Impact of Sufi Movement?

 Religious Impact: The Sufi emphasis on personal devotion, love for God, and
equality attracted many people, leading to conversions, especially in rural areas.
o Sufi teachings emphasized the unity of God (tawhid) and the equality of
all humans, promoting religious tolerance and creating a bridge between
Hinduism and Islam. The Chishti order, in particular, opened its doors to
people of all faiths, fostering an environment of coexistence.
 Social Impact: Sufism attracted followers from all sections of society, including
the lower castes, outcasts, and marginalized groups, who found solace in the
egalitarian message of the Sufi saints.
o The doctrine of universal brotherhood and the idea that all are equal in the
eyes of God weakened the hold of caste hierarchies in the regions
influenced by Sufi teachings.
o Sufi khanqahs (monasteries) and madrasas (schools) became centers of
learning.
 Cultural Impact: Sufism deeply influenced Indian music, especially with the
development of qawwali, a devotional music form that originated in Sufi
sama (musical gatherings).
 Literature: Sufi poets made significant contributions to the literary tradition of
India, particularly in vernacular languages. They composed mystical poetry in
 languages like Punjabi, Hindawi((a precursor to modern Hindi and Urdu), and
Urdu.
o Figures like Bulleh Shah, Shah Husain, and Sultan Bahu are notable for their
devotional poetry, which continues to resonate in the subcontinent.
 Political Impact: The Sufi concept of Sulh-i-Kul (peace with all) influenced the
Mughal emperor Akbar, who adopted a policy of religious tolerance.
o Akbar’s efforts to create Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic faith blending elements of
Islam, Hinduism, and other religions, were influenced by the Sufi emphasis on
universal brotherhood and tolerance.
o Many rulers, including the Delhi Sultans and the Mughal emperors,
patronized Sufi saints and orders, which reinforced their political authority
and facilitated their control over diverse religious communities.

 Bhakti and Sufi Movements Differences

Bhakti Movement Sufi Movement

The movement largely influenced Hindus It was followed mainly by Muslims

The Saints of the Bhakti Movement sang Bhajans to Sufi Saints sang Qawwalis – a form of music to
worship Gods and Goddesses inspire religious devotion

The Bhakti movement has its origination in eighth- The Origins of Sufism can be traced to the early days
century South India of Islam in seventh-century Arabian Peninsula

The Bhakti Movement is regarded by scholars as an It has been misunderstood as another sect of Islam,
influential social revival and reformation movement in but it is a religious order for any Islamic
Hinduism denomination

From its point of origins in South India, the Bhakti It spans many continents and cultures.
movement swept over East and North India from the
15th century onwards

The Bhakti Movement shared direct emotional and Sufism laid emphasized on simplicity and austerity,
intellection of the divine. which found many adherents due to the worldliness
of medieval empires and kingdoms

Kabir Das, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Nanak, Meerabai, Hasan of Basra, Amir Khusrau, Moinuddin Chishti

 How Did Bhakti and Sufi Movements Interact?

 Similarities in Egalitarian Practices: Both movements promoted religious
equality, with rituals like langar (free kitchen) common to both. Initially
popularized by Sufis, langar was later adopted by Guru Nanak to combat caste
hierarchy.
o The Bhakti and Sufi movements shared rituals and practices. For
example, Chaitanya's Vaishnava kirtana resembled the Sufi sama (musical
concert), suggesting some degree of interaction.
 Cultural and Mystical Exchange: Music and poetry played a significant role in
both movements as a medium to express their devotion. Sufi qawwalis and bhakti
songs focused on themes of divine love, suffering, and longing.
o Both Sufism and Bhakti emphasized an internal, personal journey towards
God, characterized by love, devotion, and emotional intensity. Sufism's ishq
(divine love) mirrors Bhakti's viraha (longing for God).
 Mutual Influence:
o Influence of Sufism on the Bhakti Movement:
o Saints like Guru Nanak had interactions with Sufis, particularly in their
mutual rejection of orthodox religious practices.
o The Sufi concept of pir (spiritual guide) and mystical union with God
resonated with the Bhakti idea of guru (teacher) and the devotee’s
personal relationship with the divine.
 Many Sufi poets, including Amir Khusrau, composed verses in
regional languages like Hindawi, which mirrored the Bhakti saints’
use of vernacular languages to spread their message. This fostered
a shared literary and musical culture.
o Influence of the Bhakti Movement on Sufism: The Rishi Sufi order, founded
by Shaikh Nuruddin Wali in Kashmir, was deeply influenced by non-
conformist ideas and the teachings of the Bhakti saint Lal Ded. The
o Rishis adopted aspects of Kashmiri Shaivism and incorporated local
devotional practices into their Sufi philosophy.
 UNIT:-17 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

 Introduction

 The history of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization
(IVC), also known as Harappan Civilization.
 It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, in
contemporary Pakistan and Western India.
 The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban
civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China.
 In 1920s, the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the
Indus valley wherein the ruins of the two old cities, viz. Mohenjodaro and
Harappa were unearthed.
 In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the
discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.

Important Sites of IVC

Site Excavated by Location Important Findings

Harappa Daya Ram Situated on the bank  Sandstone statues of

Sahini in 1921 of river Ravi in Human anatomy
Montgomery district
 Granaries
of Punjab (Pakistan).
 Bullock carts

Mohenjodaro (Mound of R.D Banerjee Situated on the Bank  Great bath

Dead) in 1922 of river Indus in
 Granary
Larkana district of
Punjab (Pakistan).  Bronze dancing girl
 Seal of Pasupathi
Mahadeva
 Steatite statue of beard
man
 A piece of woven cotton

Sutkagendor Stein in 1929 In southwestern  A trade point between

Balochistan Harappa and Babylon
province, Pakistan
on Dast river
Chanhudaro N.G Majumdar Sindh on the Indus  Bead makers shop
in 1931 river
 Footprint of a dog
chasing a cat

Amri N.G Majumdar On the bank of Indus  Antelope evidence

in 1935 river

Kalibangan Ghose in 1953 Rajasthan on the  Fire altar

bank of Ghaggar
 Camel bones
river
 Wooden plough

Lothal R.Rao in 1953 Gujarat on Bhogva  First manmade port

river near Gulf of
 Dockyard
Cambay
 Rice husk
 Fire altars
 Chess playing

Surkotada J.P Joshi in Gujarat  Bones of horses

1964
 Beads

Banawali R.S Bisht in Hisar district of  Beads

1974 Haryana
 Barley
 Evidence of both pre-
Harappan and
Harappan culture

Dholavira R.S Bisht in Gujarat in Rann of  Water harnessing

1985 Kachchh system
 Water reservoir

 Phases of IVC

 Three phases of IVC are:

o the Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE,
o the Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and
 o the Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.
 The Early Harappan Phase is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the
Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley.
 The earliest examples of the Indus script date back to 3000 BC.
 This phase stands characterized by centralized authority and an increasingly
urban quality of life.
 Trade networks had been established and there are also evidences of
the cultivation of crops. Peas, sesame seeds, dates, cotton, etc, were grown during
that time.
 Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan Phase.
 By 2600 BC, the Indus Valley Civilization had entered into a mature stage.
 The early Harappan communities were turning into large urban centers,
like Harappa and Mohenjodaro in Pakistan and Lothal in India.
 The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus River Valley Civilization are believed to
have started around 1800 BC and by 1700 BC, most of the cities were abandoned.

 However, one can see the various elements of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization
in later cultures.
 Archaeological data indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture till
1000-900 BC.
 Town Planning and Structures

 The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning.

 Harappa and Mohenjodaro each had its own citadel or acropolis, which was
possibly occupied by members of the ruling class.
 Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which
were inhabited by the common people.
 The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they
followed the grid system.
 Granaries constituted an important part of the Harappan cities.
 The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan cities is remarkable, because in the
contemporary buildings of Egypt mainly dried bricks were used.
 The drainage system of Mohenjodaro was very impressive.
 In almost all cities every big or small house had its own courtyard and bathroom.
 In Kalibangan many houses had their wells.
 At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified,
and sections within the town were also separated by walls.
  Agriculture

 The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced
sufficient foodgrains.
 Wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea and mustard were produced.
Millets are also found from sites in Gujarat. While rice uses were relatively rare.
 The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.
 While the prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grain, it is
more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices.
 Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was
known, and archaeologists extrapolate shows oxen were also used for
ploughing.
 Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was
probably required for agriculture.
 Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in
Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sindh.
 Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were also reared on a
large scale.
 Evidence of the horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjodaro and from
a doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal. In any case the Harappan culture was
not horse centred.
 Economy

 The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is witnessed by

the presence of numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and
measures in a wide area.
 The Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc.
 Metal money was not used and trade was carried by barter system.
 They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea.
 They had set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which evidently
facilitated trade with Central Asia.
 They also carried commerce with those in the land of the Tigris and the
Euphrates.
 The Harappans carried on long distance trade in lapis lazuli; which may have
contributed to the social prestige of the ruling class.
 Crafts

 The Harappans were very well acquainted with the manufacturing and use of
Bronze.
 Copper was obtained from the Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan and Tin was
possibly brought from Afghanistan.
 Textile impressions have also been found on several objects.
 Huge brick structure suggest that brick-laying was an important craft. This also
attests the existence of a class of masons.
 The Harappans practised boat-making, bead making and seal-making.
Terracotta manufacture was also an important craft.
 The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious stones.
 The potter's wheel was in full use, and the Harappans produced their own
characteristic pottery, which was glossy and shining.
 Institutions

 Very few written materials have been discovered in the Indus valley and the
scholars have not been able to decipher the Indus script so far.
 As a result, there is difficulty in understanding the nature of the state and
institutions of the Indus Valley Civilization.
 No temples have been found at any Harappan sites. Therefore the possibility of
priests ruling Harappa can be eliminated.
 Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.
 If we look for a centre of power or for depictions of people in
power, archaeological records provide no immediate answers.
o Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers,
and that everybody enjoyed equal status.
o Another theory argues that there was no single ruler, but a number of
rulers representing each of the urban centers.
 Religion

 In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. In one

figurine a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman.
 o The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and
worshipped her in the same manner as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile
goddess Isis.
 The male deity is represented on a seal with three horned heads, represented
in the sitting posture of a yogi.
o This god is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a buffalo
below his throne. At his feet appear two deer.The depicted god is identified
as Pushupati Mahadeva.
 Numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone have
been found.
 The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees and Animals.
 The most important of them is the one horned unicorn which may be identified
with the rhinoceros and the next important was the humped bull.
 Amulets have also been found in large numbers.

 Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

 The IVC declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its demise are
still debated.
 One theory claims that Indo-European tribe i.e. Aryans invaded and conquered
the IVC.
o In later cultures various elements of the IVC are found which suggest that
civilization did not disappear suddenly due to an invasion.
 On the other hand, many scholars believe natural factors are behind the decline of
the IVC.
o The natural factors could be geological and climatic.
o It is believed that the Indus Valley region experienced several tectonic
disturbances which causes earthquakes. Which also changed courses of
rivers or dried them up.
o Another natural reason might be changes in patterns of rainfall.
 There could be also dramatic shifts in the river courses, which might have
brought floods to the food producing areas.
 Due to combination of these natural causes there was a slow but inevitable
collapse of IVC.

OR
Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) flourished around 2500 BC, which is often called the age
of matured IVC. It forms the backbone of India as it is one of the major civilizations of
the world.

 Indus Valley Civilization

 The Indus Valley Civilization was established around 3300 BC. It flourished between
2600 BC and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization). It started declining around
1900 BC and disappeared around 1400 BC.
 This is also called Harappan Civilization after the first city to be excavated, Harappa
(Punjab, Pakistan).
 Pre-Harappan civilization has been found in Mehrgarh, Pakistan, showing the first
evidence of cotton cultivation.
 Geographically, this civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh. It extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan)
in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East; and from Mandu (Jammu) in the
North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South. Some Indus Valley
sites have also been found as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.

 Indus Valley Civilization Important Sites

 In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda (Gujarat),

Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab). In Pakistan: Harappa (on river Ravi),
Mohenjodaro (on the Indus River in Sindh), Chanhudaro (in Sindh).
 The civilization was first discovered during an excavation campaign under Sir John
Hubert Marshall in 1921–22 at Harappa following the discovery of seals by J Fleet.
 Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and
Madho Sarup Vats.
 Mohenjodaro ruins were excavated for the first time by R.D. Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay
and Marshall.
 The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and advancement not seen in
other contemporary civilizations.
 Most cities had similar patterns. There were two parts: a citadel and the lower town.
 Most cities had a Great Bath.
 There were also granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed drainage
lines, excellent stormwater, and wastewater management system, weights for
measurements, toys, pots, etc.
 A large number of seals have been discovered.
 Agriculture was the most important occupation. The first civilization to cultivate
cotton.
 Animals were domesticated like sheep, goats, and pigs.
 Crops were wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas.
 Trade was conducted with the Sumerians.
 Metal products were produced including those with copper, bronze, tin, and lead.
Gold and silver were also known. Iron was not known to them.
 No structures like temples or palaces have been found.
 The people worshipped male and female deities. A seal which was named ‘Pashupati
Seal’ has been excavated and it shows an image of a three-eyed figure. Marshall
believed this to be an early form of Lord Shiva.
 Excellent pieces of red pottery designed in black have been excavated. Faience was
used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and vessels.
 Civilization also was advanced in making artworks. A statuette named ‘Dancing Girl’
has been found from Mohenjodaro and is believed to be 4000 years old. A figure of a
bearded Priest-King has also been found from Mohenjodaro.
 Lothal was a dockyard.
 Disposal of the dead was by burial in wooden coffins. Later on, in the H Symmetry
culture, bodies were cremated in urns.
 The Indus Valley script has not yet been deciphered.

 Indus Valley Civilization Decline

In this section, we discuss the possible reasons and theories given by experts for the
decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.

 The causes of the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization have not been firmly
established. Archaeologists now believe that the civilization did not come to an
abrupt end but gradually declined. People moved eastwards and cities were
abandoned. Writing and trade declined.
 Mortimer Wheeler suggested that the Aryan invasion led to the decline of the Indus
Valley. This theory has now been debunked.
 Robert Raikes suggests that tectonic movements and floods caused the decline.
 Other causes cited include a drying up of the rivers, deforestation, and destruction of
the green cover. It is possible that some cities were destroyed by floods but not all. It
is now accepted that several factors could have led to the decline of the Indus Valley
civilization.
 New cities emerged only about 1400 years later.
UNIT:-18 VEDIC AGE
 (c. 1500 – 500 BCE)

The Harappan civilisation was followed by another great civilisation and culture known
as the Vedic culture. The Vedic texts are the primary sources for the reconstruction of
the Vedic culture/Vedic age. Archaeological materials have also supplemented the texts,
though not comprehensively. Vedic texts are believed to be composed by the Indo-
Aryans. Indo-Aryans refer to the speakers of a subgroup of the Indo-Iranian branch of
the Indo-European family of languages. Rig Veda composers describe themselves as
Arya, etymologically derived from “Ar” meaning to cultivate, literally meaning kinsmen
or companion; in Sanskrit, it means favourably disposed newcomers and later it came to
mean “men of good family” or noble.

There are different theories associated with the Aryans, their origin and possible
migration/invasion in the Indian Subcontinent. These are as follows:

 Central Asian theory – This theory was propounded by Prof. Max Muller, a German
scholar of comparative languages. As per this theory, the Aryans originally lived in
Central Asia. With the comparative study of the “Avesta” (Iranian text) and the
“Vedas”, one finds a striking linguistic relationship between them of not just words
but of concepts also. The interchangeability between ‘h’ and ‘s’ and incredible
consistency in this change as seen in Hepta Hindu (Sapta Sindu), Ahura (Asura),
Haoma (Soma), Daha (Dasa), further substantiates the claim.
 European theory – Sir William Jones, Giles (Hungary), Shroeder (France), Morgan
(Western Siberia) are supporters of this theory. As per this theory, the Aryans
inhabited Europe and voyaged to various places and the Aryans who came to India
were an offshoot of the Europeans. The proponents of this theory established the
resemblance of Sanskrit with the European languages. For example, the Sanskrit
words Matri and Pitri are similar to the Latin Mater and Pater. Suryyas and
Maruttash of the Kassite (Mesopotamia) inscriptions are equivalent to the Vedic
Surya and Marut.
 Theory of North Pole/Arctic theory – According to Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the
Northern Arctic
region was the original home of the Aryans. He commented that the Rig Veda
comprises specific references to a place where harsh cold and long days and nights
of six months each are found.
 Tibet theory – Swami Dayanand Saraswati was the proponent of this theory.
According to this theory, Tibet is the original home of the Aryans with reference to
the Vedas and other Aryan texts.
 Indian theory – Dr. A.C Dass, Ganga Nath Jha, Sri L.D Kalla, Sri D.S Trivedi have
acknowledged this theory. According to this theory, the Aryans were the residents of
the Sapta Sindhu. This region stretched from the river Indus, reaching up to
Saraswati river. Kashmir and Punjab were also under this region. The sacrificial
rituals of the Vedic Aryans point to their Indian origin. The river hymns in the Rig
 Veda mention the names of the rivers of this region. The flora and fauna mentioned
are mostly similar to the Himalayan region. Regarding the affinity of the Indian and
European languages, this theory states that in the language of the Aryans, there is a
plethora of Sanskrit words, but this is not the case with the latter. If Aryans had
come from outside, their ancient Literature (Vedas) should have been found there,
but no Vedic literature has been found outside India.
The most accepted view is that there was a series of Aryan immigration and they came
to the subcontinent as immigrants. The earliest Indo-Aryans lived in the geographical
area covered by Eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and the fringes of Western Uttar Pradesh.
Some rivers of Afghanistan, such as the river Kubha (Kabul) and the river Indus
(Sindhus) and its five tributaries are mentioned in the Rig Veda. The five tributaries are
the Jhelum (Vitasta), Beas (Vipasa), Chenab (Askini), Ravi (Parushni), Satluj
(Sutudri). The Sindhu, identical with the Indus, is the river par excellence of the Aryans.
Another river mentioned is the Sarasvati, now lost in the sands of Rajasthan, the area
represented by it is covered by the Ghaggar river. The whole region in which the Aryans
first settled in India is called the land of seven rivers.

 The Early Vedic or The Rigvedic Civilisation

( c. 1500 – 1000 BCE)

The only source of Vedic culture is the Vedic literature. It is divided into:

1) Early Vedic Literature/Rig Vedic Culture (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE) – It includes the
Rig Veda Samhita and other texts of the family. They are called family books since
they are believed to have been composed by the families of a few seer poets like Atri,
Vasishtha, Vishvamitra, Bharadvaja and Gritsamada.
2) Later Vedic Literature/Later Vedic Culture (c. 1000 – 500 BCE) – It includes
books 1, 8, 9, & 10 of the Rig Veda Samhita, the Samhitas of the Sama Veda, the Yajur
and the Atharva Vedas and the Aranyakas, Brahmanas & Upanishads attached to the
4 Vedas.

 Vedic Literature

The Vedic literature is the most significant source of information about the Vedic
civilisation. The word “Veda” means knowledge. The Vedic literature has evolved in the
course of many centuries and was handed down from generation to generation by the
word of mouth. Later, they were compiled and written down, and the earliest surviving
manuscript is from the 11th century.

There are 4 Vedas and each Veda generally has 4 parts – Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka,
and Upanishads. The four Vedas are – Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva
Veda.
1. Rig Veda

 It is the oldest Veda and depicts the life of early Vedic people in India. UNESCO has
included the Rig Veda in the list of literature signifying World Human Heritage.
 Its text consists of 1028 hymns (Sukta) which are divided into ten Mandalas or
books.
 Mandalas 2 – 7 form the oldest part of the Rig Veda Samhita and are called “family
books” as they are ascribed to particular families of seers/rishis.
 Mandala 8 – Here, the hymns are dedicated to various gods and have been
mostly composed by the Kanva clan.
 Mandala 9 – All the hymns are dedicated entirely to Soma.
 Mandala 1 – It is primarily dedicated to Indra and Agni. Varuna, Surya, Mitra, Rudra,
and Vishnu have also been mentioned.
 Mandala 10 – It contains Nadi Stuti Sukta praising the rivers. It also contains
Nasadiya Sukta and Purush Sukta. It contains hymns that are traditionally chanted
during marriage and death rituals.
 Only surviving recension of Rig Veda is the Shakala Shakha.
 The Upaveda of Rig Veda is the Ayurveda.
2. Sama Veda

 The Sama Veda or the “Veda of Chants” is the collection of verses drawn almost
wholly from the Rig Veda, that are provided with musical notations and are intended
as an aid to the performance of sacred songs.
 It contains the famous Dhrupada Raga, later sung by Tansen in medieval times.
 Recensions (Shakhas) of the Sama Veda are Kauthuma, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya
(Talavakara).
 Sama Veda’s Upaveda is the Gandharva Veda.
3. Yajur Veda (Worship or ritual knowledge)

 This Veda deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. It is further
divided into-

o Shukla Yajur Veda/ Vajasaneya / White Yajur Veda – it contains only the
mantras. It contains the Madhyandina and Kanva recensions.
o Krishna Yajur Veda / Black Yajur Veda – it includes mantras as well as
prose explanations/commentary. It contains Kathaka, Maitrayani, Taittiriya and
Kapishthala recensions.

 The Upaveda of the Yajur Veda is the Dhanur Veda.

4. Atharva Veda

 It concerns itself with magic spells to ward off evil spirits or dangers.
 It is considered to be a non-Aryan work and is classified into 20 kandas or books,
with 711 hymns.
 It contains Shaunaka and Paippalada recensions.
 Shilpa Veda is the Upaveda of Atharva Veda.
 Brahmanas

The Brahmanas consist of details about the meaning of Vedic hymns, their applications
and origin stories. Every Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it.

 Aitareya or Kaushitaki Brahmanas were allotted to Rig Veda for detailing.

 Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas to Sama Veda for detailing.
 Taittiriya and Shatpatha Brahmanas to Yajur Veda for detailing.
 Gopath Brahmana to Atharva Veda for detailing.
1) Aranyakas

The Aranyakas are also called “forest books” as they were written chiefly by hermits
residing in the forests for their students. They lay emphasis not on sacrifices but on
meditation. They are in fact, opposed to sacrifices and many of the early rituals. They
are the concluding portion of the Brahmanas and interpret rituals in a philosophical
way.

2) Upanishads

The literal meaning of Upanishad is to “sit near someone”. There are 108 Upanishads, of
which 13 are the most prominent. It introduces the concept of ‘Atman’ and ‘Brahman’. It
states that the core of one’s self is neither the body nor the mind, but the Atman or the
“soul”. It further points out that the core of all creatures is the Atman itself and can be
experienced through meditation. According to the Upanishads, the Brahman is the
underlying substance of the universe. It is an unchanging ‘Absolute being’. The
Upanishads are mainly philosophical in nature and speak of the highest knowledge.

 Satyamev Jayate in the National Emblem is taken from Mandukyopanishad.

 The Chandogya Upanishad clearly refers to the first 3 ashrams and discusses
the (mainly two) types of marriage:

o Anuloma marriage – the marriage of a man in his own varna or below his varna.
It is the most accepted and common form of marriage in society.
o Pratiloma marriage – the marriage of a woman in a varna lower than her own. It
is not sanctioned by the Vedas.
3) Vedanta

The Vedanta reveals the final aim of the Vedas and signifies the end of the Vedas. It
condemns sacrifices, ceremonies and denotes the last phase of the Vedic period.
 4) Vedanga

The literal meaning of the word Vedanga is “limbs of the Vedas”. Just like the limbs of
the body, they perform various supportive and augmenting functions in the study,
preservation and protection of the Vedas and the Vedic traditions. They are considered
to be of human origin and are written in the form of Sutras (short condensed statements
used to express different ideas). There are 6 Vedangas as follows:

1) Shiksha (Phonetics)
2) Kalpa (Ritualistic science)
3) Jyotisha (Astronomy)
4) Vyakaran (grammar)
5) Nirukta (Etymology)
6) Chhanda (Metrics)
The Kalpa Sutra is further divided into:

I. Shrauta Sutra – prescribes rules for the performance of different types of sacrifices
and rituals.
II. Grihya Sutra – concerned with comparatively simpler domestic sacrifices. It
includes rituals pertaining to crucial life stages (Samskaras) such as Upanayana
(initiation), Vivaha (marriage), and Antyeshti (funerary practices).
III. Dharmasutra – pertaining to the rituals’ Dharma.
5) Puranas

The word Purana literally means ‘ancient’ or ‘old’.

 Traditionally, Puranas are considered to be composed by Ved Vyasa.

 The Puranas treat various topics concerning religious developments that occurred
around the 5th and 6th centuries.
 The Puranas reflect the growth of Hindu Dharma, the condition of society in ancient
times, social customs, religious ceremonies as well as yogic methods of discipline.
 Traditionally, a Purana discusses five subjects or “five signs” in the time span of 4
ages/yugas (Satya, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali):

o Sarga – the primary creation of the universe.

o Pratisarga – recreation, secondary creation after annihilation.
o Manvantaras – the reigns of the various Manus.
o Vamsha – the genealogy of gods and rishis.
o Vamshanucharita (Royal lineage) – the history of Solar
(Suryavanshis) and Lunar (Chandravanshis) dynasties.
 All Puranas are strongly sectarian – some are devoted to Shiva, some to Vishnu and
some to a goddess. However, the Purana that is devoted to a particular god often
pays considerable attention to other gods as well.
 It is commonly accepted that four yugas make up a Mahayuga, that 1000 Mahayugas
make a Kalpa, that every Kalpa is further divided into 14 Manvantaras which are
presided over by a specific Manu. Each yuga is periodically destroyed and again, the
recreation of the world occurs with the cyclic decline and revival of Dharma.
 The Puranas are divided into 18 Mahapuranas (such as Vishnu, Brahma, Narada,
Padma, Garuda, Matsya, Kurma, Shiva, Agni, Bhagavata, etc.) and numerous
Upapuranas (secondary Puranas).
 The Puranas are regarded as post-Vedic texts.
 Dharmashastra

 The Dharmashastra are the Sanskrit texts about morality and religious duty. They
provide guiding rules and principles for the order and regularity of society and
righteous conduct.
 Dharmashastra refers to the fulfilment of Purusharthas (life goals) such
as Dharma (righteous conduct), Artha (material well being), Kama (desires, sensual
pleasures) and Moksha (liberation from the cycle of life and death).
 The Dharmashastra are subdivided into Dharmasutras (c. 600 – 300 BCE)
and Smritis (c. 200 – 900 BCE). They recognise three sources of Dharma – the Vedas
(Shruti – what is heard), Smriti (what is remembered) texts and Shistachara (good
manners and practices of cultured people).
 A person’s Dharma was dependent on many factors such as gender, marital status,
varna and ashram. Out of the four varnas, three varnas – Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and
Vaishyas were considered Dvija (twice-born, as they had the right to the sacred
thread ceremony considered akin to second birth), while the fourth varna – Shudras
were burdened with many civil disabilities.
 The four ashrams dividing the life of a male Dvija were:

o Brahmacharya (celibate student hood)

o Grihastha (household caretaker)
o Vanaprastha (partial renunciation)
o Sanyasa (complete renunciation)
 The different ashram stages were not followed by all and it was not applicable to
women and Shudras.
 Epics

The other important literature of ancient India is the Great Epics – the Mahabharata and
the Ramayana. Both were written in the form of long poems and took place in ancient
Hindu Kingdoms on the Indian subcontinent. They describe the political, social and
economical structure of ancient India.
 Mahabharata Ramayana
1. Roughly composed between c. 400 BCE – 400 CE. 1. Roughly composed between c. 400 BCE – 300 CE.

2. It is composed by Ved Vyasa and consists of 18 2. Ramayana is composed by Valmiki and consists
Parvas (books) and has around 1 lakh verses (longest of seven Kandas (books) having 24,000 verses.
epic poem ever written).

3. The Mahabharata is essentially the story of the 3. The word Ramayana literally means the journey of
rivalry between two bands of brothers in the Rama. It is a story of good over evil.
Hastinapura Kingdom, which culminates in a great
battle.

4. Traditionally, the war is believed to have happened 4. It is considered that Rama lived in the Treta yuga
in the Dvapara Yuga. But, historians consider the (age), earlier than the Mahabharata. Since the
events and social character of the Mahabharata settings of the Ramayana shifted eastwards to the
corresponding to an earlier age of development than middle Ganga valley, and the language of the
the Ramayana, as the Mahabharata settings pertain to Ramayana is more polished and its concepts are
the Indo-Gangetic divide and upper Ganga valley. more closely related to later societies, historians
consider it of a later stage than the Mahabharata.

5. The Mahabharata is more realistic. 5. The Ramayana is more idealistic.

 Varied Aspects of Rig Vedic Culture

1. Political Life of Rig Vedic Aryans

I. The early Rig Vedic society was a semi-nomadic tribal society with a pastoral
economy. The tribe was called Jana and the tribal chief was called Rajan, Gopati or
Gopa (protector of cows) and the chief queen was called Mahisi. The main
responsibility of the Rajan was to protect the Jana and cattle from the enemies along
with offering prayers to gods on behalf of Janas. The Janas often had fights with
Panis, who used to hide the cattle of Janas in the forest. In order to get their cattle
back, the Vedic god, Indra was invoked and many battles such as Gavisthi,
Gaveshana, Goshu, Gavyat were fought.
II. It seems that in the Rig Vedic period the King’s post was hereditary (similar to
monarchial form). Although his post was hereditary, we also have some traces of
election by the tribal assembly called Samiti.
III. Administration:
 The administration of the Rig Vedic society consisted of:
o Purohit (priest) – In return for the ritualistic services, the priests received
dana (gifts) and Dakshina (sacrificial offerings).
o Sanani – Chief of the army.
o Vrajpati – Officer who controlled the territory.
 o Gramini – Leader of the village and fighting unit.
 There is no evidence of any officer concerned with the collection of taxes. Probably,
the chief received voluntary offerings called “bali” from the people. There is also no
mention of any officer for administering justice.
IV. Assemblies:
 Several tribal assemblies are mentioned in the Rig Veda. These are:
o Sabha – Smaller body meant for elites.
o Samiti – Broad-based folk assembly, presided over by the Rajan.
o Vidatha – Tribal assembly with diverse functions.
o Gana – Assembly or troop.
 Women also attended the Sabha and Vidatha in Rig Vedic times. The Sabha and
Samiti were important assemblies from a political point of view and the king showed
eagerness to win their support.
V. The king did not maintain any regular or standing army, but in times of war, he
mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal
groups called Vrata, Sardha or Gana. The Rig Vedic charioteers used Varma (coats of
mail) and sipra/ sironastra (helmets) and went to combat equipped with asi
(swords), hanas (arrows) and ilhianus (bows).
VI. Battles:
 The Aryans have engaged in two types of battles –
o With pre-Aryans called Dasa / Dasyus.
o Amongst themselves – two such battles have been mentioned:
 A battle occurred between a Bharata King Divodasa (winner) and Dasa
ruler Shambara.
 The battle of ten Kings (dasarajna) – This was fought between the Bharata
chief Sudas,
grandson of Divodasa (winner) on one side, and ten other tribes on the
other side including the famous five tribes (Panch-Jana), namely, the
Yadu, Turvasha, Puru, Anu and Druhyu on the banks of the river
Paurushni (Ravi). Later, the Bharatas joined hands with the Purus to form
the Kuru tribe who further allied with Panchalas and established their
control over the Upper Ganga valley.
2. Social Life of Rig Vedic Aryans

I. The kinship was the basis of social structure. The basic social unit was kula (family)
and Kulapa was the head of the family. The family was part of a larger grouping
called vis or clan. One or more clans made jana/ tribe. The jana was the largest social
unit. The family was a large joint unit and was patriarchal, headed by the father. As it
was patriarchal, the birth of a son was desired especially brave sons to fight the
wars. In the Rig Veda, no desire is expressed for daughters, though the desire for
children and cattle is a recurrent theme in the hymns. Women also had an important
position in the society, could attend assemblies (Vidatha) and even composed
hymns.
 II. The institution of marriage was established and there are no examples of child
marriages, Sati or purdah in the Rig Veda. There are instances of re-marriage and
levirate (marrying the husband’s younger brother on the death of the husband). The
marriages were usually monogamous, though there are some references to
polygamy and polyandry.
III. The society was not divided on caste lines and occupation was not based on birth.
This is indicated by the following verse in the Rig Veda – ‘I am a poet, my father is a
physician and my mother grinds grain upon the stone. Earning livelihood through
different means, we live together’. People with different occupations were part of
the clan.
IV. The Rig Veda shows some consciousness of the physical appearance of people. Varna
was the term used for colour, and it seems that Aryans were fair and the indigenous
inhabitants were dark in complexion. The colour distinctions may have partially
given rise to social orders. The factor which contributed most to the creation of
social divisions was the conquest of the indigenous inhabitants by the Aryans. The
Dasa and Dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans were treated as slaves and
Sudras.
V. The only mention of the four varnas was found in the Purushasukta of the tenth
mandala (book) of the Rig Veda, which makes one conclude that the varna system
was probably introduced at the end of the Rig Vedic age and that there was social
mobility and the absence of strict social hierarchy. The society was still tribal
and largely egalitarian.
3. Rig Vedic Economy

I. There are so many references to the cow in the Rig Veda that the Rig Vedic Aryans
seem to have been pastoral people. Most of their wars were fought for the sake of
cows. The term for war in the Rig Veda is “gavisthi” or search for cows. A wealthy
man, who owned many cows was known as Gomat. The importance of cows in the
Rig Vedic age can be drawn from the fact that the donations to the priests were
made in terms of cows and women slaves and never in terms of the measurement of
land. The land did not form a well-established type of private property.
II. Gold coins called “niksha” (unit of currency) were used as a medium of exchange in
large transactions. Mostly, trade was conducted on the barter system and the cow
was an important unit of value. The kingdom was maintained by the voluntary
offerings (bali) of subjects and bounty won in a battle, as there was no regular
revenue system.
III. The Rig Veda mentions artisans such as the carpenter, the chariot maker (enjoyed a
special status), the weaver, the potter, the leather workers, etc. This indicates that
they practised all these crafts. Chariot racing and dice gambling were popular
pastimes.
IV. The term “ayas” used for copper and bronze shows that these were in use in the Rig
Vedic age. However, it seems that they didn’t use iron technology.
V. For transport – bullock carts, horses and horse-drawn chariots were used. There are
also references to the sea and boats.
VI. The gift exchanges known as “prestations”, were done not on an individual level but
at a group level.
4. Rig Vedic Religion

The Rig Vedic Aryans worshipped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and
thunder. They personified these natural forces into many gods and worshipped
them. They generally worshipped in the open air through yajnas. There was neither
temple nor idol worship in the early Rig Vedic age. The dominant mode of worshipping
the gods was through the recitation of prayers and offering of sacrifices. Both collective
and individual prayers were made. Aryans worshipped gods mainly for praja (children),
pasu (cattle), food, wealth, health, etc. (not for the spiritual uplift). A peculiar case
of Henotheism or Kathenotheism is found in Rig Vedic religion, wherein the deity being
invoked in a particular hymn is considered the supreme god.

Some of the deities worshipped by the Rig Vedic people were as follows:

1) Indra –
 Greatest god of the Aryans.
 Also called Purandhara (breaker of forts), Maghavan (bounteous), and Vritrahan
(Slayer of Vritra, chaos).
 Rain god (responsible for causing rain).
 250 hymns are attributed to him.
2) Agni –
 The god of fire (second most important god).
 Intermediary between gods and people.
 The son of earth and heaven.
 200 hymns are attributed to him.
3) Varuna –
 The god of personified water (third most important god).
 Looked after rita or the cosmic order.
 Ethically, the highest of all Rig Vedic gods.
4) Soma –
 The king of gods, god of plants, special god of the Brahmanas.
 Aryans knew Himalaya (Munjavat) as the source of the soma plant.
 Considered the wise god who inspires the poets to compose hymns.
 All the hymns of 11 mandalas are assigned to him.
5) Yama – Lord of death.
6) Rudra –
 Amoral archer god whose arrows brought diseases.
 Resembled Greek god Apollo and identified as Protosiva.
7) Surya – Son of Dyaus, who drives away darkness and spreads light.
8) Vayu – God of wind.
9) Prithvi – Earth goddess.
10)Aditi (female) – Goddess of eternity and mother of the gods, invoked to bestow
freedom from evil, harm and sickness.
11)Marutas – The sons of Rudra who personifies storms.
12)Ushas (female) – Goddess of dawn and her name is mentioned around 300 times in
the Rig Veda hymns.
13)Ashvins – The twin gods of war and fertility.
14)Sinivali – Bestows children.
15)Savitri – Solar deity to whom the famous Gayatri Mantra is attributed to, in the third
mandala of the Rig Veda.
There is also mention of some Demi-gods such as –

1. Gandharvas (Divine musicians)

2. Apsaras (Mistress of gods)
3. Vishwa Devas (Intermediate deities)
4. Aryaman (Guardian of matrimony)
UNIT:-19 BUDDHISM & JAINISM
 BUDDHISM
In the sixth century BCE, the socio-religious norms that were well established &
followed were criticised by the then great scholars like Confucius in China, Zoroaster in
Iran, Parmenides in Greece. They laid emphasis on ethical and moral values. India also
witnessed the emergence of two alternate religions – Buddhism & Jainism. Both these
religions believed and propagated non-violence, good social conduct, charity &
generosity. These religions emphasised that true happiness does not lie in materialism
or performance of rituals.

 Buddhism & Jainism – Causes for Growth

The various causes that led to alternative religions are:-

1) Kshatriya class’ resentment towards the domination of the priestly class

(Brahmanas)
 The order of hierarchy in the Varna system was-Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
and Shudras. The Kshatriyas who were ranked second strongly objected to the
ritualistic domination of the Brahmanas and the various privileges enjoyed by them.
It should also be noted that both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to the Kshatriya
varna. It is important to mention that the Buddhist Pali texts at many places reject
the Brahmanical claim to superiority and places itself (Kshatriyas) higher than the
Brahmanas.
2) Rise of the new agricultural economy that needed animal husbandry-
 In the sixth century BCE, there was a shift of the centre of economic and political
activity from Haryana and western U.P to eastern U.P and Bihar where the land was
more fertile due to abundant rainfall. It became easier to utilize the iron reservoir of
Bihar and its adjoining areas. People started using more and more iron tools like
ploughshare for agricultural purposes. The use of iron ploughshare required the use
of bullocks, which meant that the age-old custom in the Vedic age of killing animals
as sacrifices would have to be abandoned for this agricultural economy to
stabilize. Furthermore, the flourishing of animal husbandry became imminent to
raise a potential animal population to take up the work that was required to uphold
the agricultural sector development. Both Buddhism and Jainism were against any
kind of sacrifices, so the peasant class welcomed it.
3) The Vaishyas and other mercantile groups favoured Buddhism and Jainism as
they yearned for a better social and peaceful life-
 The agricultural boom led to the increased production of food which also helped in
the development of trade, craft production and urban centres. The discovery of
thousands of silver and copper Punch-Marked Coins (PMC) by the numismatists
reflects the development of trade in this era. This period is known as the era of
second urbanisation. As many as sixty towns and cities like Rajagriha, Shravasti,
Varanasi, Vaishali and Champa developed between 600 and 300 BCE. The Vaishyas
and other mercantile groups rose to a better economic position and preferred to
patronise non-Vedic religions like Buddhism and Jainism through substantial
donations. As both Buddhism and Jainism promoted peace and non-violence, this
 could put an end to wars between different kingdoms and consequently promote
further trade and commerce, which was beneficial for this economic class.
4) Acceptance of simple and peace centred principles of Buddhism and Jainism
by people-
 The common masses welcomed the new religions as they preached peace and social
equality, simple and ascetic living. People wanted relief from the growing social
problems and yearned to live a peaceful and uncorrupt life.

 Gautama Buddha & Buddhism

The early Buddhist literature is divided into canonical and non-canonical texts:

1) Canonical texts: are believed to be the actual words of the Buddha. Canonical texts
are books which lay down the basic tenets and principles of Buddhism such as
the Tipitakas.
2) Non-canonical texts or semi-canonical texts: these are commentaries and
observations on canonical texts, quotes, definitions, historical information,
grammars and other writings in Pali, Tibetian, Chinese and other East Asian
languages. Some important ones are:
 Mahavastu (written in Sanskrit-Prakrit mixed) – it is about the sacred biography,
i.e hagiography of the Buddha.
 Nidanakatha – first connected life story of Buddha.
 The Dipavamsa & the Mahavamsa (both in Pali) – both give historical and
mythical accounts of the Buddha’s life, Buddhist Councils, Asoka and the arrival
of Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
 Visuddhimagga (the path to purification written by Buddhaghosa) – deals with
the development from the purity of discipline to enlightenment (Nibbana).
 Milindapanho (in Pali) – consists of a dialogue between the Indo-Greek king
Milinda/Menander and the monk Nagasena on various philosophical issues.
 Nettipakarana (The book of guidance) – which gives a connected account of the
Buddha’s teachings.

 The Tipitakas (Canonical Texts)

The earliest compilation of Buddhist teachings which were written on long, narrow
leaves is “The Tipitakas” (in Pali) and “Tripitaka” (in Sanskrit). All the branches of
Buddhism have the Tripitakas (also called three baskets/collections) as part of their
core scriptures, which comprise three books –

 The Sutta (conventional teaching)

 The Vinaya (disciplinary code)
 The Abhidhamma (moral psychology)

o The Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses) – these texts are also known as Buddha
Vacana or the word of the Buddha. It contains Buddha’s discourse on various
doctrinal issues in dialogue form.
 o The Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket) – this contains rules for monks and nuns of
the monastic order (Sangha). It includes the Patimokka – a list of transgressions
against monastic discipline and atonements for these. The Vinaya text also
includes doctrinal expositions, ritual texts, biographical stories and some
elements of Jatakas or “birth stories”.
o The Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Teachings) – this contains a thorough
study and systematisation of the teachings of the Sutta Pitaka through
summaries, questions and answers, lists, etc.
 The Tipitakas are divided into Nikayas (books):

1) Sutta Pitaka (5 collections)

 Digha-Nikaya
 Majjhima Nikaya
 Samyutta Nikaya
 Anguttara Nikaya
 Khuddaka Nikaya
 Further subdivided into 15 books
2) Vinaya Pitaka (3 books)
 Sutta Vibhanga

o Maha-Vibhanga
o Bhikkuni-Vibhanga

 Khandaka

o Mahavagga
o Cullavagga

 Parivara
3) Abhidhamma Pitaka (7 books)
 Dhamma-sangani
 Vibhanga
 Dhatu-katha
 Puggala-pannati
 Kayha-vatthu
 Yamaka
 Patthana

 The Buddha – Biography

Hagiography

The Gautama Buddha was born to Suddhodana (chief of republican Sakya clan) as
Siddhartha in 563 BCE on Vaishakha Poornima day at Lumbini (Nepal). He lost his
mother (Mahamaya) just a few days after his birth and was brought up by his
stepmother Gautami. There were 32 birthmarks on his body and Brahmanas predicted
that either he would be a world conqueror or a world renouncer. He lived a life of
luxury and comfort in his early years.

 He was married to Yashodhara at the early age of 16 and had a son named Rahula.
At the age of 29, he left his palace and decided to become a wanderer. He along
with Channa, his charioteer and his horse, Kanthaka, wandered for six long years in
search of truth (Mahabhinishkramana/Great Renunciation).
 He first meditated with Alara Kalama and then Uddaka Ramaputta. They were
considered to be the established teachers of that era but he was not convinced with
their teachings that liberation from sorrow can be obtained by mental discipline and
knowledge only.
 The Buddha later joined five wandering ascetics – Assaji, Mahanama, Vappa,
Bhaddiya and Kondanna. He practised severe austerities until his body was almost
emaciated and realising that austerities could not lead to realisation, he left them. He
then moved towards the village of Senani and took a seat under a peepal tree facing
east. He then resolved not to rise until enlightenment was achieved.
 As Gautama sat in deep meditation – Mara, the Lord of illusions, recognising that his
power was about to be broken, tried to distract him. The Buddha touched the earth,
calling it to bear witness to the countless lifetimes of virtue that had led him to this
place of enlightenment. The earth shook, on hearing the truth of Gautama’s words.
Mara then unleashed his army of demons. In the epic battle that ensued, Gautama’s
wisdom broke through the illusions and the power of his compassion transformed
the demon’s weapons into flowers. Mara and his army fled in disarray. Thus, at the
age of 35, he ultimately attained Nirvana/enlightenment at Gaya, Magadha (Bihar)
under a peepal tree (Bodhi tree), on the banks of river Niranjana and came to be
known as the Buddha – the Enlightened One. It is believed that Ashoka’s queen was
envious of the Bodhi tree, and tried to kill it but it grew again. The tree was cut down
many times, but it grew again at the same place and is still revered by Buddhists.
 The Buddha delivered his first sermon on deliverance from sufferings to his five
former companions at Sarnath. This event is known as Dhamma Chakka-
Pavattana, which means turning the wheel of dharma. The Buddha wandered about
for over four decades, and established an order of monks and nuns known
as Sangha. He attained Parinirvana at the age of 80 at Kusinara (of the Mallas). His
last words were “All composite things decay, strive diligently”.
 The five forms that represent Buddha are:

o Lotus and Bull – Birth

o Horse – Renunciation
o Bodhi Tree – Mahabodhi
o Dhammachakra Pravartana – First sermon
o Footprints – Nirvana

Doctrines of Buddhism
The core of Buddha’s doctrine is expressed in the Ariya-Sacchani (four noble
truths), Ashtangika-Marga (Eight Fold Path), Middle Path, Social Code of Conduct, and
Attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana.

Buddha urges that one should not cling to anything (including his teachings). The
teachings are only Upaya (skillful means or expedient tools) and are not dogma. It is
fingers pointing at the moon and one should not confuse the finger for the moon.

The three pillars of his teachings are:

 Buddha – Founder/Teacher
 Dhamma – Teachings
 Sangha – Order of Buddhist Monks and Nuns (Upasakas)
The four noble truths form the core of the teachings of Buddhism, which are:

1) Dukha (The truth of suffering) – As per Buddhism, everything is suffering (Sabbam

Dukham). It refers to the potential to experience pain and not only the actual pain
and sorrow experienced by an individual.
2) Samudaya (The truth of the cause of suffering) – Trishna (desire) is the main cause
of suffering. Every suffering has a reason and it is a part and parcel of living.
3) Nirodha (The truth of the end of suffering) – the pain/sorrow can be ended by the
attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana.
4) Ashtangika-Marga (The truth of the path leading to the end of suffering) – the end to
the suffering is contained in the eightfold path.
Eight-Fold Paths

The Eight-Fold Path is more about unlearning rather than learning, i.e., to learn in order
to unlearn and uncover. The path consists of eight interconnected activities and is a
process that helps one to move beyond the conditioned responses that obscure one’s
nature. The Ashtangika-Marga consists of the following:

 Right Vision (Samma-Ditthi) – it is about understanding the nature of reality and the
path of transformation.
 Right Thought or Attitude (Samma-Sankappa) – it signifies having emotional
intelligence and acting from love and compassion.
 Right or Whole Speech (Samma-Vacca) – it signifies truthful, clear, uplifting and
unharmful communications.
 Right or Integral Action (Samma-Kammanta) – it signifies an ethical foundation of
life, on the principles of non-exploitation of oneself and others. It consists of five
rules, which form the ethical code of conduct for the members of the monastic order
and the laity. These are:

o Do not commit violence.

o Do not covet the property of others.
o Do not indulge in corrupt practices or sensual behaviour.
o Do not speak a lie.
 o Do not use intoxicants.
In addition to these, monks and nuns were strictly instructed to observe the following
three additional precepts-

 To avoid eating after mid-day.

 To refrain from any sort of entertainment and use of ornaments to adorn oneself.
 To refrain from using high or luxurious beds, and from handling gold and silver
(including money).

 Right or Proper Livelihood (Samma-Ajiva) – it lays emphasis on livelihood based on

correct action and on the ethical principles of non-exploitation. It is believed that
this forms the basis of an ideal society.
 Right Effort or Energy (Samma-Vayama) – it signifies consciously directing our life
energy to the transformative path of creative and healing action that fosters
wholeness thus moving towards conscious evolution.
 Right Mindfulness or Thorough Awareness ( Samma-Sati) – it means knowing one’s
own self and watching self behaviour. There is a saying by the Buddha, “If you hold
yourself dear, watch yourself well”.
 Right Concentration or Meditation (Samma-Samadhi) – samadhi literally means to
be fixed, absorbed in. It means getting one’s whole being absorbed in various levels
or modes of consciousness and awareness.

The teachings of the Buddha follow the middle path (the one between extreme
indulgence and extreme asceticism). Buddha has emphasised that if a person follows
the eightfold path, then he will reach his destination (Nirvana) without the involvement
of the monks/nuns. In the above-eightfold path, the word “right” signifies “whole”,”
integral”, “complete”, “perfect”.

The ultimate aim of the Buddha’s teachings is the attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana. The
Nibbana is a Pali word formed of ‘Ni’ and ‘vanna’, ni means negative and vanna refers to
lust or craving. So, Nirvana means departure from cravings and lust. It signifies dying
out or extinction of desire, greed, hatred, ignorance, attachment and the sense of ego. In
Nibbana, nothing is eternalised nor is anything annihilated, other than the suffering. It is
a supramundane state and an attainment (Dhamma) which is within the reach of all,
even in this present life. The main difference between the Buddhist conception of
Nibbana and the non-Buddhist concept is that Nibbana can be attained during life also.
In the non-Buddhist concept, eternal heaven is realised only after death or union with
God. When Nibbana is achieved in this life, it is called Sopadisesa Nibbana-dhatu. When
an Arhat attains parinibbana (used for the death of enlightened beings such as Buddha),
after the dissolution of his body, it is called Anupadisesa Nibbana-dhatu.

The philosophy of Buddha accepts impermanence and transmigration but denies the
existence of God and believes that the soul is a myth. Buddhism teaches the existence
of ten realms of being and one can be born as any one of them. At the top is Buddha
followed by Bodhisattva (an enlightened being destined to be a Buddha but purposely
remains on earth to propagate teachings), Pratyeka Buddha (a Buddha on their
own), Sravaka (disciple of Buddha), heavenly beings (superhumans, angels), human
beings, Asura (fighting spirits), beasts, Preta (hungry ghosts) and depraved men (hellish
beings). These ten realms of existence are “mutually immanent and mutually
inclusive”, each one having in it the remaining nine realms, e.g., the realm of human
beings has all other nine states – from hell to Buddhahood in it. A man can be selfish or
can rise to the enlightened state of Buddha. In Buddhism, karma is the result of actions
depending on the intentions more than the action itself. Rebirth is the result of the
karma of the previous life. Though Buddhism lays emphasis on non-violence, it doesn’t
forbid masses from eating meat.

 Reasons for Spread & Popularity of Buddhism

Buddhism gained wide acceptance and popularity and spread like a wildfire throughout
India. With the support of emperor Ashoka, it spread its wings to central Asia, west Asia
and Sri Lanka. Various causes for the rise and spread of Buddhism are:

1) Liberal & democratic – Unlike Brahmanism, it was far more liberal & democratic. It
won the hearts of the lower class as it attacked the varna system. It welcomed
people of all castes and even women were admitted to the Sangha. The people of
Magadha readily accepted Buddhism as they were looked down upon by the
orthodox Brahmanas.
2) Simple language – The Buddha spread his message in the simple language of the
masses. The Pali language which Buddha used was the spoken language of the
masses. The Vedic religion was understood only with the help of Sanskrit language
which was the monopoly of the Brahmins.
3) The personality of the Buddha – The personality of the Buddha endeared him and
his religion to the masses. He was kind and ego-less. His calm composure, sweet
words of simple philosophy and his life of renunciation drew the masses to him. He
had ready moral solutions for the problems of the people.
4) Royal patronage – Royal patronage of Buddhism also accounted for its rapid rise.
Kings like Prasenjit, Bimbisara, Ashoka, Kanishka patronised Buddhism and helped
its spread throughout India and outside as well. Ashoka deputed his children to Sri
Lanka for the spread of Buddhism.
5) Inexpensive– Buddhism was inexpensive, without the expensive rituals that
characterised the Vedic religion. It advocated a spiritual path without any material
obligation of satisfying gods and Brahmins through gifts and rituals.
Buddhism tried to mitigate the evils resulting from the new material life of the sixth
century BCE. Since the Buddhists had a keen awareness of the problems (social &
economic disparities), they presented innovative solutions to these concerns. Buddhism
asked people NOT to accumulate wealth, indulge in cruelty or violence – ideas that were
welcomed by the people.

 Buddhism – Reasons for Decline

From the early 12th century, Buddhism began to disappear from the land of its birth.
Various causes that led to the decline of Buddhism are:

1) Corruption in Buddhist Sangha– In the course of time, the Buddhist Sangha

became corrupt. Receiving valuable gifts drew them towards luxury and enjoyment.
 The principles prescribed by Buddha were conveniently forgotten and thus started
the degradation of the Buddhist monks and their preachings.
2) Division among Buddhists– Buddhism faced divisions from time to time. The
division into various splinter groups like Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana,
Tantrayana and Sahajayana led Buddhism to lose its originality. The simplicity of
Buddhism was lost and it was becoming complex.
3) Use of Sanskrit language– Pali, the spoken language of most people of India, was
the medium for the spread of the message of Buddhism. But Sanskrit replaced these
at the Fourth Buddhist Council during the reign of Kanishka. Sanskrit was the
language of a few intellectuals, hardly understood by masses and therefore became
one of the many reasons for the fall of Buddhism.
4) Buddha worship– Image worship was started in Buddhism by the Mahayana
Buddhists. They started worshipping the image of the Buddha. This mode of worship
was a violation of the Buddhist principles of opposing complex rites and rituals of
Brahmanical worship. This paradox led people to believe that Buddhism was
tending towards the fold of Hinduism.
5) Persecution of Buddhists– In course of time there was the rise of the Brahmanical
faith again. Some Brahmana rulers, such as Pushiyamitra Shunga, the Huna king,
Mihirakula (worshiper of Shiva) and Shaivite Shashank of Gauda persecuted the
Buddhists on a large scale. The liberal donations to the monasteries gradually
declined. Also, some rich monasteries were specifically targeted by the Turkish and
other invaders.
6) Muslim invasion– The Muslim invasion of India almost wiped out Buddhism. Their
invasions of India became regular, and repeated such invasions forced the Buddhist
monks to seek asylum and shelter in Nepal and Tibet. In the end, Buddhism died
away in India, the land of its birth.

 Important Terms in Buddhism

Key Terms Meaning

A Buddhist holy day celebrated on the full moon (Aashvin) of the lunar month, at the end of
Pavarana
the rainy season (Vassa)

Upasakas Male followers of Buddhism

Upasikas Female followers of Buddhism

“Going forth” from home, the determination to renounce the world and undertake an ascetic
Pavrajya
path

Chaityas Prayer hall of monks

Viharas Monasteries

It includes four serious offences which result in expulsion from Sangha – sexual intercourse,
Parajika
taking what is not given, killing someone and making false claims of spiritual realisation

Ordination ceremony when the novice becomes a full-fledged member of the monastic
Upasampada
community

An enlightened being who compassionately refrains from entering nirvana in order to save
Bodhisattva
others and is worshipped as a deity

Bikkhu Sangha Sangha of monks

Bhikkhuni
Sangha of nuns
Sangha

Paribbajaka/
Wanderer
Parivrajaka

Shakra God Indra

One of the popular schools of Theravada, which basically relies on the dictum that
Sarvastivadin
“everything whether internal or external exists continuously in all the three phases of time”

Sautrantikas consider only the Sutras as valid (Teachings of Buddha) and not commercial
Sautrantika
literature

 Buddhist Councils

Buddhist Time Place Ruler President Specificity

Council

First 483 BCE Rajgriha Ajatashatru Mahakassappa Buddha’s teachings were divided into 3
categories or baskets (Pitakas)

Second 383 BCE Vaishali Kalasoka Sabbakami Division: Sthaviravadins – they felt they
were keeping the original spirit of the
Buddha’s teachings.

Mahasanghikas
(The Great Community) – Interpreted
 Buddha’s teachings more liberally.
Third 250 BCE Pataliputra Ashoka Mogaliputta Main aim was to purify the Buddhist
Tissa movement from opportunistic factions.

Sent Buddhist missionaries to other

countries.
Fourth 1st Century Kashmir Kanishka Vasumitra Buddhism divided into Mahayana and
CE Hinayana sects.

 Schools of Buddhism

1) Hinayana (Theravada)
 It literally means “The Lesser path” and Theravada signifies “Doctrine of the
Elders”.
 Hinayana is true to the teachings of The Buddha.
 Theravada was the original school of Buddhist philosophy.
 Its scriptures are in Pali.
 Doesn’t believe in idol worship.
 Believes an individual can attain salvation through self-discipline & meditation.
 At present, it is found in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and other parts of South-
East Asia.
 Ashoka patronised Hinayana.
2) Mahayana
 It literally means “The Greater Path”.
 The terms Hinayana & Mahayana were given by the Mahayana school.
 Mahayana has two main philosophical schools – the Madhyamika & Yogachara.
 Its scriptures are in Sanskrit.
 This school of Buddhism considers Buddha as God and worships idols of
Buddhas & Bodhisattvas.
 It believes in universal liberation from sufferings for all beings, and spiritual
upliftment.
 Salvation can also be attained by means of faith and devotion to the mindfulness
of the Buddha. It believes in mantras.
3) Vajrayana
 It literally means “Vehicle of Thunderbolt”.
 The Vajrayana or “Diamond Vehicle” is also called Mantrayana, Tantrayana or
Esoteric Buddhism.
 It was established in Tibet in the 11th century.
 The “Two Truth Doctrine” is the central concept of Vajrayana. The two truths are
identified as ‘conventional’ & ‘ultimate’ truths. Conventional truth is the truth of
 consensus, reality and common sense notions of what does exist and does not
exist. Ultimate truth is the reality as perceived by an enlightened mind.
 Vajrayana texts use a highly symbolic language “sandhya-bhasa” or “twilight
language”. It aims to evoke experiences considered to be most valuable, in their
followers.
 Vajrayana believes that salvation can be attained by acquiring magical powers
called vajra.
 It also lays importance on the role of Buddhistavas but favours fierce deities
known as Taras.
 The rituals and devotion employ mantras (esoteric verbal formulas), mandalas
(diagrams & painting for visualisation practices) and a complex array of other
rituals.
 Much importance is given to the role of the guru called Lama who has mastered
the philosophical and ritual traditions. There is a long lineage of lamas. The Dalai
Lama is a well known Tibetan Lama.
 It is predominant in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan and Mongolia.

 JAINISM
Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara (a great teacher).

 Origin of Jainism

 Jainism is a very ancient religion. As per some traditions, it is as old as the Vedic
religion.
 The Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or Tirthankaras.
 There were 24 Tirthankaras the last of which was Vardhaman Mahavira.
 The first Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev.
 The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born in Varanasi. He may have
lived in the 8th or 7th century BC.
 All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth.

 Vardhaman Mahavira (540 – 468 B.C.)

 Considered the last Tirthankara.

 He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali.
 His parents were Kshatriyas. Father – Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan); Mother –
Trishala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka). (Chetaka’s daughter married Haryanka
King Bimbisara).
 He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
 At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home and became a wandering ascetic.
 He also observed self-mortification.
 After 13 years of penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala
Jnan. He attained this at Jimbhikagrama village under a sal tree aged 42. This is
called Kaivalya. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one who
conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free from all bonds), and Kevalin.
 He preached his teachings for 30 years and died at Pava (near Rajagriha) aged 72.

 Causes of the rise of Jainism

 Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic.

 Jainism was taught in Pali and Prakrit thus was more accessible to the common man
as compared to Sanskrit.
 It was accessible to people of all castes.
 Varna system had rigidified and people of the lower castes led miserable lives.
Jainism offered them an honourable place.
 About 200 years after the death of Mahavira, a great famine in the Ganga valley
prompted Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu (last Acharya of the undivided
Jain sangha) to migrate to Karnataka. Jainism spread to Southern India after that.

 Teachings of Jainism

 Mahavira rejected Vedic principles.

 He did not believe in God’s existence. According to him, the universe is a product of
the natural phenomenon of cause and effect.
 He believed in Karma and transmigration of the soul. The body dies but the soul
does not.
 One will be punished or rewarded as per one’s karma.
 Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
 Stressed on equality but did not reject the caste system, unlike Buddhism. But he
also said that man may be ‘good’ or ‘bad’ as per his actions and not birth.
 Asceticism was taken to a great length. Starvation, nudity, and self-mortification
were expounded.
 Two elements of the world: Jiva (conscious) and Atma (unconscious):

o Right faith
o Right knowledge
o Right conduct (observance of five vows)
 Ahimsa (non-violence)
 Satya (truth)
 Asteya (no stealing)
 Aparigraha (no acquiring property)
 Brahmacharya (abstinence)

 Split in Jainism
 When Bhadrabahu left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the North with his
followers.
 Sthulabahu changed the code of conduct and said that white clothes could be worn.
Thus, split Jainism into two sects:

o Swetambaras: White-clad; Northerners

o Digambaras: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners

 Jainism – Jain Councils

1) First council

 Held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC.

 Presided by Sthulabhadra.
2) Second Council

 Held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in 512 AD.

 Presided by Devardhi Kshemasarmana.

 Royal patrons of Jainism

1) South India

 Kadamba dynasty
 Ganga dynasty
 Amoghavarsha
 Kumarapala (Chalukya dynasty)
2) North India

 Bimbisara
 Ajatasatru
 Chandragupta Maurya
 Bindusara
 Harshavardhana
 Ama
 Bindusara
 Kharavela

 Other Facts about Jainism

 The doctrine of Jaina is older than the Buddhist doctrine

 Buddha and Mahavira were contemporaries
 The word ‘Jaina’ has meaning. It means the follower of ‘Jina,’ which means ‘Victor’
(Someone who has attained infinite knowledge and who teaches others how to
attain moksha.)
 The other name to ‘Jina’ is ‘Tirthankara,’ which means ford builder.
 There is a Jaina conception of time which is divided into six stages called Kalas.
 The 22nd Tirthankara Neminatha is said to have belonged to the Saurashtra region
of Gujarat.
 The 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanath lived in Benaras
 All Tirthankaras are supposed to have taught the same doctrine.
 A Jina is said to possess ‘Avadhijnana,’ (Superhuman cognition or psychic power.)
 Jaina doctrine insists that:

o Reality is Anekanta (Manifold)

o Sat (Being) has three aspects – Substance (Dravya), Quality (Guna), and Mode
(Paryaya.)
o Jaina Doctrine of Anekantavada mentions the manifold nature of reality.)
 UNIT:-20
5 MAHAJANAPADAS
CHAPTER

Around sixth century BCE, the increasing use of iron formed the conditions for the rise
of large territorial states. On one hand the agricultural tools and implements enabled the
peasants to produce more grains than the requirements and on the other the iron weapon
made the warrior class more significant, who by then started not only to protect their land
but also to expand at the cost of their neighbouring areas. Thus, the tribal polity gave way
to the rise of territorial states towards the end of later Vedic age. The Janapadas as
mentioned in the later Vedic texts, Jain and Buddhist sources, signify that the regions
with different types of human settlements came to acquire geographical names for the first
time in Indian history. These units or Janapadas became the centres for the development
of uniform language, customs and beliefs.
Permanent settlement in a particular area gave a geographical identity to a tribe or a
group of tribes residing in the area. A passage from the Astadhyayi of Panini, makes it
clear that the people owed their allegiance to the Janapada (territory) to which they belonged
rather than to the Jana or the tribe.

Rise of Mahajanapadas
By 500 BCE, Janapadas
became a common feature.
Over forty Janapadas covering
even Afghanistan and south-
eas tern Central Asia are
mentioned by Panini. By the 6th
century BCE, some of the
Janapadas developed into
Mahajanapadas like Magadha,
Kosala, etc.
Many of the Mahajanapadas
came up by incorporating
Janapadas which were earlier
independent.
Some of the reasons for the
rise of Mahajanapadas are:
 New agricultural tools and
implements enabled the
peasants to clear the forests, Fig: Sixteen Mahajanapadas
increase the arable land and produce a good amount of surplus. It met not only the
needs of the ruling class, but also supported numerous towns such as Champa,
Rajagriha, Ayodhya, Kaushambi, Kashi, etc., in the Ganges plains.
 The agricultural expansion also led to the growth of population.
 The appearance of urban centres led to the emergence of different social groups such
as gahapati, merchants, settlers, etc., pursuing different occupations and multiple
activities.
 The exchange of goods and services and regular trade also led to the emergence of
professional middlemen and merchants. There was regular trade connections between
cities and towns.
 Cattle were no longer considered a major strength of wealth. Money economy had
surpassed the barter system. This led to the chiefs of the lineages constantly at war
with each other either to show their might or financial strength and follow expansionist
policies to garner more resources at their disposal.
 The widespread use of iron also led to the formation of large territorial states. These
states were better equipped militarily and warrior class played an important role in
their rise.
 Gradually a regular system of taxation and the army also developed. The distinction
between Raja (Ruler) and Praja (the ruled) became more pronounced.

The Mahajanapadas
According to the Buddhist canonical text Ahguttara Nikaya, there were sixteen states
of considerable extent and power, known as “Solasa Mahajanapada” in Jambudipa
(Bharatvarsha). The sixteen Mahajanapadas were either monarchical or republican in their
political organization. The monarchies were mainly found in the Gangetic Plains while the
republics were situated around the foothills of the Himalayas and in the north-western
India in modern Punjab.
The sixteen Mahajanapadas enumerated in the Anguttara Nikaya are – (1) Anga, (2)
Magadha, (3) Kasi, (4) Kosala, (5) Yajji, (6) Malla, (7) Chhedi, (8) Yamsa, (9) Kuru, (10)
Pancala, (11) Maccha, (12) Surasena, (13) Assaka, (14) Avanti, (l5)Gandhara (16) Kamboja.

Monarchies
Kashi
 Of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Kashi was probably the first and the most powerful in
the beginning.
 It seemed to have emerged as a major town around 450 BCE. Its capital was at Varanasi.
 It was famous for cotton textiles and market for horses. It perhaps played an important
part in the subversion of the Videhan monarchy.
 Ancient Kashi was bound by river Varuna in the north and river Assi in the south.
 Kashi was in constant conflict with the kingdoms of Kosala, Magadha, and Anga. Though
Kosala was once defeated by Kashi, it was later annexed by Kosala. Subsequently, it
was annexed by Ajatasatru to Magadha.

38
Kosala
 The Shatpath Brahman gives a description of Kosala Mahajanapadas. With its capital
at Shravasti, it was located in the north west of Magadha, around the area occupied
by present eastern Uttar Pradesh.
 On the west, Kosala was bound by the river Gomati, on the southern side by the river
Sarpika or Syandika, on the east by the Sadanira (Gandak) which separated it from
Videha and on the north by the Nepal hills.
 Ayodhya, Saketa and Shravasti were three important Kosalan cities. The kings of Kosala
favoured Brahmanism and Buddhism.
 Prasenjit, the Kosalan king was the contemporary of king Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of
Magadha. Prasenjit’s sister was married to Bimbisara, the king of Magadha, and Kashi
was given to her as dowry. However, a dispute with Ajatasatru, son of Bimbisara soon
led to discord. Ajatasatru put his father to death, whose wife, sister of Prasenjit, died
due to grief. Prasenjit, in retaliation, confiscated Kashi.
 A war broke out between both sides and the conflict finally ended with reconciliation.
Prasenjit’s daughter Vajjira was married to Ajatasatru and Kashi was given as dowry
to the bride.
 Though Prasenjit did not embrace Buddhism, one of the Bharhut sculptures highlights
cordiality between Prasenjit and Buddha.
 Finally, Kosala was annexed by Magadha during Ajatasatru’s reign after the death
of Prasenjit.
 Koshala also included the tribal republican territory of the Sakyas of Kapilvastu. The
capital of Kapilvastu is identified with Piprahwa in Basti district, which is situated at
a distance of 15 km from Lumbini in Nepal (another capital of the Sakyas and also the
birthplace of Gautam Buddha).

Anga
 The Anga country was very ancient as is evident from the reference made to it in the
ancient Brahmanical works like the Aitareya Brahmana, the Mahabharata, the Puranas,
the Ramayana.
 Anga was located in the east of Magadha and west of Raj Mahal hills. It had its capital
at Champa. It roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur.
 It was noted for its wealth and commerce and its merchants regularly visited
Suvarnabhumi.
 It was annexed to Magadha during the times of Bimbisara and it was the only conquest
of Bimbisara.

Magadha
 The name Magadha first appears in the Atharvaveda. One of the most prominent
Mahajanapadas, It was located between Anga and Vatsa. It corresponds roughly to
modern Patna and Gaya districts of Bihar and eastern parts of Bengal.
 It was bounded on the north and west by the rivers Ganga and Son, on the south by
the Vindhyas outcrop and on the east by the river Champa.
 Rajagriha or Girivraja, protected by five hills, was the early Magadhan capital. Later
the capital was shifted to Pataliputra.

39
 The earliest dynasty of Magadha was founded by Brihadratha. However, Magadha came
into prominence under Bimbisasra and Ajatsatru.
 Magadha had the republic of the Licchavis as neighbour and the Ganges formed the
boundary between these two countries. During the reign of Ajatasatru Magadha also
came in conflict with the Vajjis.
 At the ancient site of Pataliputra was Pataligama where the ministers of Ajatasattu
built a fort to repel the Vajjjis.
 The ancient city of Giribbaja was encircled by the five hills of fame – Isigili, Vepulla,
Yebhara, Pandava and Gijjhkuta.

Vatsa
 The Vatsa appears to be one from the Rig Vedic period. It is said to be an offshoot of
the Kurus, who shifted from Hastinapur and settled in Kaushambi.
 Vatsa kingdom corresponds to the modern districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur in UP.
Its capital was Kaushambi (near Allahabad).
 Kaushambi, a very prosperous city and was the most important entry point of goods
and passengers from the south and the west.
 Udayana, the ruler of this country in the sixth century BCE, had to struggle against
king Ajatasatru of Magadha and king Pradyota of Avanti. Udayana entered into a
matrimonial alliance with the king of Magadha. The ruler of Avanti invaded Kaushambi
but he was unsuccessful in his attempt. He had to marry his daughter to Udayana.
 In the Pali Buddhist literature, king Udayana of the Vatsas is said to have been a
contemporary of the Buddha. In the beginning, Udayana was opposed to Buddhism,
but later on he became a follower of the Buddha and made Buddhism the state religion.
Later, during the reign of Palaka, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti kingdom.

Avanti
 The kingdom of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa. Initially Ujjayini was
the capital of northern Avanti and Mahissmati was the capital of Southern Avanti. Later
Ujjayini or modern Ujjain became the capital of integrated Avanti.
 The river Betravati divided Avanti into north and south.
 The ruler of Avanti during the time of the Buddha was Chanda Pradyota. He was a
contemporary of Udayana of Kaushambi. Although he was given the name of ‘Chanda’
on account of his ferocity, he became a convert to Buddhism.
 Avanti became a very important centre of Buddhism. The kingdom of Avanti was finally
annexed to the Magadhan Empire by Sishunaga.

Gandhara
 The state of Gandhara roughly corresponded to modern Kashmir and extended upto
the Kabul valley.
 Its capital was at Taxila which was a famous seat of learning. Panini and Kautilya were
the disciples as well as teachers of Taxila university. The scholars came from all over
the world to Taxila.
 Located on the Uttarapatha, it was a centre of commercial activities.
 According to the Buddhist tradition, the Gandhara King Pukkusati exchanged gifts
with Bimbisara in Magadha and went on foot to see the Buddha.

40
 Later, it formed the twentieth province of the Achaemenid Empire (Persian) according
to the Greek historian, Herodotus.

Kamboja
 It was the country adjoining Gandhara in the extreme North-West with Dwarka as its
capital. Kamboja is constantly associated with Gandhara in literature and inscriptions.
They are referred to in Yaska’s Nirukta. Asoka’s edicts refer to Kamboja along with Yona
as frontier provinces.
 Around little before 530 BCE, it fell prey to the attack of Cyrus, the Achaemenid emperor
of Persia. Cyrus I is said to have destroyed the Kamboja city of Kapisi (modern Begram).
 During Kautilya’s time, Kamboja transformed from a monarchy to a republic.
 The horses of Kamboja were famous throughout all periods of Indian history. Sumangala-
vilasini describes Kamboja as the home for horses.

Matsya
 The Matsyas appear to have been one of the prominent Ksatriya tribes that made up
the Vedic Aryan people in the earliest period of their residence in India.
 A hymn in the Rigveda refers to the Matsyas who were attacked by Turvasa, a famous
king. The Satapatha Brahmana, the Kausitaki Upanisad, the Mahabharata, the
Padmapurana, the Visnudharmottara Mahapurana and other texts mention the Matsyas
or the Matsya kingdom.
 With their capital at Viratnagar, the Matsya country corresponded roughly to the former
state of Jaipur in Rajasthan. It included the whole of the modern territory of Alwar with
a portion of Bhagalpur.

Kurus
 The Kurus formed one of the most ancient and prominent of the Indo-Aryan Ksatriya
tribes. With their capital at Hastinapur, Kuru country roughly corresponded to the
modern Delhi and the adjoining doab region.
 It was the most important kingdom of the later Vedic period, but during the sixth
century BCE, the Kurus did not occupy the same position.

Panchala
 The Panchala Mahajanapada was located in the Rohilkhand and parts of Central Doab
(modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun, Aligarh etc.).
 The Pancala country was divided into two regions, northern Panchala and southern
Panchala. The Mahabharata and the Jatakas bear testimony to this fact. The northern
or Uttara-Panchalas had their capital at Ahicchatra (Bareilly district of UP) while
southern or Dakshina–Panchalas had Kampilya as their capital.
 Famous city of Kannauj was located in the kingdom of Panchala.
 It had a large army consisting of foot soldiers, men skilful in fight and in the use of
steel weapons. Panchalas had become obscure by the 6th century BCE.

Chedi (Cheti)
 The kingdom of the Chedis corresponded roughly to the eastern parts of Bundelkhand
and adjoining areas. Its capital was at Sotthivati (Suktimati), probably in Banda district
of MP.

41
 The Chedi formed one of the most ancient tribes among the Ksatriyas in early Vedic
times. The country of the Chedi lay near the Yamuna, contiguous to that of the Kurus.
 It was closely connected with the Matsya and Kashi. The Mahabharata gives its Sanskrit
name Suktimati or Suktisahvaya.

Surasena
 The Surasenas had their capital at Mathura on the bank of the river Yamuna. Mathura
was located at the junction of two famous ancient Indian trade routes i.e. the Uttarapatha
and the Daksinapatha.
 But owing to the weak political structure and varied landscape, the chiefs of this area
could not carve out a powerful kingdom.
 The Mahabharata enumerates a number of people in a list which includes the Surasenas
along with the Salvas, Kuru-Panchalas and other neighbouring tribes. The Ramayana
places Surasena among the northern countries. The Buddhist texts speak of Madhura
or Mathura which was the capital of Surasena.

Republics (Gana–Sanghas)
Vajjis (Vrijji)
 It is said to be a confederacy of eight clans (Atthakula) such as Videhas, the Lichchhavis,
the Jnatrikas, etc. The Videhas had their capital at Mithila. The Lichchhavis had their
capital at Vaishali.
 The Vajji territory lay north of the Ganga and stretched as far as the Nepal hills in
Bihar. Its western limit was the river Gandak, which separated it from the Malla and
Kosalan cities. In the east, it extended up to the banks of the river Koshi and Mahananda.
 In all likelihood, the Vajji confederation was organised after the decline and fall of the
Videhan monarchy and was a republican state at the time of Mahavira and
Gautama Buddha.
 Ajatasatru, the Magadhan king is supposed to have destroyed this confederacy.

Mallas
 The territory of the Mallas was divided into two parts, each having its own capital. The
two capital cities were Kushinara (identified with Kasia in the Gorakhpur district), and
Pava (modern Padrauna).
 These two cities are of much importance in both Buddhism and Jainism. Buddha took
his last breath at Kusinagara, whereas Mahavira at Pawapuri.

Asmaka (Assaka)
 The kingdom of Assaka (Asmaka) was situated near the river Godavari with its capital
at Patali or Potna in present Maharashtra.
 The Buddhist texts contain occasional references to this mahajanapada. The Anguttara
Nikaya says that it had an abundance of food and gems and was wealthy and prosperous.
It became commercially important in the course of time.

42
Republics and Monarchies
Republics (Gana-Sanghas)
The compound term Gana-Sangha has a connotation of Gana – those claiming equal
status and Sangha (an assembly). The kingdoms or the monarchies generally practised
orthodox traditions, but the gana-sanghas practised more or less egalitarian traditions at
least among the ruling clans. Some gana-sanghas consisted of a single clan, such as the
Shakyas, Koliyas, and Mallas while others had many clans, such as Vrijjis and Vrishnis.
Some of the characteristics of gana-sanghas are:

Location
 Spread in the foothills of the Himalayas and in the North-west India, they generally
occupied the hilly and less fertile areas. But agriculture was the main source of income
of the gana-sanghas of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
 They were mainly concentrated in wet rice producing areas. Cattle rearing was not a
much important occupation except in the areas of Punjab and Doab.
 The gana-sanghas ruled over a small geographical area. Gana-Sangha can be seen as
a proto state.

Polity
 The heads of families of a clan governed the territory through an assembly. In some
cases, a few clans formed a confederacy, where the chiefs of all the clans constituted
an assembly to govern the territory of the confederate clans. Other members of the
communities had no right of governance.
 The actual procedure of governance involved the meeting of the assembly, located in a
main city. The assembly used to put a matter to an elaborate discussion to come to a
decision. On the non resolution of the matter after discussion, the issue was put to
vote and the opinion of the majority was taken into consideration.
 The assembly was presided over by the head of the clan. This office was not hereditary.
There were members to assist the head of clan in carrying out administrative functions
such as treasurers, commanders etc.
 The gana-sanghas with their egalitarian character were less opposed to individualistic
and independent opinion than the kingdoms and were more ready to tolerate unorthodox
views.
 Criminals had to face an elaborate judicial process from a hierarchy of officials.
 However, the pattern of government followed by the gana-sanghas was not that of a
democracy, but that of an oligarchy as power was vested in the hands of ruling families.

Society
 Since power was diffused in gana-sanghas unlike that of kingdoms, the stratification
of society was limited and ramifications of administration and coercive authority was
not extensive.
 The Gana-sanghas had two strata:
 The Kshatriya rajakula or ruling families, and
 The dasa-karmakara or the slaves and labourers.

43
UNIT:-21 MAURYAN PERIOD
 MAURYAN EMPIRE – RISE OF THE MAURYAS

Vacuum created by Alexander’s destruction of the tribal republics in Punjab and

neighboring regions gave opportunity to Chandragupta Maurya.

SOURCES OF MAURYAN EMPIRE

LITERARY of MAURYAN EMPIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL of MAURYAN EMPIRE
 Megasthenes’ ‘Indika’,
 Punch marked coins, Northern Black
 Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’,
Polished Ware (NBPW)
 Visakha Datta’s ‘Mudra Rakshasa’
 Wooden Palace of Chandragupta
 Dharmashastra texts, Puranas
Maurya in Pataliputra
 Buddhist Text (Jatak Stories,
 Ashokan inscriptions and Edicts
Deepvamsa, Mahavamsa, Divyavadan)

 Founder of Mauryan Empire -Chandragupta Maurya

 Chandraupta or Sandrokottos (as he is referred to in Greek literature)
launched a series of wars against Dhananand and also liberated the country from
Greek rule.
 He laid the foundation of the Mauryan empire in 322 BC with help of
Chanakya (Kautilya).
 After conquering the region between Beas and Bay of Bengal, Chandragupta
launched expeditions throughout the country and included territories of Andhra,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujrat and Central regions to Mauryan empire. Thus,
the credit of first unification of North India is attributed to Chandragupta
Maurya.
 In 305 BC, Chandragupta defeated Seleucas Nikator, the Greek empire after
Alexander.
 Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador, was sent by Seleucus in the Chandragupta
Maurya court.
 According to Jaina sources, Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end
of his life and abdicated the throne in favour of his son.
 Accompanied by Bhadrabahu, a Jaina saint, he went to Shravanabelagola
(Karnataka), where he died by slow starvation (Salekhan).

Shravanabelagola is a famous Jain pilgrimage center as the statue of Gomateshwar, son

of Rishabnath in Kayotsarga Mudra is situated here.

 SECOND RULER OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE – BINDUSARA

 Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, known to the Greeks

as Amitrochates (Sanskrit, Amitraghata = the destroyer of foes). Madrasar,
Simhasena are other names used for Bindusara.
 Bindusara followed the extreme fatalistic order (religion) ‘Ajivika’ founded by
Makhali Gosala. This order had complete disregard for ‘karma’.
 Bindusara maintained good diplomatic relations with Antiochus I, the Seleucid king
of Syria. Antiochus sent Deimachus as ambassador to the Bindusara’s court.
  Bindusara requested Antiochus to send him some sweet wine, dried figs and a
Sophist (philosopher); the last being not meant for export, was not sent.
 Tibetan Buddhist monk Taranatha describes Bindusara as “conqueror of the land
between two seas”e., peninsular India.
 Divyavadan, Buddhist biographical narrative of Mauryan Kings, mentions a revolt at
Taxila being suppressed by Ashoka, the son of Bindusara; who was ‘Kumara’ or
viceroy of Ujjain at that time.

 THIRD RULER OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE – ASHOKA

 Eliminating other claimants, Ashoka was crowned to the throne in 269 BC.
Radhagupta, helped Ashoka in usurping the throne.
 8 years after coronation, Ashoka fought the horrible Kalinga War in 261 BC.
 Ashoka was moved by the untold miseries caused by the war, renouncing conquest
by warfare, in favour of cultural conquest. In other words, Bherighosha was replaced
with Dhammaghosha.
 Later on, he became Buddhist under the guidance of Mogaliputta Tissa.
 Mogaliputta Tissa presided over the 3rd Buddhist Council held in 250 BC at
Pataliputra.
 He sent missionaries for propagation of Buddhism to Sri Lanka, south Indian states,
Burma, Central Asia etc. He also sent ambassadors of peace to Greek Kingdoms &
Greece
 Ashoka was not an extreme pacifist – He retained Kalinga and incorporated it into
his kingdom; he also didn’t disband the army.
 Under Ashoka, almost entire subcontinent came under single control except extreme
south: Uttarapatha (Taxila), Avantirashtra (Ujjain), Prachi (Pataliputra), Kalinga
(Toshali) and Dakshinpatha (Suvarnagiri) were important provinces.

 Use of iron tools, diversified agriculture production, immense increase

in agriculture land and irrigation facilities contributed to growth of Mauryan
economy.
 Occurrences of famines are also reported in kautilya’s arthashastra and
Jaina texts.
 Sohgaura copper plate inscription & Mahasthana inscription deal with the
relief measures to be adopted during a famine.
 Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale.
 The normal taxation rate was one sixth of the produce.
MAURYAN ECONOMY
 Crown land was called “Sita”
 The Mauryan Empire had a strict legal and penal system (civil and
criminal); tax evaders attracted the death penalty.
 punch-marked coins (mostly silver) were used for transactions.
 Money was used not only for trade; the government paid its officers in cash.
 Salaries were in the range of 48,000 panas to 60 panas a year.
 Hired laborers were called ‘karmakaras’.
 There was state monopoly of mining, forest, salt, sale of liquor, manufacture
of arms and metallurgy.
 Society was clearly divided into a four-fold Varna system, slavery (dasas)
MAURYAN SOCIETY
existed in the society.
  Society was divided into a number of castes and sub-castes which were
generally based on some profession or occupation.
 ‘Varna- Shankar Vivah’ or inter-varna or inter-caste marriages too are
reported; these were of two kinds, namely, ‘Anulom’ (groom of higher
varna/caste) and ‘Pratilom’ (bride of higher varna/caste).
 While Kautilya mentions 9 categories of slaves, Megasthenes reports its
absence. Megasthenes also talks about 7-fold social divisions.
 As per the Jataka tales untouchables like Chanadala, Nishad, Shabar etc.
existed and were treated inhumanely.
 Women’s position in society deteriorated severely: widow remarriage
stopped, the institution of ‘ganikas’ (prostitution) expanded.
 Most artisans were shudras, yet, they were worst paid and subjected to
forced labour (vishti).
 Ashoka was a Buddhist but he also promoted a few principles of morality
known as ‘Dhamma’. The 4-cardinal points of Dhamma included: Tolerance,
Non-violence, Good Conduct (Obeying parents and elders, respecting
Brahmanas and Monks) & Welfare.
 A new officer called ‘Dhammamahamatra’ was appointed for promotion of
DHAMMA OF ASHOKA
‘Dhamma’.
 Sanghmitra, daughter of Ashoka, was sent to Tamrparni (Sri Lanka) for
conversion of women in Sri Lanka to Buddhism.
 Ashoka’s Dhamma cannot be regarded as sectarian faith. His teachings were
intended to maintain the existing order on the basis of tolerance.
 They are the most important source of history of the Mauryan period.
Depending upon their size they are categorized as follows:
 Major and minor rock edicts (16 and 2 respectively)
 Major and minor pillar edicts (17 and 3 respectively)
 These are reported from places like Meerut, Topara, Kaushambi, Sanchi,
Sarnath, Lauriya Nandgarh, Lauriya Araraj, Rampur and Lumbini (Nepal) in
and around the Ganga Valley.
 The national emblem of India is taken from the Ashoka’s Sarnath Pillar.
ASHOKAN EDICTS AND
 Name of Ashoka occurs only on minor rock edicts. He was the first king to
INSCRIPTIONS
speak to people directly through inscriptions.
 Mainly inscribed in Prakrit Language and Brahmi script.
 Inscriptions from Mansehra and Shahbajgarhi in Pakistan are in Prakrit
language but in Kharosthi script.
 Kandhar Inscriptions is bilingual, it uses Greek and Aramaic languages and
scripts.
 The Mauryan Empire was divided into 5 provinces -Uttarapatha,
Avantipatha, Prachyapatha, Dakshinapatha and Magadha.
 Mauryan Empire had a huge army & had maintained a navy.
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION:
 King was the nucleus and was assisted by Mantri Parishad – Yuvraj,
MAURYAN
Purohita, Senapati and others.
ADMINISTRATION
 Highest officers were called ‘tirthas’ and Adhyakshas (superintendents)
managed 26 departments.
IMPORTANT OFFICIALS:
 Mantri – Chief Minister
 Mantriparishad Adhyaksha – Head of Council Of Minister
  Purohita – Chief priest
 Senapati – Commander-In-Chief
 Yuvaraj – Crown Prince
 Samaharta – Revenue Collector
 Shulkadhyaksha – Officer-In-Charge of Royal Income
 Spies (gudhapurushas) and informers (prativedakas) played an important
role.
LOCAL ADMINISTRATION:
 The Mauryan Empire also had local and municipal administration; ‘Vish’or
‘Ahara’ (districts) were the units of a province.
 Megasthenese’s account mentions 6 committees of five members each for
administering the municipalities.
IMPORTANT OFFICERS:
 Sitadhyaksha – Supervised agriculture
 Panyadhyaksha -Superintendent of Commerce
 Yukta – Subordinate Revenue Officer
 Prasdesika – Chief revenue officer.
 Sthanika – Head of local administration. worked under Preadesika.
 Rajuka – Revenue settlement officer
 Samsthadhyaksha – Superintendent of market
 Pauthavadhyaksha – Superintendent of weight & measure.
 Navaadhyaksha – Superintendent of ships.
 Sulkaadhyaksha – Collector of tolls
VILLAGE LEVEL OFFICERS:
 Gramika – The head of the village. It was an elected body.
 Gramvriddhas – panchayat consist of Village elders to settle disputes.
 Sudarshan lake was constructed during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya
in Girnar Hill in Gujrat.
 Tamralipti (Tamlook in Midnapur, WB) in the east and Bharuch/
Broach/Barygaza (Gujrat) in the west were two important ports.
 Huge army and Navy were maintained in which all the 4 varnas were
allowed to serve.
 Raja (the king), Mitra (Friend), Durg (fort), Amatya (the
secretaries), Janapada (territory), Kosha (the treasure), Sena (Army) were
the 7 elements of states of Kautilya’s Saptanga theory.

 Decline Of The Mauryan Empire:

 Over-centralisation, cumbersome bureaucracy, super heavy taxation (on almost

every activity) and foreign invasions were main factors of decline.
 Neglect of the North-West frontier and construction of the great wall of China.
 Financial Crisis- Ashoka incurred huge expenditure for promotion of his ‘Dhamma
Mission’.
 Over-tolerant, non-violent attitude killed the fighting spirit of the army.
 After Ashoka’s death in 232 BC Mauryan Empire were incompetent and oppressive.
 Pushyamitra Shunga, a Mauryan Empire army commander, killed the last Mauryan
Empire Brihadrath and founded the Shunga Dynasty in 187 BC.
 Brhamins, annoyed by Ashoka for banning rituals, supported Pushyamitra Shunga
who was a Brahmin.
 Pushyamitra shunga overthrew the Mauryan king and established the Shunga
dynasty.

OR
 Mauryan Empire – Rise of the Mauryas
 The last of the Nanda rulers, Dhana Nanda was highly unpopular due to his
oppressive tax regime.
 Also, post-Alexander’s invasion of North-Western India, that region faced a lot of
unrest from foreign powers.
 Some of these regions came under the rule of the Seleucid Dynasty, founded by
Seleucus Nicator I. He was one of the generals of Alexander the Great.
 Chandragupta, with the help of an intelligent and politically astute Brahmin, Kautilya
usurped the throne by defeating Dhana Nanda in 321 BC.

 Important Rulers of Mauryan Empire

The Mauryan Empire had rulers who were famous for their reign. The table below gives
the list of Mauryan Empire rulers:

Mauryan Empires – Rulers

Chandragupta Maurya (324/321- 297 B.C.)

Bindusara (297 – 272 B.C.)

Asoka (268 – 232 B.C.)

 Founder of Mauryan Empire – Chandragupta Maurya

 Chandragupta’s origins are shrouded in mystery. The Greek sources (which are the
oldest) mention him to be of non-warrior lineage. The Hindu sources also say he was
a student of Kautilya of humble birth (probably born to a Shudra woman). Most
Buddhist sources say he was a Kshatriya.
 It is generally accepted that he was an orphaned boy born into a humble family who
was trained by Kautilya.
 Greek accounts mention him as Sandrokottos.
 Alexander had abandoned his India conquest in 324 BC and within a year,
Chandragupta had defeated some of the Greek-ruled cities in the north-western part
of the country.
 Kautilya provided the strategy while Chandragupta executed it. They had raised a
mercenary army of their own.
 Then, they moved eastward into Magadha.
 In a series of battles, he defeated Dhana Nanda and laid the foundations of the
Maurya Empire in about 321 BC.
 In 305 BC, he entered into a treaty with Seleucus Nicator in which Chandragupta
acquired Baluchistan, eastern Afghanistan and the region to the west of Indus. He
also married Seleucus Nicator’s daughter. In return, Seleucus Nicator got 500
elephants. Seleucus Nicator avoided a full-scale war with the mighty Chandragupta
and in return got war assets that would lead him to victory against his rivals in the
Battle of Ipsus, fought in 301 BC
 Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador at Chandragupta’s court.
 Chandragupta led a policy of expansion and brought under one control almost the
whole of present India barring a few places like Kalinga and the extreme South.
 His reign lasted from 321 BC to 297 BC.
 He abdicated the throne in favour of his son, Bindusara, and went to Karnataka with
Jain monk Bhadrabahu. He had embraced Jainism and is said to have starved himself
to death according to the Jain tradition at Shravanabelagola.

 Second Ruler of the Mauryan Empire – Bindusara

 Son of Chandragupta.
 He ruled from 297 BC to 273 BC.
 Also called Amitraghata (Slayer of foes) or Amitrochates in Greek sources.
 Deimachus was a Greek ambassador at his court.
 He had appointed his son, Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain.
 Bindusara is believed to have extended the Mauryan Empire to Mysore as well.

 Chanakya

 Teacher of Chandragupta Maurya, who was also his Chief Minister.

 He was a teacher and scholar at Taxila. Other names are Vishnugupta and Kautilya.
 He was also a minister in the court of Bindusara.
 He is credited to be the master strategist behind the usurping of the Nanda throne
and the rise of the Mauryan Empire through his student, Chandragupta.
 He wrote Arthashastra which is a treatise on statecraft, economics, and military
strategy.
 Arthashastra was rediscovered by R Shamasastry in 1905 after it had disappeared in
the 12th century.
 The work contains 15 books and 180 chapters. The main theme is divided into:
o King, Council of Ministers and Departments of the Government
o Civil and criminal law
o Diplomacy of war
 It also contains information on trade and markets, a method to screen ministers,
spies, duties of a king, ethics, social welfare, agriculture, mining, metallurgy,
medicine, forests, etc.
 Chanakya is also called ‘Indian Machiavelli”.
UNIT:-22 POST-MAURYAN PERIOD
The Post Mauryan Period between the fall of the Mauryas and the rise of the Guptas
(2nd century BC to 3rd century AD), saw significant developments in the Indian
subcontinent, which were characterised by changes in the subcontinent's political
structure and the introduction of new elements in art, architecture, and religion.

The Mauryan Empire ruled over a large portion of the Indian subcontinent, including
modern-day Afghanistan's Kandahar. The Mauryan Empire came to an end around 187
BC. The disintegration of the Mauryan empire resulted in the rise of numerous regional
kingdoms and at the same time, various groups of people from Central Asia and western
China invaded India which forms part of the Post Mauryan Period.

 Political History during Post Mauryan Period

Following Asoka's death, his successors were unable to maintain the huge Mauryan
Empire. The subsequent rulers were relatively weak and lacked the same level of
administrative and military capabilities as their predecessors.

 The provinces started declaring their independence.

 The Mauryas lost control of northwest India, and the region was subjected to a
series of foreign invasions.
 Kalinga declared its independence, and the Satavahanas established their
independent rule further south.
 The religious policy of the Mauryas angered the Shungas, who were staunch
followers of Brahmanism.
 Thus, Mauryan rule was confined to the Gangetic Valley, and it was soon replaced
by the Sunga dynasty.

 Shunga Dynasty
Shunga Dynasty

Period: 185 BC - 73 BC Capital: Pataliputra and Vidisha

- It was founded by Pushyamitra Shunga by assassinating the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha.

- They ruled over northwestern and central India and up to the Narmada in the south.

- They protected the Gangetic Valley from incursions from outside forces.

- He led a campaign against Kalinga kingKharavela.

- He ran a number of campaigns against the Indo-Greeks known as

Yavanas, who were attempting to invade northwest India from
Bactria during this time.

- He performed Ashvamedha to legitimise his right to

Pushyamitra Shunga
rule. Dhandeva's Ayodhya Inscription mentions him performing
two Ashwamedha Yagyas.
(185 – 149 BCE)
- Although he was an ardent adherent to orthodox Hinduism, he
renovated the Buddhist Stupa in Bharhut.

- Contemporary to Patanjali (author of Mahabhasya)

- His history was recorded in Banabhatta’s Harshacharita.

Agnimitra - “Malvikagnimitra”, a Sanskrit drama written by Kalidasa, is

related to him and is based on the love between Vidharbha
(149 – 141 BC) princess Malvika and Sunga king Agnimitra.

- Vasumitra, Vajramitra, Bhagabhadra, Devabhuti (Last ruler).

Other Rulers
- Devabhuti, the last ruler of the Shunga dynasty, was assassinated
by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, thus ending the Shunga empire.

Administration of Shungas

- The Mauryan administration in the provinces through royal princes continued, and royal authority tended to
diffuse through the emergence of nuclear kingdoms.

- Royal power tended to decentralise in the form of the establishment of nuclear kingdoms within the empire.

- The empire was divided into provinces. The provinces were further divided into districts or Janapadas.

- The head of the administration was the king, who was assisted by a council of ministers (Mantriparishad). The
king was responsible for the overall administration of the empire and was advised by the council of ministers on
matters of policy and governance.

Contribution of Shungas to Art, Architecture and Literature

Bharhut Stupa (place)
- Discovered by Cunninghum.

- Originally built by Ashoka but enlarged and renovated during the

Shunga period in the mid-2nd century BC.

- Situated in Satna district of Madhya Pradesh.

- It is important for its sculptures. Red stone was used to make the
railings.

- It represents the beginning of a Buddhist narrative relief and

decoration tradition for holy structures. E.g. Queen Mayadevi’s
dream and depiction of Ruru Jataka.

Sanchi Stupa (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh) - Discovered by General Taylor.

- Originally built by Ashoka but enlarged and renovated during the

Shunga period (2nd century BC).

- Situated in the trading route of Dakshinapatha.

- Known for the lavish carvings on its decorated gateways /torans

built during Satavahanas.

- Figurines in Sanchi, though small, are very naturalistic.

- Jataka stories are an important part of the narratives.

Heliodorus Pillar (near Vidisha, Madhya

Pradesh)

- Stone column erected by Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador to

the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra, around 150BC

- Erected in honour of the god Vasudeva.

- The inscription on the Pillar became famous as the Besnagar

Inscription.

- It reveals that the Shungas continued the Maurya tradition of

entertaining ambassadors from the Greek court.
  Kanva Dynasty

Kanva Dynasty

Period: 73 BC-28 BC Capital: Pataliputra and Vidisha

- It was founded by Vasudeva Kanva (minister of Shunga King Devabhuti), who killed the last Shunga
ruler Devabhuti.

- Bana, the 7th-century Sanskrit author, gives details of an assassination plot that cost Devabhuti
(Devabhumi) his life and brought Vasudeva to power in about 72 BCE.

- They were Brahmins and are considered descendants of Sage Saubhari.

- Rulers after Vasudeva: Bhumimitra, Narayana, Susharman (last king).

- Coins with the legend Bhumimitra have been found in the Panchala kingdom.

- It ruled for a very short period. Susharman, the last Kanva ruler, was assassinated by Balipuccha of the
Andhra dynasty.
  Chedi Dynasty

Chedi Dynasty

Period: 1st century BCE Capital: Suktimati-Puri

- Founded by King Abhichandra in Kalinga around the 1st century BC, with Suktimati-Puri as its capital on the
banks of the Suktimati river.

- Also known as Cheta or Mahameghavahana, or Chetavamsa.

- After Ashoka, Kalinga (present-day Orissa) became prominent under the kings of the Chedi dynasty.

- Except for Kharavela, there is no information on the dynasty's kings.

- Ruled approximately around the first century BCE.

- His achievements are recorded in

the Hathigumpha inscription, situated in
the Udayagiri hills near Bhuvaneshvar in Orissa.
King Kharvela
- A follower of Jainism.

- Succeeded by his son Kudepasiri, who is

mentioned in an inscription found in the Mancapuri
Cave.

Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves (Odisha) - Made in the first or second century BC close to the
present-day Bhubaneswar under the Kalinga King
Kharavela.

- Has both artificial and natural caves (possibly

carved out as residence of Jain monks).

- Famous for the Hathigumpha inscription, carved

out in Brahmi script, which starts out with “Jain
Namokar Mantra” and highlights various military
campaigns undertaken by King Kharavela.

- The double-storey Ranigumpha cave in Udayagiri

is home to some exquisite sculptures.

 Art and Architecture of Post Mauryan Period

The art of the Post Mauryan Period started reflecting the changing socio-political
scenario as well. The architecture of rock-cut caves and stupas proceeded, with each
dynasty introducing its own distinctive features. Similarly, various schools of sculpture
arose, and the art of sculpture reached its pinnacle in the post-Mauryan period.
 Development of Stupas: Stupas are Buddhist commemorative monuments usually
housing sacred relics associated with the Buddha or other saintly persons.
o Three prominent stupas from this period can be found in Bharhut and Sanchi
(both in Madhya Pradesh), which were originally constructed by Ashoka but
later expanded, as well as Amravati and Nagarjunkonda (both in Andhra
Pradesh).
o Stupas became larger and more decorative in the Post Mauryan period. Stone
was increasingly used in place of wood and brick.
o The Shunga dynasty introduced the idea of torans as beautifully decorated
gateways to the stupas.
 Early Temples Architecture:
 During this time, Brahmanical temples and images of gods began to be built.
 Myths mentioned in the Puranas were incorporated into the narrative
representation of Brahmanical religion.
 Temples were decorated with the images of gods.Each temple had an image of a
Chief Deity. These temples are basic structures that include a hall, a veranda, and a
shrine in the back.
 Important temple sites of this period: Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, Eran, Nachna-
Kuthara and Udayagiri near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh.
 There were three types of temple shrines: Sandhara type (without
pradikshinapatha), Nirandhara type (with pradakshina patha)
and Sarvatobhadra (accessible from all sides).

 Religion and Society of Post-Mauryan Period

Religion and society during the post-Mauryan period witnessed the following changes.

 Rise of Brahmanism: People in the post-Mauryan period practised Vedic religion,

Buddhism, and Jainism. However, Brahmanism experienced a resurgence under
Shunga's rule. There was an increase in rituals such as Ashwamedha and Rajasuya.
o Stories of Pushyamitra's brutality and hostility against Buddhism are described
in the Divyavadana.
 Varna system: During the post-Mauryan period, the four-fold varna system was
also revived. Thus, the social structure became rigid as the fourfold varna system
was strengthened. The dominance of priests and the ruling class was strengthened,
while the conditions of Shudras remained unchanged.
 Position of women: Women's position in society was generally limited to domestic
roles, and they were expected to follow strict codes of conduct as mentioned in
the Manusmriti.
 Cultural expanse: It was the period of the emergence of various mixed castes and
the integration of foreigners into Indian society.

 Language and Literature of the Post-Mauryan Period

The Post-Mauryan period was significant for the development of Sanskrit for religious,
philosophical, and literary works.

 Sanskrit became more popular during this period and was used to write Buddhist
texts also.
 o Patanjali: His important works include: Yoga Sutras (a collection of Sanskrit
sutras (aphorisms) on the theory and practice of yoga), Mahabhasya (an ancient
treatise on Sanskrit grammar and linguistics) and Patanjali Tantra (medical
text).
 The Sanskrit language was written using the variant version of Brahmi script. It is
believed that the writing serves as a link between the Kalinga Brahmi script and the
Maurya script.

 Trade and Commerce in Post Mauryan Period

The Post Mauryan period witnessed the flourishment of commerce and crafts in ancient
India and the growth of internal and external trade and commerce.

 Craft and commerce:Jyestha was the head of the guild of artisans. Mathura was
famous for the production of shataka, a unique kind of cloth.
o Merchant class: During this period, trade flourished and resulted in the rise of
many types of merchant guilds.
o Shreshti led the merchant guild (shreni), while Sarthavaha led the sartha
(mobile or caravan trading corporation). Vanijgramo was the head of the
corporation of merchants.
 Trade routes:
o Uttarapatha was the internal trade land route connecting northern and eastern
parts of India with the northwestern areas.
o Dakshinapatha was the trade land route connecting peninsular India with the
western and northern parts of India.
 Discovery of monsoon: Discovery of monsoon led to the development of external
trade.
 Export of spices to the Romans and import of gold and silver from Romans was
common.

Around the same time, 200 BCE, there were invasions from Central Asia and western
China. Among these were the Indo-Greeks, Scythians or Shakas, Parthiansor Pahlavas,
and Kushanas. These invasions not only altered the political structure of northwestern
India but also contributed to the transmission and transformation of cultural
elements from both India and the Central Asian region.

OR
Post Mauryan Age
The Post-Mauryan Age, also known as the “Middle Period” in Indian history, spans from
around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. This era marked a significant
transitional period following the decline of the Mauryan Empire. During this time, India
witnessed the emergence of several powerful regional kingdoms, each vying for
supremacy and contributing to the diverse cultural and political landscape of the
subcontinent. One of the most prominent dynasties of this era was the Shunga dynasty,
which ruled the northern part of India after the Mauryan decline. The Shungas
promoted Buddhism and made significant contributions to the development of Indian
art and architecture, particularly the creation of exquisite Stupas. Another important
 dynasty was the Satavahanas in the Deccan region, known for their maritime trade and
cultural influence.

The Post-Mauryan Age also saw the consolidation of the Indo-Greek kingdoms in
northwestern India, which resulted in a rich exchange of Hellenistic and Indian culture.
Furthermore, the region witnessed the rise of indigenous empires like the Kushanas,
who played a crucial role in facilitating trade along the Silk Road and the spread of
Buddhism to Central Asia. The Gupta dynasty, which emerged in the 4th century CE, is
often seen as the culmination of this period, characterized by significant cultural
achievements, including advances in mathematics, astronomy, and art. Overall, the Post-
Mauryan Age was marked by dynamic political shifts and cultural interactions, setting
the stage for subsequent developments in Indian history.

1. Indo-Greek Kingdom
The Indo-Greek Kingdom, also known as the Graeco-Indian Kingdom or Yavana
Kingdom, existed from 180 B.C.E. to around 10 C.E. It covered various parts of
Afghanistan, the northwest regions of the Indian subcontinent (all of present-day
Pakistan), and a small part of Iran.

Background
 Preliminary Greek presence in India: In 326 B.C.E., Alexander III conquered the north-
western part of the Indian subcontinent, established satrapies, and ceded his north-
western territories to Chandragupta in 303 B.C.E.
 Greek rule in Bactria: Alexander established several cities and an administration in
Bactria, which lasted more than two centuries under the Seleucids and Greco-Bactrians.
 Rise of the Sungas: Around 185 B.C.E., Pusyamitra Sunga assassinated the last of the
Mauryan emperors, Brhadrata, and established the Sunga Empire, which extended its
control as far west as the Punjab.
History of the Indo-Greek Kingdom
 The invasion of northern India and the establishment of the Indo-Greek kingdom
started around 180 B.C.E. when Demetrius I led his troops across the Hindu Kush.
 Menander, the conqueror of the greatest territory, led the invasion to the east. The
Greeks advanced to the Ganges River and as far as the capital Pataliputra.
 According to Strabo, Greek advances temporarily went as far as the Sunga capital
Pataliputra in eastern India. To the south, the Greeks may have occupied the areas of
Sindh and Gujarat down to the region of Surat, including the strategic harbor of
Barygaza.
 Following Menander’s reign, about 20 Indo-Greek kings ruled in succession in the
eastern parts of the Indo-Greek territory.
 The Indo-Greeks may have ruled as far as the area of Mathura until sometime in the first
century B.C.E.
Ideology
 Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and their rule, especially that of
Menander, has been remembered as benevolent.
 Greek expansion into Indian territory may have been intended to protect Greek
populations in India and protect the Buddhist faith from the religious persecutions of
the Sungas.
 Most coins of the Greek kings in India had inscriptions in Pali on the back, which
indicates a tremendous concession to another culture never before made in the Hellenic
world.
Religion:
 The Indo-Greeks were involved with local faiths, particularly with Buddhism, but also
with Hinduism and Zoroastrianism.
 Histories describe Menander I as a great benefactor of the Buddhist religion, seemingly
a convert to Buddhism, on a par with Ashoka or the future Kushan emperor Kanishka.
Art:
 The coinage of the Indo-Greeks is generally considered some of the most artistically
brilliant of Antiquity. The Hellenistic heritage was evident in their art.
 The Hellenistic heritage (Ai-Khanoum) and artistic proficiency of the Indo-Greek would
suggest a rich sculptural tradition as well, but traditionally very few sculptural remains
have been attributed to them.
 Further, the possibility of a direct connection between the Indo-Greeks and Greco-
Buddhist art has been reaffirmed recently as the dating of the rule of Indo-Greek kings
has been extended to the first decades of the first century C.E., with the reign of Strato II
in Punjab.
Economy
 Limited knowledge of Indo-Greek economy.
 The abundance of coins suggests large mining operations in the Hindu Kush.
 Indo-Greek coins circulated in both Greek and Indian standards.
 Coins were used extensively for cross-border trade, and adopted by neighboring
kingdoms.
 Chinese explorer Zhang Qian’s visit suggests trade with Southern China through
northern India.
 Maritime relations developed during Indo-Greek territorial expansion along the
western coast of India and the Kathiawar peninsula.
Armed Forces
 Indo-Greek coins provide clues on uniforms and weapons.
 Typical Hellenistic uniforms are depicted with round or flat helmets.
 Milinda Panha offers insight into military methods.
 36 Indo-Greek kings are known, some recorded in historical sources, most through
coins.
 The chronology and sequencing of their rule are still subject to scholarly inquiry and
adjustments.
2. Indo-Parthians
Indo-Parthian Kingdom
 Parthia is an ancient land in Iran that ruled from 247 BCE to 224 CE.
 The Parthians created an empire from the Mediterranean to India and China.
 The Parthians emerged from the Central Asian Parni tribe and rebelled against the
Seleucid Empire.
 The largest sub-kingdom was the Indo-Parthian kingdom, founded by Scythian king
Gondophares in the late 1st century BC.
 Their first capital was Taxila, Pakistan, later shifted between Kabul and Peshawar.
 Gondophares I ruled over Arachosia, Seistan, Sindh, Punjab, and the Kabul valley.
 The empire started to fragment after his death, with many successors.
 The Indo-Parthians never regained the position of Gondophares I and were absorbed by
the Kushans under Kujula Kadphises.
Archaeology and Sources
 Taxila is thought to have been the capital of the Indo-Parthians.
 The nearby temple of Jandial is interpreted as a Zoroastrian fire temple.
 The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes Parthian kings fighting in the area of
Sindh.
 An inscription from Takht-i-Bahi bears two dates, one in the regnal year 26 of Maharaja
Guduvhara (thought to be a Gondophares).
Religion
 Unlike Indo-Greeks or Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthian rulers did not support Buddhism
explicitly.
 Indo-Parthian coins did not display Buddhist symbols or depictions of elephants or
bulls.
 They likely retained Zoroastrianism, being of Iranian extraction.
 Coins of Hindu deity Shiva have been found issued in the reign of Gondophares I.
Architecture
Buddhist Sculptures
 Statues found at Sirkap in the late Scythian to Parthian level suggest a developed state
of Gandharan art.
 A multiplicity of statues, ranging from Hellenistic gods to various Gandharan lay
devotees, combined with early representations of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
 It is still unclear when the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara emerged, but the findings in
Sirkap indicate it was developed before the Kushans.
Stone Palettes
 Numerous stone palettes found in Gandhara are considered good representatives of
Indo-Parthian art.
 These palettes combine Greek and Persian influences and a frontality in representations
characteristic of Parthian art.
Other Known Facts
 Local and foreign texts and artifacts have helped in understanding Parthian history, but
much is still unknown.
 Chinese explorer Zang Qian described Parthia as an advanced urban civilization.
 Trade between India and China flourished under the silk trade route, with Parthians
supplying Chinese silk to the Romans.
 Main Indo-Parthian Rulers Period

Gondophares I c. 19 – 46

Gondophares II Sarpedones first years AD – c. 20 AD

Abdagases I first years AD – mid-1st century AD

Gondophares III Gudana, previously Orthagnes c. 20 AD – 30 AD

Gondophares IV Sases mid-1st century AD

Ubouzanes late-1st century AD

Pacores late 1st century AD

3. Indo-Scythians
Introduction
 The Indo-Scythians were Scythians (Sakas) who migrated to Central Asia and north-
western South Asia from the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE.
 They were pastoralists and good horsemen who often attacked sedentary societies for
grazing land and livestock.
 They settled down in Bactria and Parthia, creating their states after the death of
Alexander the Great and the decline of his eastern empire.
 The Sakas then infiltrated India, forcing remnants of the Indo-Parthians into the
country.
History
 Maues or Moga was the first Saka King in India who established his power in Gandhara
and ruled over almost all regions of Northwest India.
 Vonones, who ruled with his brother, succeeded Maues.
 Spalagadames ruled the areas between Central Asia and South Asia after his father’s
death.
 Azes increased his importance by capturing the kingdom of the last great Indo-Greek
king, Hippostratus.
Extent and Expansion
 The Sakas ruled over the north-west frontier, Punjab, Sindh, Kashmir, western Uttar
Pradesh, Saurashtra, Kathiawar, Rajputana, Malwa, and the north Konkan belt of
Maharashtra.
 They fought against the Satvahanas in India and later entered into matrimonial alliances
with them, integrating into Indian society.
 The Sakas employed the Greek system of rule and appointed kshatrapas (satraps,
governors) to govern each region.
 The Sakas were overpowered by the Kushans and were forced to accept their
suzerainty.
 The Sakas were finished off by the Gupta dynasty, and the remnants of the Sakas
blended into Indian society.
Coinage
 Indo-Scythian coinage is of high artistic quality, although it deteriorates towards the
disintegration of Indo-Scythian rule around AD 20.
 The coins were realistic and artistic somewhere between Indo-Greek and Kushan
coinage.
 The Greek language was used on the obverse and the Kharoshthi language on the
reverse.
 The portrait of the king was never shown, and depictions of the king on horse or
sometimes on camel were used.
 The reverse of their coins typically showed Greek divinities.
 Buddhist symbolism is present throughout Indo-Scythian coinage.
Art
 Indo-Scythian soldiers in military attire are sometimes represented in Buddhist friezes
in the art of Gandhara.
 Stone palettes found in Gandhara are considered good representatives of Indo-Scythian
art.
 Palettes often represent people in Greek dress in mythological scenes, some in Parthian
dress, and a few in Indo-Scythian dress.
 The Indo-Scythians seem to have been followers of Buddhism, and many of their
practices continued those of the Indo-Greeks.
Indo-Scythians in Indian literature
 The Indo-Scythians were named “Shaka” in India.
 Shakas are mentioned in texts like the Puranas, the Manusmriti, the Ramayana, the
Mahabharata, the Mahabhasiya of Patanjali, and the Brhat Samhita of Vraha Mihira.
Decline of Shaka
The Saka Empire started declining after their defeat at the hands of the Satavahana
Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni.

4. Kushanas
 The Kushan Empire (c. First–Third Centuries) reached its cultural zenith circa 105 – 250
C.E.
 The empire extended from Tajikistan to Afghanistan, Pakistan, and into the Ganges
River valley in northern India.
 The Kushan tribe of the Yuezhi confederation believed to be Indo-European people from
the eastern Tarim Basin, China, possibly related to the Tocharians, created the empire.
 The emergence of the vast Kushan Empire from the first century AD until its decline in
the third century saw the political unification of much of Central Asia, from modern-day
India and Pakistan to the Iranian borders.
Religion
 Cultural exchanges flourished, encouraging the development of Greco-Buddhism, a
fusion of Hellenistic and Buddhist cultural elements, expanding into central and
northern Asia as Mahayana Buddhism.
 Kanishka has earned renown in the Buddhist tradition for having convened a great
Buddhist council in Kashmir, in 72 A.D.
 Kanishka also had the original Gandhari vernacular, or Prakrit, Buddhist texts
translated into the language of Sanskrit.
Art
 The art and culture of Gandhara, at the crossroads of the Kushan hegemony, constitute
the best-known expressions of Kushan influences to Westerners.
 Several direct depictions of Kushans from Gandhara have been discovered, represented
with a tunic, belt, and trousers, and play the role of devotees to the Buddha, as well as
the Bodhisattva and future Buddha Maitreya.
 The style of these friezes incorporating Kushan devotees, already strongly Indianized,
are quite remote from earlier Hellenistic depictions of the Buddha.
Administration
 The vast Kushan Empire, extending from Central Asia to Bihar and from Kashmir to
Sind, containing peoples of different nationalities and religions with a heterogeneous
socioeconomic background, was governed through an organized administrative system,
probably in three tiers, at central, provincial and local levels.
 The Kushans seem to have followed the earlier existing pattern of the Indo-Greeks and
Parthians by appointing satraps and mahaksatrapas for different units of the empire.
 Other inscriptions mention other officials performing both civil and military functions,
called ‘dandanayaka’ and ‘mahadandanayaka’, indicating prevalent feudal elements.
 Further, inscriptions mention two terms –‘gramika ’ and ‘padrapala’, both signifying
‘village headman’, who collected the king’s dues and took cognizance of crimes in his
area.
 Thus, the information available suggests that the Kushan rulers accepted the prevalent
Indian and Chinese concept of the divinity of kingship, and borrowed the Achaemenid
and subsequently Indo-Grcek and Indo-Parthian system of appointing satraps as
provincial governors, while the feudal lord (dandanayaka) was their creation.
Coins
 Kushan kings introduced gold and copper coins, and a large number of them have
survived till today.
 It was the Kushan emperor, Vima Kadaphises who introduced the first gold coins of
India.
  During this period, the main coins issued were of designs that usually broadly follow the
styles of the preceding Greco-Bactrian rulers in using Hellenistic styles of image, with a
deity on one side and the king on the other.
 Further, towards the end of Kushan rule, the first coinage of the Gupta Empire was also
derived from the coinage of the Kushan Empire.
Inscriptions
 The inscriptions issued by the Kushan rulers or in areas under their rule include texts in
Bactrian, written in Greek script, and Prakrit written in Brāhmī or Kharoṣṭhī script.
 The most important of these is the Rabatak Inscription, which established Kanishka’s
genealogy, with Kujula Kadphises, Vima Takto (or Takha), and Vima Kadphises being
named as his immediate ancestors.
External Contacts
 Roman sources describe ambassadors from Bactria and India visiting during the second
century, possibly referring to the Kushans.
 Chinese Historical Chronicles mention trade between north-western India and the
Roman Empire and military cooperation with China against nomads.
Decline
 After Vasudeva I’s death in 225 A.D., the Kushan empire was divided into western and
eastern halves
 Persian Sassanid Empire conquered Western Kushans, losing Bactria and other
territories.
 In 248 A.D., Persians defeated the Western dynasty and replaced them with Persian
vassals known as Kushanshas or Indo-Sassanids.
 Eastern Kushan kingdom based in Punjab; territories on the Gangetic plain became
independent under local dynasties like Yaudheyas around 270.
 The Gupta Empire under Samudragupta subjugated them in mid fourth century.
 White Hun invasions in the fifth century and later Islam’s expansion wiped out
remnants of the Kushan empire.
The Glimpse of Kushan rulers is as follows:
King Period Notable achievements

Kujula He laid the basis for the Kushan Empire which was rapidly expanded
30–80 C.E.
Kadphises by his descendants.

He expanded the Kushan Empire into the northwest of the Indian

Vima Taktu 80–105 C.E.
subcontinent.

Vima He added to the Kushan territory by his conquests in Afghanistan and

105–127 C.E. northwest India. He was the first to introduce gold coinage in India, in
Kadphises
addition to the existing copper and
 silver coinage.

The rule of Kanishka, the fifth Kushan king, flourished for at least 28
years Upon his accession, Kanishka ruled a massive territory, covering
virtually all of northern India,
south to Ujjain and Kundina and east beyond Pataliputra He
Kanishka I 127–147 C.E. administered the territory from two capitals: Purushapura (now
Peshawar in northern
Pakistan) and Mathura, in northern India. Kanishka’s era began in
127 C.E., which is used as a calendar reference by the Kushans for
about a century, until the decline of the Kushan realm.

Dated to the
Vāsishka had been a Kushan emperor, who had a short reign following
Vāsishka year 22 and
Kanishka His rule extended as far south as Sanchi
Year 28

His rule was a period of retrenchment and consolidation for the

Empire. In particular, he devoted time and effort early in his reign to
Huvishka 140–183 C.E.
the exertion of greater control
over the city of Mathura.

Vasudeva I ruled as the last of the “Great Kushans.” The last great
Kushan emperor, the end of his rule coincides with the invasion of the
Vasudeva I 191–225 C.E. Sassanids as far as northwestern India, and the establishment of the
Indo-Sassanids or
Kushanshahs from around 240 C.E.-

5. Indo-Sassanian
 A branch of Sasanian Persians who ruled in Bactria during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE,
after overthrowing the declining Kushans.
 Sasanian king Ardashir I invaded Bactria (around 230 AD) and took control of the
western part of the Kushan empire.
 Kushanshahs, Sasanian nobles, ruled over Bactria and Gandhara provinces.
 Shapur II took direct control of the southern region in 325 AD.
Religious life
 Zoroastrianism was popular among the Kushano-Sasanians, as shown on coins with fire
altars.
 Buddhist missionaries also influenced Afghanistan and Central Asia.
 Buddhism was changing practices, concepts, and rituals, with acceptance of Buddha’s
image and expansion of monasteries.
 Shiva and Nandi also gained popularity.
 Administration
 Sasanid rulers took the title of shahanshah (King of Kings) and assumed guardianship of
sacred fire.
 Smaller territories were ruled by a noble family, Shahrdar, overseen by Shahanshah.
 Districts of provinces were ruled by shahrab and mowbed (chief priest).
 Sasanian rule was characterized by centralization, urban planning, agricultural
development, and technological improvements.
 Bureaucracy carried out government affairs.
Coinage
 Extensive coinage with a legend in Brahmi, Pahlavi, or Bactrian, sometimes inspired by
Kushan coinage.
 The Obverse depicts a ruler with an elaborate headdress, and the reverse depicts a
Zoroastrian fire altar or Shiva with Nandi.
Economy, society, and trade
 Copper coins were widely used to meet local demands, although gold and silver coins
also existed.
 Trade continued on the Silk Route.
Languages and scripts
 Middle Persian was written in Pahlavi script by Iranian natives and scribes.
 Kushano-Sasanian coinage had Middle Persian inscriptions in Pahlavi script.
 Inscriptions from the Kushan and Kushano-Sasanian periods were found in Termez,
written in Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts.
Architecture
 Kara-tepe in Uzbekistan is a typical syncretistic cultural material, with wall paintings,
sculptures, pottery, and more.
 Other cities and settlements in Bactria developed during the Kushano-Sasanian period.
 Buddhist art developed from Gandhara traditions with local features, while non-
Buddhist art displayed a fusion of local and Sasanian traditions.
Legacy
 Sassanid culture drew on and interacted with other cultures, creating a synthesis.
 Zoroastrians became a persecuted minority after the collapse of the Sassanid Empire
and many emigrated.
 One group settled in Gujarat and later became known as Parsis, playing a significant role
in India’s development.
The Main Kushano-Sassanid rulers are as follows:
Ruler Period

Ardashir I Kushanshah 230–245

Peroz I Kushanshah 245–275

Hormizd I Kushanshah 275–300

Hormizd II Kushanshah 300–303

Peroz II Kushanshah 303–330

Varahran Kushanshah 330-365

 UNIT:- 23 GUPTA EMPIRE
The Gupta Empire, from the 4th to the 6th century CE, marked a classical age in North
India, renowned for its extensive territory and cultural zenith. Originating from the
fertile regions of Eastern U.P. and Bihar, the Guptas leveraged local iron ore to build
their empire. The Gupta Empire originated from the kingdom established by Sri Gupta,
a skilled leader and strategist. Celebrated for their patronage of the arts, architecture,
and literature, their era is often hailed as a ‘Golden Age’, witnessing profound
advancements in various fields and leaving an indelible legacy on Indian history.

 Gupta Empire Important Rulers

Capable rulers of the Gupta dynasty left a notable impact on the history and influence of
the Indian subcontinent. Key Gupta rulers were:

Ruler Name Key Points

- The Gupta Empire began with his accession in 319-320 CE.

- To strengthen his authority, he entered into a matrimonial alliance with

the Lichchhavis of Nepal.

Chandragupta I - By 321 AD, he expanded his kingdom from the Ganges River to Prayag through
(320 – 335 CE) conquest.

- His kingdom included Bengal, parts of present-day Bihar, with Pataliputra as its
capital, and Uttar Pradesh.

- He struck coins bearing his and his queen's names.

- He followed a policy of warfare and conquest.

- The Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Prayaga-Prashasti), written in pristine Sanskrit by

his court poet Harisena, provides a detailed account of his accomplishments.

- The inscription is carved on the same pillar that bears the edicts of the Ashoka.
Samudragupta
(c. 335/336 – - His rule extended over a significant portion of the Indian subcontinent, directly or
375 CE) indirectly, encompassing empires in Punjab and Nepal to the Pallava kingdom in
Kanchipuram.

- He minted coins depicting the mythological theme of the Asvamedha (horse sacrifice),
symbolizing his role as a restorer.

- Title Kaviraja, meaning "king among poets."- due to his skill in poetry

Chandragupta - Through his daughter's (Prabhavati) marriage to Rudrasena II, a prince from the
II (c. 376 – Vakataka dynasty in the Deccan, he indirectly ruled over the Vakataka kingdom.
413/415 CE)
 - He successfully seized control of the western Malwa and Gujarat regions from Shakas.

- An inscription on the iron pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi) indicated that his kingdom
encompassed northwestern regions of India and Bengal.

- He adopted the titles Simhavikrama and Vikramaditya, symbolising his strength and
power.

- Minted coins made of silver, copper, and gold (Dinara), with his coins often referred
to as Chandra.

- The Udaigiri cave inscriptions mentioned his Digvijaya, signifying his conquest of the
entire world.

- His court had nine renowned intellectuals known as the Navratnas (nine gems), which
included:

 Vetala Bhatta- Author of Mantrashastra

 Vararuchi- Author of Prakrit Prakasha
 Kahapanaka- Author of Jyotishya Shastra
 Shanku- Author of Shilpa Shastra
 Ghatakarapara- Expert in sculpture and architecture
 Dhanvantri- Physician of Ayurveda
 Varahamihira- His literary work includes: Pancha
SiddhantikaBrihadsamhita o and Brihat Jataka
 Amarasimha- Author of Amarakosha
 Kalidasa- Author of Abhijnashakuntalam, Meghdootam and many more.

- He assumed the titles of 'Shakraditya' and 'Mahendraditya' as part of his royal

designations.

- He performed Ashvamedha sacrifices.

Kumaragupta Ⅰ
(c. 415 – 455
- Establish Nalanda University, which gained global recognition as a prestigious
CE)
educational institution.

- Noteworthy inscriptions from Kumaragupta I's reign include those found

in Karandanda, Mandsor Bilsad inscription and Damodar Copper Plate inscription.

- He assumed the title of 'Vikramaditya' as part of his royal designation.

- An inscription found in Junagarh/Girnar during his reign mentions that his

Skandagupta (c. governor Parnadatta undertook the repair of the Sudarshan Lake.
455 – 467 CE)
- Following his death, several successors such as Purugupta, Kumaragupta II,
Buddhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta III, and Vishnugupta were unable to
protect the Gupta empire from the Huns.

 Gupta Empire Polity and Administration

The Gupta Empire’s administration was marked by well-organised divisions and a
hierarchical structure that ensured effective governance:

1) King

 The king was the linchpin of the Gupta administration, assuming titles
like Paramabhattaraka and Paramesvara, reflecting their divine status akin to
deities on Earth as per Smriti texts.
 Duties of the monarch included:
o Formulating state policies for war and peace.
o Safeguarding the realm and its denizens.
o Leading the military in conflicts.
o Supporting the Brahmanas, Sramanas, and the needy.
o Honouring scholars and religious figures.
o Acting as the chief adjudicator, delivering justice based on sacred laws and
traditions.
o Appointing key central and provincial officials.

2) Council of Ministers and Other Officials

 The Mahanandanayaka (Chief Justice) supported the king’s judicial authority.

 Provincial judicial responsibilities were managed by Uparikas,
while Vishayapatis oversaw district-level matters.
 Village disputes were typically settled by the headman and elders.
 Notably, Fa-Hien, the Chinese traveller, observed the absence of capital punishment.
 The Mahapratihara (palace guard chief) and Pratihara (ceremonial overseer) were
among other significant officials.
 An intelligence network was operational, and Dutakas were tasked with executing
land grants.
 The Mahasandhivigrahika managed affairs related to war and peace.

3) Army

This system ensured a well-maintained and organised military, ready for both defence
and expansion when necessary. The military organisation during the Gupta period
included:

 King: Led the army during wartime.

 Sandhi-Vigrahika: Minister responsible for peace and war during peacetime.
 Mahabaladhikrita: A high-ranking military official.
 Specialised commanders: Included Pilupati (elephants), Asvapati (horses), and
Narapati (infantry).
 Ranabhandagarika: Officer in charge of military supplies and soldiers’ welfare.

4) Revenue Administration

 Land Revenue and Fines:

o The primary fiscal resources for the Gupta state were land revenue and fines.
 o The Akshapataladhikrita oversaw account registers, ensuring the collection of
royal dues and the prevention of financial misconduct.
o Pustapala maintained records and verified transactions.
 Taxes and Duties:
o Uparikara tax was imposed on commodities like textiles and oils during
intercity trade.
o Merchants paid a commercial tax known as Sulka.
o The king could mandate labour (Visthi), collect land tax (Bali), and solicit
additional levies.
 Royal income:
o The monarch’s revenue streams included profits from royal estates, woodlands,
treasure discoveries, mineral extraction, and salt production.

5) Provinces, Districts and Villages

 The Gupta Empire was organised into territorial divisions known

as Desas, Rashtras, or Bhuktis, as recorded in historical inscriptions.
 Uparikas, appointed by the king, administered the Bhuktis, which were further
segmented into districts or Vishayas. These districts were managed by officials such
as Ayuktaka or Vistiyapati, appointed by the provincial governors.
 In Bengal, district administration involved an Adhikarana (office) that included
representatives from key local communities like Nagarasresthi (merchant
leader), Sarthavaha (caravan chief), Prathama-Kulika (artisan head),
and Prathama Kayastha (scribe community head), with Pustapalas handling
records.
 Villages were led by a Gramapati or Gramadhyaksha (village headman).
 North Bengal featured administrative units above the village level,
termed Astakuladhikarana, which incorporated village representatives such
as Gramikas, Kutumbis, and Mahattaras.
 Village Life and Occupations:
 Villages were composed of various professional groups including carpenters,
weavers, potters, oil pressers, goldsmiths, and farmers, who likely formed local
bodies for managing village affairs.
 Disputes within the village were resolved with the help of Grama-buddhas or
village elders, emphasising a community-based approach to governance.

 Religious Developments during the Gupta Empire

The Guptas were a Hindu dynasty known for their devout Hinduism, but they allowed
Buddhists and Jainists to practice their religions.

 Nalanda University: Founded by Kumaragupta I around 455 CE, it became a

renowned centre for learning and is associated with the formalisation of the caste
system through endogamy during this era.
 Narasimhagupta Baladitya: Influenced by Mahayana Buddhism, he constructed
a sangharama and a 300-foot-high vihara in Nalanda and was celebrated for his
patronage of Buddhism.
 Vajra: As the son of Narasimhagupta, he continued the legacy of supporting
Buddhism, evidenced by Xuanzang’s accounts of his devout sponsorship.
 Gupta Empire Economic & Social Conditions

The Gupta Empire experienced favourable economic and social conditions that fostered
cultural and intellectual development. Fa-hsien, a Chinese traveller, provides insights
into the economic life of the Gupta Empire. He mentions that Magadha was filled with
cities, and the wealthy people supported it through charitable offerings.

1) Economic Life

 Gupta coinage:
 The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins known as dinars. These coins
were regular in size and weight, depicting Gupta kings and showcasing their love for
war and art.
 While not as pure as Kushan coins, Gupta coins servedas a means of payment for
military and administrative officials, as well as for land transactions.
 The Guptas also issued silver coins after their conquest of Gujarat, primarily for local
trade, and the use of copper coins was limited compared to theKushans.
 Decline in long-distance trade:
 Compared to earlier periods, there was a declinein long-distance trade during the
Gupta period. India's trade with the Eastern Roman Empire, exporting silk,
decreased after the Eastern Romans learned silk cultivation from the Chinese.
 Demand for Indian silk abroad had already weakened by the mid-fifth century. Silk
weavers from western India migrated to Mandasor in Malwa and shifted to other
professions.
 Emergence of priestly landlords:
 In eastern and central Madhya Pradesh, a significant development during the Gupta
period was the rise of priestly landlords.
 Land grants made to priests led to the cultivation of new areas but resulted in
a lower status for local tribal peasants.
 Forced labour (Vishti) was imposed on peasants in central and western India.
 However, agricultural knowledge improved in the tribal regions of central India due
to the involvement of Brahmanas, and more land was brought under cultivation.

2) Social Life

 Brahmana supremacy and Gupta rulers:

 Large-scale land grants to Brahmanas suggest a rise in Brahmana's dominance
during the Gupta period.
 The Guptas, originally believed to be vaishyas,were recognised as Kshatriyas by the
Brahmanas.
 The Brahmanas portrayed the Gupta kings as god-like figures, legitimising their
position and establishing the Guptas as strong supporters of the Brahmanical order.
 Proliferation of castes:
 The number of castes increased due to the assimilation of foreigners and tribal
people. Each group of foreigners was considered a caste, often with Kshatriya status.
 The Hunas, who arrived in the fifth century, eventually became recognized as one of
the Rajput clans.
 Land grants to tribal chiefs resulted in the formation of new castes, with the
ordinary tribal members assigned a lower origin.
 Improved status of Shudras:
o Shudras experienced some improvements during this period. They were
permitted to hear recitations of the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas,
which represented the Kshatriya tradition.
o Shudras could worship Krishna and perform certain domestic rites, which
contributed to the economic status of the Shudras. From the seventh century
onwards, shudras were mainly associated with agriculture.
 Increase in untouchables:
 The number of untouchables, particularly the chandalas, grew during the Gupta
period.
 The chandalas, mentioned by Fa-Hsien, lived outside the village and were involved
in the meat and flesh trade. The chandalas' disabilities became noticeable, and
their presence attracted attention.
 Status of women:
 Women of higher varnas did not have independent sources of livelihood, unlike
women of lower varnas.
 Women from vaishya and Shudra backgrounds engaged in agricultural operations
and domestic services, granting them more freedom.
 In Gupta times, members of higher varnas acquired more land, becoming more
polygamous and treating women as property.
 Widow immolation was first recorded in AD 510, but post-Gupta law books
allowed widow remarriage in certain circumstances.
 Women's property rights:
 The oldest Smritis recognised gifts received by brides during marriage as their
property. Gupta and post-Gupta law books expanded the scope of these gifts, known
as strident.
 Women were allowed to sell and mortgage their immovable property, suggesting
they received shares in landed property. However, patriarchal communities
generally did not allow daughters to inherit landed property.
 Niyoga and widow remarriage:
 Niyoga, the practice of a younger brother or kinsman marrying the widow of the
elder brother, was practised in Vedic times but not allowed during Gupta and earlier
periods.
 Widow remarriage was also prohibited for higher varnas but permitted among the
shudras, who could practice both niyoga and widow remarriage.

 Gupta Empire Decline

The mighty Gupta Empire stumbled under the rule of Skandagupta and his successors.
There are several reasons which could be attributed to the same:

 Huna Invasions: The Huna people, also known as Huns, invaded Gupta territory,
inflicting severe damage on the empire. By the 6th century CE, the empire had been
fragmented into provincial states due to attacks from various directions.
 Political Factors: Feudal states, decreased trade, weak leadership, and invasions
were political factors contributing to the decline. Internal rebellions, foreign
interventions, and dynastic feuds also played a role in the Gupta Empire's downfall.
 Internal conflicts: Major conflicts and divisions among the royal clans destabilized
the rule and weakened the empire. The Huns successfully colonised regions such as
Gandhara, Punjab, Gujarat, and Malwa, eroding the control of the Gupta Empire.
 Religious shift: Gupta rulers started following Buddhist practices instead of
Hinduism, which further weakened the empire.
 Neglect of military conquests: The Guptas shifted their focus away from military
conquests and expansion, contributing to the decline of the empire.
 Incompetent rulers and external pressures:
o Skandagupta, Chandragupta II's grandson, depleted the empire's resources and
wealth through his vicious conduct, marking the beginning of the Gupta
Empire's decline.
o Flawed rulers and retaliation from local and foreign powers further weakened
the Gupta Empire.
o Unity and sufficient resources were crucial for maintaining the empire, which
was lacking.
 Economic Factors:
 Setbacks in western India and the loss of trading opportunities with the
Mediterranean contributed to economic challenges.
 Failure to implement land reform, floods, crop failures, and natural disasters
affected the economy.
 The migration of the silk weavers' establishment from Gujarat to Malwa, the lack of
demand for their products, and fading trade perks in Gujarat impacted the empire.
 The debasement of gold content in coins during the 5th century impacted the
empire's gold reserves and contributed to its decline.

OR

GUPTA EMPIRE
The Gupta empire was established in the mid 3rd century A.D and lasted till 543 A.D. The
founder of the Gupta empire was Sri Gupta. The Gupta empire reached its prominence in 320
A.D. Major part of the country was under the reign of the Gupta dynasty. Though the Gupta
empire was not as large as the Mauryan empire, the Guptas kept the entire North India
politically united for more than a century. The information regarding the genealogy and the rise
of Guptas are provided in the contemporary literary works like Devichandraguptam and
Mudhrakshasam. Inscriptions such as the Allahabad pillar inscription, the Mehrauli Iron pillar
inscription mentions the achievements and reign of the Guptas.

 Origin of the Gupta Empire

With the decline of the Maurya empire, two large political powers emerged. They were
the Satavahanas (Andhras), who established rule over the Deccan and the South and the
Kushans, who took control of the North. Around A.D.230, the Kushans rule in north
India came to an end and the Murundas, who are believed to be the kinsmen of the
Kushans, took over a good part of central India. Murundas reign lasted only for about 25
years. Around A.D.275, on the ruins of Kushan empire, Gupta empire was established
and a large part of the former dominions of both the Kushans and the Satavahanas came
under their rule. For more than a century, North India was politically united under their
reign.

 Material Advantages of the Gupta Empire

The fertile land of Madhya Desha which covered Bihar and Uttar Pradesh was their
center of operation. The iron ore reserves of central India and South Bihar were
possibly exploited by them. The proximity to the areas in North India were taken
advantage of by them and carried out silk trade with the Eastern Roman empire
(Byzantine empire).

The Gupta empire originally comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. However Uttar
Pradesh seems to have been their operating place with a center of power at Prayag. Due
to these favourable factors, the Guptas set up their rule over Anuganga (the middle
Gangetic basin), Magadha, Saketa (Ayodhya, U.P) and Prayag ( Modern Allahabad).

 Gupta Empire Rulers

Beginning with Sri Gupta, over the period of 200 years the Gupta empire reached its
prominence until the reign of Skandagupta, after which the weak rulers of the Gupta
dynasty reigned and eventually led to the decline of the empire. The list of the Gupta
Empire kings along with their achievements and contributions has been given below:

1. Sri Gupta (A.D. 240-280)

Founder of Gupta empire. He was described as Maharaja in the Allahabad pillar

inscription.

2. Ghatotkacha (A.D 280- 319)

Succeeded his father Sri Gupta. Along with Sri Gupta, he was also described as Maharaja
in the Allahabad pillar inscription.

3. Chandragupta I (A.D. 319-334)

Succeeded Ghatotkacha as the ruler. He was the first important king of the Gupta
dynasty.. The Gupta Era began with his accession to the throne in A.D.320. He was the
first king to be called Maharajadhiraja. He married the Lichchhavi princess (Possibly
from Nepal), Kumaradevi. With this matrimonial alliance, he strengthened his position
and added prestige to the Gupta dynasty. The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription explains in
detail about his lengthy conquests. Magadha, Saketa and Prayaga were brought under
 the authority of the Gupta dynasty by him. During his period, Pataliputra was the capital
city of the Gupta empire.

4. Samudragupta (A.D.335-380)

He was the son and successor of Chandragupta I. The Gupta Kingdom enlarged
enormously under his reign. The people and the countries conquered by him are
engraved in the Allahabad inscriptions. His conquests can be classified into five groups.

Conquests of Samudragupta
Conquests Description
Group I Against the princes of Ganga-Yamuna doab

Their kingdoms incorporated were into Gupta empire

Group II Against rulers of eastern Himalayan and princes some frontier states (Nepal, Bengal,
Assam, etc., )

The republics which remained were destroyed

Group III Against Atavika rajyas (the forest kingdoms in Vindhya region)and took up their territory
Group IV Conquered and liberate the 12 rulers of the Deccan and South India

Against Kanchi in Tamil Nadu, where the Pallavas were forced to acknowledge his
suzerainty.
Group V Against Shakas and Kushans.

His conquest extended even outside India. According to the Chinese sources, the ruler of
Sri Lanka (Meghavarman) sent a missionary to seek permission from Samudragupta for
building a Buddist temple at Gaya. He believed in the policy of violence and conquest.
His court poet Harishena wrote a glowing account on Samudragupta’s military exploits.
V.A.Smith praised him as the Napoleon of India for his bravery and generalship. Though
he brought most parts of the country under the Gupta empire, he exercised direct
administration only over the Gangetic plains and central India. In the remaining areas,
the former rulers were allowed to continue with the annual payment to the treasury.
This gave rise to the unique political situation called Samandha system (Vassal kings).

5. Chandragupta II (A.D. 380-412)

According to Devi Chandraguptam, Ramagupta (elder brother of Chandragupta II) was

the successor of Samudragupta. He surrendered to the Saka ruler Dhurudevi.
Chandragupta II invaded the enemy camp and captured the throne. The Gupta empire
saw the high watermark under the reign of Chandragupta He strengthened his political
power through matrimonial alliance. He married the Naga princess of central India,
Kubernanga. He married his daughter Prabhavati to Rudrasena II, a Vakataka prince.

With the death of Rudrasena II , Prabavathi became the virtual ruler and promoted the
interests of her father Chandragupta II. In this way he had indirect control over the
Vakataka kingdom (Central India). With great influence in Central India, territories such
as western Malwa and Gujarat which were under the rule of Shaka Kshatrapas were
conquered. To commemorate the victory over Shaka Kshatrapas, he performed horse
sacrifice(Ashvamedha) and called himself Vikramatitya.

Ujjain was made the second capital of the Gupta empire during the reign of
Chandragupta II. Mehrauli Iron pillar inscription claims his authority over the north
western portion of India. The Chinese pilgrim, Fa Hien visited India during his reign. His
court was adorned by 9 scholars who were known as Navaratnas(nine gems) of his
court. They were Kalidasa, Amarasimha, Dhanvantari, Shanku, Varahamihira,
Kshapanaka, Ghatakarapara, Vararuchi and Vetala Bhatta.

6. Kumaragupta (A.D. 415-455)

He was the son of Chandragupta II. He took up the title Mahendraditya . He founded the
Nalanda University which gained international importance. The Gupta empire began to
face Hunas invasion during his period. Although he tried to avoid the invasion of Hunas
into India, his successors proved to be weak.

7. Skandagupta (A.D. 455-467)

He is considered to be the last great ruler among the Gupta dynasty. He defeated the
Huns invasion and Pushyamithra’s threat.e-Attempts

 Architecture of the Gupta Empire

The Gupta Empire, which flourished in ancient India from approximately the 4th to the
6th century CE, witnessed remarkable advancements in architecture. Gupta architecture
was characterized by a blend of indigenous Indian styles with influences from
Hellenistic and Roman architecture.

The most prominent architectural structures of the Gupta Empire were temples,
monasteries, and stupas. These structures featured intricate stone carvings, elaborately
decorated pillars, and iconic Gupta arches. The rock-cut caves of Udayagiri, the temples
at Sanchi, and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh are exemplary specimens of Gupta
architecture, showcasing the empire's artistic and engineering prowess.

 Coinage

The Gupta Empire issued a variety of coins during its reign. Gupta coins were made of
gold, silver, and copper and were highly artistic, featuring intricate designs and
inscriptions. The gold coins, known as dinaras, portrayed the ruling emperor or
symbolic deities such as Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. The silver and copper coins
depicted various imperial symbols and religious motifs. These coins were not only a
means of currency but also served as a medium to propagate the empire's power and
authority.

 Decline of Gupta Empire

Both external and internal forces contributed to the Gupta Empire’s demise. External
forces included the White Huns, Vakatakas, and other developing countries’ repeated
 efforts to invade the mighty Gupta kingdom.
Skandagupta was considered the Gupta Empire’s final great emperor. Invasion threats,
on the other hand, began during Kumaragupta I’s reign. The Pushyamitra clan had
attempted multiple unsuccessful invasions of the Gupta Empire, but had always been
destroyed by Kumaragupta, the skillful Gupta Empire monarch.

The Huns attempted to overrun the Gupta Empire several times during Skandagupta’s
rule, but Skandagupta defeated them each time. Skandagupta’s successors, on the other
hand, were weak and unable to rule the huge Empire. One of the key reasons for the
Gupta Empire’s demise was the invasion of the Huns, sometimes known as the White
Huns.

Following Skandagupta’s death, the Huns were successful in invading the Gupta Empire.
Many provinces of the Gupta Empire, including Malwa, Gujarat, and Thanesar, were
conquered by the Huns.

Despite their steadily dwindling authority, the Guptas are reported to have fought the
Huns for a period of time, preventing the enemy from conquering their Empire.

To keep the Huns out of northern India, Narasimha Gupta of the Gupta dynasty made an
alliance with the autonomous kingdoms.

The decline of the Gupta empire was followed by political disintegrity in North India.In
the Gangetic region, it was succeeded by Maukari dynasty and Pushyabhuti dynasty.
Gurjaras and Prathiharas succeeded the Gupta dynasty in the western region. South
India came under two big empires, Chalukyas of Badami and Pallavas of Kanchi.

Key Takeaways:-

o Time Period: The Gupta Empire lasted from about 320 CE to 550 CE.
o Founders and Key Rulers: It was founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta, and some of the foremost emperors
include Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II commonly known as Vikramaditya.
o Golden Age: The Golden Age is an age of great attainment in the arts, science, literature, and philosophy.
o Cultural Contributions: Furthered classical Sanskrit literature with works from Kalidasa among others
and compiled major works of philosophy and science texts.
o Science: Important contributions by scholars like Aryabhata-astronomy and mathematics-and
Varahamihira-astrology and astronomy.
o Architecture and Art: Under the Gupta rule, this flourished, and its classic examples of Gupta style are
found in the temple architecture at Sarnath and in murals of Ajanta caves.
o Political Structure: It was a centralized monarchy, comprising a very complex administration along with
many regional governors to guarantee efficient governance.
o Economic Prosperity: Trade during the Gupta period-both indigenous and international-was brisk, and
commerce, agriculture, and industry prospered.
UNIT:- 24 PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY (VARDHANA DYNASTY)
 The political scenario in post-Gupta north India was characterised by
the emergence of numerous ruling families like the Maukharis of Kanyakubja,
later Guptas of Magadha, Gaudas of West Bengal (Murshidabad Dist.),
Maitrakas of Valabhi (Saurashtra peninsula), Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar, etc.
Many of them were originally subordinates of the Guptas. But, with the decline of
the political authority of the Guptas, they assumed independence.
 North India in the 6th century was, thus, an arena where multiple ruling powers,
all rooted in their respective regional contexts, were constantly fighting with each
other. In such a political scenario, the samantas (subordinates) emerged
powerful. They kept control over outlying areas or fought battles in areas far away
from the political centres of their overlords. The rise of local and regional powers
has been regarded as the hallmark of this period.
 Pushyabhuti Dynasty

 The Pushyabhuti dynasty, also known as the Vardhana dynasty, was the ruling
dynasty of the Kingdom of Thanesar and later the Kingdom of Kannauj in
northern India during the 6th and 7th centuries.
 The dynasty reached its zenith under its last ruler Harsha Vardhana (c. 590 –
c. 647 CE), whose empire covered much of north and north-western India, extending
till Kamarupa in the east and Narmada River in the south.
 The dynasty initially ruled from Sthanveshvara (modern-day Thanesar,
Haryana), but Harsha eventually made Kanyakubja (modern-day Kannauj, Uttar
Pradesh) his capital, from where he ruled until 647 CE.
 According to Harshacharita by Banabhatta, the dynasty was founded by
Pushyabhuti, a devotee of Lord Shiva.
 Historians assume that, like the Maukharis, their neighbours in the east, the
Pushyabhutis took advantage of the fall of the Gupta Empire to assert independence
and found a new kingdom and dynasty.
 The details of the dynasty are available from the reign of Prabhakarvadhana, the
fourth ruler.
o He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. He feuded with the Huna invaders from
North-Western India.
o He had two sons, Rajyavardhana and Harshavardhana, and one daughter,
Rajyashri, who was married to Grihavarman of the Maukhari dynasty.
 After the death of Prabhakarvardhana, Rajyavardhana assumed the throne.
 Grihavarman was killed by a later Gupta king of Malwa, who also abducted his wife
Rajyashri. Resultantly, Rajyavardhana marched against the Malwa king and defeated
him. But while returning to Thanesar, he was killed by ‘Shashanka’, the Gauda King.
 Harsha formed an alliance with Bhaskar Varman, the king of Kamarupa, and forced
Shashanka to retreat. This resulted in the coronation of King Harshavardhana as
the Pushyabhuti King, who turned out to be the most outstanding ruler of India in
the 6th-7th century AD.
 Rulers of Pushyabhuti dynasty

 Pushyabhuti:
o According to Harshacharita by Banabhatta, founder king of this dynasty at
Thaneshwar was Pushyabhuti and that the family was known as Pushyabhuti
vamsha.
o The Banskhera and Madhuvan plates and royal seals mention five earlier
rulers among whom the first three are given the title of Maharaja. This may
indicate that they were not sovereign monarchs. The fourth king
Prabhakarvardhana has been described as a Maharajadhiraja which makes us
infer that he was an independent monarch.
 Naravardhana
 First Rajyavardhana 1
 Adityavardhana (Adityavardhana or Adityasena):
 o He was the third ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty, and father
of Prabhakaravardhana.
 Prabhakaravardhana (6th century CE):
o Prabhakaravardhana was one of the earliest known rulers of the dynasty, but
the fourth ruler from the family.
o He is credited with expanding his kingdom’s territory and establishing strong
diplomatic relations with neighboring states.
 Rajyavardhana:
o Rajyavardhana, the elder son of Prabhakaravardhana, succeeded his father as
the ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty.
o He is known for his support of scholars and poets and his patronage of the arts
and culture.
 Harsha (Harsha Vardhana, 590-647 CE):
o Harsha, the younger son of Prabhakaravardhana, is the most famous ruler of
the Pushyabhuti dynasty.
o He is often referred to as Emperor Harsha. His reign is considered a golden
period in ancient Indian history.
o Harsha was a great patron of literature and culture, and his court attracted many
scholars, poets, and artists.
 Rajashekhara:
o After the death of Harsha, Rajashekhara, a minister succeeded him as the
ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty.
o However, his reign was relatively short, and he faced challenges in maintaining
the vast empire.
 Prabhakarvardhana II:
o Following Rajashekhara’s reign, Prabhakarvardhana II briefly ruled over the
remnants of the dynasty’s territories.
 Decline of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty

 After Harsha died in 647 CE, the Pushyabhuti dynasty faced internal strife and
external invasions. The empire gradually fragmented, and regional powers rose
to prominence. The decline of the dynasty marked the end of the Vardhana era.
 Kanyakubja remained as a kingdom and once more came into the limelight under
King Yashovarman (r. 725-753 CE), while most of Harsha’s feudatories
like Bhaskaravarman bifurcated the empire and added the conquered bits to their
kingdoms.
 Yashovarman maintained Kanyakubja as a center of power, and between 750 and
1000 CE, its significance increased to the point that conquering it became a sign of
imperial power in India, even for politically remote states like the Rashtrakutas of
southern India, the Pratiharas of northwestern India, and Palas of eastern India.

OR
  Pushyabhuti Dynasty

The Pushyabhuti Dynasty is also known as the Vardhana Dynasty. It reigned over
northern India during the 6th and 7th centuries. Led by its final ruler, Harsha Vardhana,
the dynasty experienced its height of power. Under Harsha's rule, the Empire of Harsha
extended across vast regions of north and north-western India. This encompassed
territories from Kamarupa in the east to the Narmada River in the south. The capital of
the kingdom was in Sthanveshvara. The dynasty later shifted its capital to Kanyakubja,
where Harsha governed until 647 CE.

Overview of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty:

Points Description
Time of Reign The dynasty held power during the 6th and 7th centuries in northern India.
Harsha Vardhana Harsha, the last ruler of the dynasty, played a pivotal role in its success and territorial
expansion.
Extent of the Empire The empire extended from Kamarupa in the east to the Narmada River in the south,
covering a wide geographical area.
Capital Initially, the dynasty's capital was located in Sthanveshvara (present-day Thanesar in
Haryana)
Capital shift Harsha later relocated the capital to Kanyakubja, which is known today as Kannauj in
Uttar Pradesh. He ruled from there until 647 CE
 Origin of Pushyabhuti Dynasty

The Pushyabhuti Dynasty emerged in 6th century CE and played a significant role in
northern India. This was after the decline of the Gupta Empire. Spanning from around
500 CE to 647 CE, their kingdom was mainly located in present-day Haryana.
Sthanishvara (Thanesar) was their initial capital. Later the capital was shifted to
Kanyakubja (Kannauj) in Uttar Pradesh. Emperor Harshavardhana, the final ruler of the
dynasty, reigned from 606 to 647 CE and left a notable mark in history. The
Pushyabhutis established a formidable kingdom. They engaged in political rivalries with
other regional powers and achieved imperial status under Harsha's rule.

History of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty

Initially, the rule of the Pushyabhuti dynasty was confined to a limited territory. It was
centered around their capital, Sthaneshvara (Thanesar). Their ruler Aditya-Vardhana
likely held a subordinate position under Sharva-varman. Sharva was the Maukhari king
of Kannauj. Adityavardhana's successor, Prabhakaravardhana, may have served as a
feudatory to Avanti-Varman, the Maukhari king.

 Prabhakara's daughter, Rajyashri, was married to Avanti-Varman's son, Graha-

Varman. This led to a significant rise in Prabhakara's political stature.
 He was then bestowed with the imperial title Parama-bhattaraka Maharajadhiraja.
It symbolized his esteemed status as a ruler.
 Following Prabhakara's demise, the king of Malava, with support from the ruler of
Gauda, attacked Kannauj.
 In the conflict, Graha-Varman was killed, and Rajyashri was captured.
 Bana does not mention (in Harshacharita) the name of the Malava king. But,
historians speculate that he belonged to the Later Gupta dynasty.
 Prabhakara's elder son, Rajya-Vardhana, managed to defeat the Malava ruler. But,
was eventually killed by the Gauda king.

In the Harshacharita, it is mentioned that Prabhakara's younger son, Harsha-Vardhana,

vowed to avenge his brother's death and overthrow the Gauda king and their allies.
Though the Gauda king is not named by Bana, historians identify him as Shashanka-
Deva, the ruler of Bengal (Gauda). Harsha formed an alliance with Bhaskar Varman, the
king of Kamarupa, and together they compelled Shashanka to retreat.

 In 606 CE, Harsha was officially crowned as an emperor, marking the pinnacle of
his power.
 He went on to conquer significant parts of northern India, establishing the Empire
of Harsha.
 The exact geographical boundaries of Harsha's empire is still unknown. But, it
encompasses large regions of northern India.
 He held control over the king of Vallabhi in the west and the Kamarupa king,
Bhaskaravarman, in the east.
 To the south, his dominion extended as far as the Narmada River.
Ultimately, Harsha chose Kanyakubja (modern Kannauj in Uttar Pradesh) as his capital.
He ruled until approximately 647 CE. With his demise, the Pushyabhuti dynasty came to
an end, as Harsha left no heir to succeed him.

 Rulers of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty

The Pushyabhuti Dynasty is believed to have been established by Pushyabhuti. There

are not a lot of details or historical records available on the achievements or lives of the
early rulers of the dynasty. Inscriptions indicate that between kings Pushyabhuti and
Prabhakaravardhana, there were several unnamed rulers. Among those known were
Naravardhana, Rajyavardhana, and Adityavardhana, Harshavardhana who preceded
Prabhakara Vardhana. These kings reigned approximately from 500 to late 600 CE.

List of Pushyabhuti Dynasty Rulers

Ruler Reign (CE)
Pushyabhuti ~500
Nāravardhana 500–525
Rājyavardhana I 525–555
Ādityvardhana 555–580
Prabhākaravardhana 580–605
Rājyavardhana II 605–606
Harṣavardhana 606–647

 Prabhakaravardhana

 Prabhakaravardhana (r. 580-605 CE), also known as Pratapashila, was a proud

and ambitious ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty.
 He expanded his kingdom through military conquests and assumed the title
Maharajadhiraja. He became the first in the dynasty to hold this prestigious title.
 Prabhakaravardhana tried to make the most of the weakened Maukhari power
after the death of King Ishanavarman. and maintained friendly relations with
them. He solidified this alliance by marrying his daughter, Rajyashri, to the
Maukhari king, Grahavarman.
 Prabhakaravardhana is believed to have fought against the Hunas in northern
Punjab. He also fought the kings of Sindh, Gandhara, Lata, and Malwa (present-
day regions of Pakistan and Gujarat).
 The extent of his victories over these opponents remains uncertain. But, his reign
established the Pushyabhuti dynasty as a major power in the region.
 Prabhakaravardhana passed away due to an illness. Rajyavardhana was his heir.
 He took the throne after his father and ruled from 605 to 606 CE.

 Rajyavardhana

 He was the elder son of Prabhakaravardhana.

 He was initially sent on a campaign against the Hunas. He had to return due to
his father's illness.
 Upon ascending the throne, he faced an unexpected war when the Later Guptas
formed an alliance with Gauda and attacked Kanyakubja in 606 CE.
  The invaders killed Grahavarman, the Maukhari king. They occupied Kanyakubja,
while Rajyashri, Rajyavardhana's sister, was taken captive.
 Determined to rescue his sister and regain control of the capital, Rajyavardhana
led his army against the occupiers.
 On his way to Kanyakubja, he defeated the Malwa army, possibly killing
Devagupta, the Later Gupta king, with remarkable ease.
 According to the Harshacharita, Shashanka, the ruler of Gauda, offered help but
instead betrayed Rajyavardhana.
 Rajyavardhana fell victim to a treacherous act. He was murdered in his own
quarters by Shashanka who had deceived him with false gestures of friendship
and left him unarmed and vulnerable.

 Harshavardhana

 Harsha, the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, was determined to avenge his

brother's murder. He waged war against Shashanka, who had occupied
Kanyakubja.
 Harsha formed an alliance with King Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa. Together they
posed a significant threat to Shashanka's rule.
 The details of this war are not known as the Harshacharita, the historical account,
does not provide information on the conflict's outcome or the specific actions
taken against Shashanka.
 It seems that Shashanka, recognizing the combined strength of Harsha and
Bhaskaravarman and his own vulnerable position after the defeat of the allied
Malwa army, chose to retreat from the confrontation.
 Harsha successfully rescued his sister and regained control of Kanyakubja,
consolidating his power.
 It is believed that Avantivarman, Grahavarman's younger brother, initially took the
throne, possibly as a regent.
 After his death, Harsha assumed full sovereignty and openly declared himself king
of the Maukhari realm.
 Harsha had been effectively ruling the Pushyabhuti dynasty since 606 CE, but it
was only after overcoming formidable adversaries like Shashanka that he could
consider formal coronation.
 The capital of the kingdom was shifted from Sthanishvara to Kanyakubja, and the
realms of the Pushyabhutis and the Maukharis were amalgamated into one under
Harsha's rule.