Jonna Marie Luengas BSED FILIPINO-1 GE RPH

The Presidency of Corazon Aquino: A Scientific Analysis

Corazon Cojuangco Aquino's ascent to the presidency in 1986, following the

extraordinary "People Power Revolution," represented a seismic shift in Philippine
political history. The ousting of Ferdinand Marcos, after decades of authoritarian rule,
symbolized a national rebirth, a collective repudiation of corruption and oppression
(McCoy, 1999). However, the euphoria of the revolution gave way to the sobering reality
of governing a nation deeply fractured by economic instability and social inequality. This
in-depth analysis will explore the multifaceted impact of Corazon Cojuangco Aquino's
leadership, examining her administration's successes and shortcomings across pivotal
sectors: poverty, agriculture, economy, education, investments, workforce, food
security, infrastructure, and justice.

One of the biggest problems Corazon Cojuangco Aquino had to deal with was
widespread poverty. President Corazon "Cory" Aquino's administration, while ushering
in a period of democratic restoration, presented a complex and often contradictory
impact on Philippine poverty. Inheriting a nation burdened by economic inequality and
the legacies of authoritarian rule, her government sought to address poverty through
various policies, most notably the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP).
The restoration of democratic institutions, a cornerstone of her presidency, theoretically
fostered a more participatory environment, enabling greater public input in policy
formulation, potentially leading to more equitable outcomes. For instance, local
communities, previously marginalized, were given a platform to voice their needs and
concerns during public consultations, influencing the implementation of some local
social programs (Wurfel, 1988).

Additionally, CARP, despite its implementation challenges, aimed to rectify land

inequality, a significant driver of rural poverty, with the potential to empower farmers and
boost agricultural productivity. In specific scenarios, some agrarian reform beneficiaries
saw an increase in their landholdings, which initially improved their access to credit and
agricultural inputs, leading to short-term improvements in their livelihoods (Riedinger,
1995). The administration also increased social spending, allocating more funds to
programs like food subsidies and healthcare, providing much-needed, though often
temporary, relief to vulnerable populations. For example, increased funding for rural
health units allowed for more frequent medical outreach programs in remote areas.
Furthermore, the spirit of "People Power" encouraged community-based initiatives,
fostering a sense of self-reliance and local problem-solving. In some barangays,
residents organized cooperative ventures to address local needs, such as establishing
community gardens and micro-lending programs. The return of international aid, linked
to the restored democratic image, provided additional resources for poverty alleviation
programs. For instance, international organizations funded specific projects aimed at
improving sanitation and access to clean water in impoverished communities. Lastly,
the administration focused on basic education, leading to increased literacy rates,
which, in the long term, could have improved economic opportunities for future
generations.

However, these positive impacts were significantly hampered by several persistent

challenges. One of the most controversial cases was Hacienda Luisita, a large sugar
plantation owned by Aquino’s family, which was exempted from redistribution through a
stock distribution option (Borras, 2007). This led to accusations that Aquino’s
commitment to agrarian reform was selective and insufficient. While CARP had noble
intentions, its impact was limited due to its slow execution and failure to significantly
reduce rural poverty. The implementation of CARP was fraught with difficulties,
including landowner resistance and bureaucratic inefficiencies, severely limiting its
effectiveness in reducing rural poverty. In numerous instances, landowners used legal
loopholes and intimidation tactics to prevent land redistribution, rendering many land
reform certificates ineffective (Balisacan, 1994). The numerous coup attempts and
political instability created a climate of uncertainty, discouraging investments and
hindering economic growth, both of which are crucial for poverty reduction. The frequent
disruptions caused by coup attempts led to business closures and job losses,
particularly in urban areas, exacerbating poverty (De Dios & Remolona, 1991). The
substantial debt burden inherited from the Marcos era constrained government
spending on social programs, limiting the resources available for poverty alleviation.
The need to service the national debt forced the government to cut back on funding for
essential social services, such as public hospitals and schools (Boyce, 1992).

Despite increased social spending, the social safety nets remained inadequate to
address the widespread poverty, leaving many vulnerable populations without sufficient
support. For example, the limited coverage of food subsidy programs meant that many
families still struggled to meet their basic nutritional needs (David, 1991). Moreover,
income inequality persisted, indicating that the benefits of economic growth were not
distributed equitably. While some sectors experienced growth, many marginalized
communities continued to lag behind, with limited access to economic opportunities
(Intal & Medalla, 1993). Finally, natural disasters, such as the 1990 Luzon earthquake
and the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption, devastated communities and exacerbated
poverty in affected regions. The destruction of homes and infrastructure left thousands
homeless and without livelihoods, pushing them further into poverty (Manzano, 2000).

Thus, while President Aquino's administration made significant strides in restoring

democracy and initiating some social programs, the persistent challenges of political
instability, economic constraints, and implementation gaps hindered significant progress
in poverty reduction.

In the agricultural sector, Aquino's administration prioritized the restoration of

democratic institutions. As Anderson (1988) argues, democratic transitions often create
opportunities for policy reforms and increased participation, which can benefit
marginalized sectors like agriculture. The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
(CARP) stood as a central pillar of Aquino's agricultural policy, aiming to dismantle the
legacy of land concentration and empower landless farmers (Riedinger, 1995). This
program, while facing numerous obstacles, symbolized a commitment to addressing
historical injustices and promoting equitable land distribution. Moreover, the Aquino
government pursued policies aimed at liberalizing agricultural markets, reducing state
intervention, and fostering private sector participation. As Estudillo and Otsuka (1999)
suggest, market liberalization can enhance efficiency and competitiveness, potentially
benefiting farmers through improved market access and prices.

The administration also sought to bolster rural infrastructure, recognizing its crucial
role in enhancing agricultural productivity and reducing post-harvest losses. As
Rosegrant and Roumasset (1987) emphasized, investment in infrastructure, such as
irrigation and farm-to-market roads, is essential for agricultural development.
Recognizing the importance of long-term sustainability, Aquino's government promoted
sustainable agricultural practices, aligning with the growing global emphasis on
environmental conservation (Conway & Pretty, 1991). Finally, efforts were made to
rehabilitate agricultural research and extension services, aiming to revitalize the sector's
technological capacity and knowledge dissemination (Umali-Deininger, 1997).

On the contrary, the Aquino administration encountered significant challenges in its

agricultural reform efforts. The implementation of CARP faced resistance from powerful
landowners, bureaucratic bottlenecks, and funding constraints, limiting its impact on
land redistribution (Putzel, 1992). As Kerkvliet (1991) observed,entrenched power
structures often impede meaningful agrarian reform. Despite CARP, persistent agrarian
inequality remained a pressing issue, with many farmers still lacking secure land tenure
and access to essential resources (Borras, 1998). The anticipated benefits of market
liberalization did not always materialize for smallholder farmers, who often lacked the
capacity to compete in deregulated markets (Adriano, 1994). As Fafchamps (1992)
noted, market imperfections can exacerbate inequalities in developing countries.

Furthermore, the Philippine agricultural sector continued to rely heavily on traditional

crops, hindering diversification and value addition (Hayami, 1990). The sector also
remained vulnerable to external shocks, such as fluctuations in global commodity prices
and natural disasters, which negatively impacted farmers' incomes and food security
(Bouis, 1991). Finally, despite increased support for rural infrastructure and research,
overall funding for agriculture remained insufficient to address the sector's long-standing
challenges (Habito, 1995). As Pingali and Rosegrant (1995) argue, sustained
investment is crucial for agricultural transformation.
Cory Aquino's leadership ushered in a period of significant change in Philippine
agriculture, marked by a commitment to democratic principles and market-oriented
reforms. While her administration made strides in agrarian reform, market liberalization,
and rural infrastructure development, it also faced formidable challenges in
implementation and addressing persistent inequalities. The Aquino era serves as a
valuable case study in the complexities of agricultural reform and the enduring need for
sustained investment and policy support to achieve equitable and sustainable
agricultural development.

When it came to the economy, Corazon Aquino's administration inherited a deeply

troubled economy and a workforce scarred by years of authoritarian rule. While her
leadership is lauded for restoring democracy, its impact on the Philippine workforce
remains a subject of complex analysis, revealing both positive and negative
consequences. One of the most significant positive impacts was the restoration of
democratic space, which allowed for the resurgence of labor unions and advocacy
groups. This freedom enabled workers to voice their concerns and collectively bargain
for better working conditions.

As Abinales and Amoroso (2005) noted, the post-EDSA era saw a proliferation of
civil society organizations, including labor groups, which played a crucial role in shaping
labor policies. The reinstatement of the right to strike, albeit with certain restrictions,
empowered workers to demand fairer wages and benefits (McCoy, 1999).Furthermore,
Aquino's administration sought to address the issue of rampant cronyism and corruption
that had plagued the Marcos regime. The privatization of certain government-owned
and controlled corporations aimed to promote efficiency and competition, potentially
leading to improved productivity and job creation in the long term. While the immediate
effects were mixed, the underlying principle of economic liberalization was intended to
benefit the broader workforce (De Dios & Ferrer, 1996). The focus on agrarian reform,
albeit partially realized, held the promise of empowering rural workers and farmers. The
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) aimed to redistribute land and
provide support services to landless farmers, potentially improving their economic well-
being (Riedinger, 1995).

Although its implementation faced numerous challenges, the intent to uplift the rural
workforce was a significant policy initiative. Aquino's government also prioritized the
restoration of basic freedoms, including freedom of the press and expression. This
created a more transparent environment where labor issues could be publicly discussed
and scrutinized. The media played a vital role in exposing labor abuses and advocating
for workers' rights, contributing to a more accountable system (Coronel, 1996). The
emphasis on human rights, in general, indirectly benefited the workforce. The release of
political prisoners, many of whom were labor leaders and activists, contributed to a
more open and inclusive political landscape. This allowed for the reintegration of these
individuals into the labor movement and the broader society (Thompson, 1996).Lastly,
the return of political stability, despite numerous coup attempts, provided a semblance
of normalcy that was crucial for economic recovery. This stability, however fragile,
allowed for the gradual rebuilding of investor confidence, which could potentially lead to
increased foreign direct investment and job creation (Hutchcroft, 1998).

Conversely, Aquino's administration faced significant challenges in addressing the

deep-seated economic problems inherited from the previous regime. The
implementation of neoliberal economic policies, including trade liberalization and
deregulation, led to the displacement of workers in certain industries. As Bello (2000)
argued, these policies resulted in the closure of many local businesses unable to
compete with foreign imports, leading to job losses and increased unemployment. The
implementation of CARP was marred by delays, loopholes, and resistance from landed
elites. As Putzel (1992) documented, the program failed to achieve its intended goals,
leaving many landless farmers still marginalized and vulnerable. The limited success of
agrarian reform hindered the potential for widespread economic empowerment in the
rural workforce. The series of coup attempts and political instability created an uncertain
environment that deterred foreign investment and hampered economic growth. This
instability directly impacted the workforce by limiting job opportunities and hindering
wage growth.

As Wurfel (1988) explained, the constant threat of military intervention created a

climate of fear and uncertainty that discouraged long-term economic planning and
investment.The government's handling of labor disputes was often criticized for being
inconsistent and at times, repressive. The use of police and military forces to disperse
strikes and protests led to accusations of human rights violations and undermined the
government's commitment to protecting workers' rights (Ofreneo, 1993). The persistent
problem of poverty and inequality continued to affect the workforce. Despite economic
reforms, a significant portion of the population remained trapped in poverty, with limited
access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. This perpetuated a
cycle of disadvantage for many workers and their families (David, 1998).

Finally, the governments debt management, and the requirements of paying that
debt, greatly hampered the governments ability to increase funding for social programs,
which directly effects the health and well being of the work force. The burden of foreign
debt limited the government's ability to invest in infrastructure, education, and social
services, which are essential for long-term economic development and workforce
productivity. As indicated by the USAID report about Tax reform, debt greatly effected
possible allocation of funds into important socail programs (Philippines DRM Case
Study). President Corazon Aquino's leadership had a profound but complex impact on
the Philippine workforce. While her administration restored democratic freedoms and
initiated important reforms, it also faced significant economic challenges and political
instability. The legacy of her leadership continues to shape the Philippine labor
landscape, highlighting the ongoing struggle to achieve economic justice and social
equity.

Education was another key area where Corazon Cojuangco Aquino wanted to
make things better. Upon assuming office, Aquino's government prioritized the
restoration of democratic principles, a move that had profound implications for the
education system. As Thompson (1996) argues, democratic transitions often create
fertile ground for reforms, fostering an environment where academic freedom and
critical thinking can flourish. Specifically, the government reinstated the teaching of
subjects like social studies and history, which had been heavily censored during the
Marcos regime. Textbooks like "People Power: An Eyewitness History" were introduced,
promoting a more balanced and critical understanding of the nation's past. The
"Freedom Constitution" of 1986 also guaranteed academic freedom in educational
institutions. Recognizing the crucial role of funding in educational quality, the Aquino
government increased the budgetary allocation for education. Habito (1995) notes the
importance of adequate funding in addressing the sector's longstanding deficiencies.

This increased investment aimed to improve school infrastructure, provide better

teaching materials, and enhance teacher salaries. For instance, the "School Building
Program" allocated funds for the construction of over 10,000 classrooms nationwide.
The Department of Education, Culture, and Sports (DECS) also implemented the
"Textbook Provision Program," distributing millions of textbooks to public schools. The
administration also initiated the decentralization of education governance, empowering
local communities and schools to participate in decision-making processes. Alonzo
(1990) highlights the potential of decentralization to improve the delivery of social
services, including education, by fostering greater responsiveness to local needs.

The creation of the "Local School Boards" as mandated by the Local Government
Code of 1991, allowed for greater community input in school management, including the
allocation of the Special Education Fund (SEF).A distinctive feature of Aquino's
educational policy was the emphasis on values education. Licuanan (1992) underscores
the importance of moral and civic values in shaping responsible citizens. The
government sought to integrate values education into the curriculum, promoting
principles of integrity, patriotism, and social responsibility. The "Values Education
Program" was implemented, focusing on character development and ethical behavior,
with subjects like "Good Manners and Right Conduct" being re-emphasized.
Furthermore, resources were allocated for the rehabilitation of school infrastructure,
addressing the deterioration of school buildings and facilities that had been neglected
during the previous regime (David, 1989). The "Adopt-a-School" program encouraged
private sector participation in school rehabilitation, with companies and individuals
donating resources for school improvements. Recognizing the importance of lifelong
learning, the government also strengthened non-formal education programs, providing
alternative learning opportunities for out-of-school youth and adults (Librero, 1991). The
"Alternative Learning System (ALS)" was expanded to reach more remote communities,
offering literacy and livelihood skills training.

However, the Aquino administration faced significant challenges in its endeavor to

transform Philippine education. The decentralization of education governance, while
well-intentioned, encountered difficulties in implementation. Brillantes (1994) points to
the challenges of limited capacity at the local level and uneven implementation across
regions. Local school boards often lacked the technical expertise and financial
resources to effectively manage schools, leading to delays in fund disbursements and
project implementation. Despite increased funding, persistent quality issues remained.
Tan (1990) highlights the ongoing problems of overcrowded classrooms, inadequate
teaching materials, and a shortage of qualified teachers. Many schools still lacked basic
facilities like libraries and laboratories, and the teacher-to-student ratio remained high.

Moreover, the administration's efforts did not fully address the issue of access to
education for marginalized groups. Borras (1998) notes the continuing challenges faced
by indigenous communities and children in remote areas in accessing quality education.
Indigenous communities often faced cultural and linguistic barriers to education, with a
lack of teachers trained in indigenous languages and a curriculum that did not reflect
their cultural context. Curriculum inconsistencies and a lack of standardized testing
created challenges for ensuring quality and comparability across schools (Intal, 1990).
There was a lack of a unified national curriculum, leading to variations in educational
standards and difficulty in assessing student learning outcomes. Despite efforts to
depoliticize education, political influence persisted in some aspects of the education
system, affecting appointments and resource allocation (Putzel, 1992).

Local politicians sometimes interfered in the hiring and promotion of teachers, and
political patronage influenced the awarding of contracts for school supplies and
infrastructure projects. Finally, while efforts were made to improve teacher training, the
overall impact was limited by funding constraints and logistical challenges, impacting
the quality of instruction (Pabuayon, 1992). Many teachers lacked access to continuing
professional development opportunities, and the training programs offered were often
inadequate or irrelevant to their needs.

Cory Aquino's presidency marked a period of significant change in Philippine education.

While her administration made substantial efforts to restore democratic principles,
increase funding, and decentralize governance, it also faced formidable challenges in
addressing persistent quality issues and ensuring equitable access to education.

Regarding investments, President Cory Aquino's leadership, while heralding a new

era of democratic governance for the Philippines, presented a complex and multifaceted
impact on investment flows. On the one hand, her administration achieved several
notable successes that positively influenced investor sentiment. The restoration of
democratic institutions after years of authoritarian rule significantly enhanced the
country's international standing, fostering a renewed sense of goodwill among foreign
investors and international development agencies (Wurfel, 1988). This improved image
translated into tangible benefits, such as the return of international aid, which, while
often tied to specific conditions, provided crucial financial support for government
projects and indirectly stimulated local business activity.

Furthermore, the early stages of telecommunications liberalization demonstrated the

potential for growth in emerging sectors, attracting initial investments from foreign
companies seeking to explore the Philippine market (Intal & Medalla, 1993). This
signaled a shift towards a more market-oriented economy, which, in principle, appealed
to certain investors. The initial euphoria following the People Power Revolution also
contributed to a temporary surge in investor optimism, leading to some early
investments. Despite that, these positive influences were significantly counteracted by
several persistent challenges that negatively impacted investment flows.

The violent coup attempt of 1987, in particular, dealt a devastating blow to investor
confidence, leading to the cancellation or postponement of numerous projects,
especially in sectors like tourism and manufacturing (Boyce, 1992). This event
highlighted the fragility of the new democratic order and underscored the risks
associated with investing in a politically unstable environment. Moreover, the persistent
energy crisis, characterized by frequent power outages and unreliable electricity supply,
crippled industrial operations and deterred both domestic and foreign investment in
manufacturing (Manzano, 2000). The implementation challenges of the Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) also created uncertainty in land ownership, leading
to a decline in agricultural investments (Riedinger, 1995). Lingering bureaucratic
inefficiencies and corruption further hindered policy implementation and discouraged
potential investors seeking a transparent business environment.
 Additionally, the heavy debt burden inherited from the previous regime constrained
government spending on infrastructure and development projects, limiting the potential
for attracting investments in these areas. Ultimately, the numerous coup attempts and
political unrest created a pervasive climate of uncertainty, making long-term investment
decisions risky and deterring potential investors (Segundo, 2011). Therefore, while
President Aquino's administration achieved significant strides in restoring democracy
and laying the groundwork for future economic reforms, the persistent challenges of
political instability, energy shortages, and bureaucratic hurdles significantly hampered
the influx of investments during her tenure.

The workforce also saw both good and bad during Corazon Cojuangco Aquino's
time. Aquino's administration faced the challenging task of restoring democratic
principles and revitalizing the labor sector. A cornerstone of Aquino's labor policy was
the restoration of workers' rights. Thompson (1996) emphasizes the importance of
democratic transitions in creating space for labor rights advocacy. Specifically, the
administration repealed Presidential Decree 823, which had severely restricted the right
to strike, allowing workers to once again use this tool for collective bargaining
(Thompson, 1996). The administration reinstated the right to organize, strike, and
bargain collectively, which had been severely curtailed during the Marcos regime. This
restoration of democratic space led to the revitalization of labor unions. Constantino-
David (1992) highlights the role of labor unions in empowering workers to advocate for
their rights and improve working conditions. For example, the Trade Union Congress of
the Philippines (TUCP) saw a resurgence in membership and activity, advocating for
better wages and working conditions (Constantino-David, 1992).

The resurgence of labor activism was a significant development, allowing workers to

voice their grievances and demand better treatment.The Aquino government also
emphasized tripartism, fostering dialogue and cooperation among labor, management,
and government. Ofreneo (1992) underscores the importance of tripartism in promoting
industrial peace and addressing labor issues through negotiation. The creation of the
National Labor Relations Commission (NLRC) and the Tripartite Industrial Peace
Councils (TIPCs) provided platforms for these dialogues (Ofreneo, 1992). This
approach aimed to create a more harmonious and productive labor environment. To
improve the living standards of low-wage workers, the administration implemented
increases in the minimum wage.

Habito (1995) notes the importance of minimum wage adjustments in alleviating

poverty. For example, the Wage Rationalization Act of 1989 adjusted minimum wages
across different regions to better reflect the cost of living (Habito, 1995). The creation of
the Presidential Commission on Urban Poor (PCUP) addressed the needs of
marginalized urban workers and informal sector workers. David (1992) highlights the
challenges faced by the urban poor and the importance of targeted interventions. PCUP
implemented programs to provide housing, livelihood training, and access to basic
services for urban poor communities (David, 1992). The government also continued to
support overseas employment, providing employment opportunities for many Filipino
workers and generating remittances (McKay, 2012). The Philippine Overseas
Employment Administration (POEA) expanded its services to facilitate the deployment
of overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) (McKay, 2012).

Alternatively, the Aquino administration faced significant challenges in its efforts to

transform the labor sector. Despite efforts to revitalize the economy, unemployment
remained a persistent problem, particularly among youth and marginalized groups. Intal
(1990) points to the challenges of addressing unemployment in a developing economy.
For instance, the unemployment rate remained high, particularly in urban centers,
despite economic growth initiatives (Intal, 1990). Labor contractualization and
precarious employment continued to be prevalent, undermining job security and
workers' rights. Ofreneo (1992) highlights the persistence of labor contractualization as
a major challenge. Many companies continued to hire workers on short-term contracts,
denying them benefits and job security (Ofreneo, 1992). Moreover, the administration's
policies did not fully address the issue of rural unemployment and underemployment.
Riedinger (1995) notes the continuing challenges of rural poverty and the need for
comprehensive rural development strategies.

Despite CARP, many rural workers remained landless and lacked access to
alternative livelihood opportunities (Riedinger, 1995). Challenges in enforcing labor
standards and regulations persisted, leading to violations of workers' rights and unsafe
working conditions. Constantino-David (1992) underscores the importance of effective
labor law enforcement. Many employers continued to violate minimum wage laws and
occupational safety standards, particularly in small and medium-sized enterprises
(Constantino-David, 1992). Economic liberalization policies, while intended to promote
growth, led to job losses in some sectors and increased competition, impacting workers'
livelihoods. Adriano (1994) discusses the impact of economic liberalization on the
agricultural sector, which employs a significant portion of the workforce. The influx of
imported agricultural products led to job losses in the domestic agricultural sector
(Adriano, 1994). Finally, while efforts were made to promote skills training, the overall
impact was limited by funding constraints and logistical challenges, impacting the
employability of workers. Tan (1990) highlights the importance of investing in human
capital development. The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA) faced funding constraints and logistical challenges in providing effective skills
training programs (Tan, 1990).
Cory Aquino's presidency marked a period of significant change for the Philippine
workforce. While her administration made substantial efforts to restore workers' rights,
revitalize labor unions, and promote tripartism, it also faced formidable challenges in
addressing unemployment, labor contractualization, and rural employment. The Aquino
era serves as a crucial chapter in the history of Philippine labor, highlighting the
complexities of labor reform and the enduring need for sustained investment and policy
support to build a just and equitable labor market.

Food security was still a concern during Corazon Cojuangco Aquino's presidency.
Aquino's administration recognized the imperative of addressing food security through
agricultural reform. Beyond simple liberalization, Aquino's administration, often through
local NGOs and forward-thinking technocrats, subtly encouraged diversified farming
systems. This meant moving away from monoculture and embracing intercropping,
agroforestry, and integrated pest management, building resilience against single-crop
failures and enhancing nutritional diversity at the local level. This micro-level innovation,
though not always centrally directed, laid the groundwork for future sustainable
agriculture practices (Conelly & Pearson, 1995). A crucial, often overlooked, aspect was
the rise of community-based food security initiatives. Driven by the spirit of "bayanihan,"
local communities, often with support from religious organizations, established
communal gardens, food banks, and bartering systems. This grassroots response to
food insecurity fostered social cohesion and self-reliance, demonstrating the power of
collective action in times of crisis (Ileto, 1998).

Moreover, recognizing that food loss occurred not just in production but also in post-
harvest handling, the Aquino government, albeit with limited resources, supported
initiatives promoting improved post-harvest technologies. This included training in food
preservation techniques, construction of small-scale storage facilities, and promotion of
drying and processing methods, reducing food waste and enhancing food availability
(Ebron, 1993). A significant, albeit sometimes subtle, shift was the increased
involvement of women in agricultural extension programs. Recognizing women's crucial
role in food production and household food security, the government, through various
agencies and NGOs, began to target women farmers with training and support,
empowering them as key agents of change (Illo, 1990).There was a quiet but significant
resurgence of interest in indigenous crops and traditional agricultural knowledge.

This involved documenting and promoting the cultivation of native varieties of rice,
root crops, and vegetables, which were often more resilient to local conditions and
nutritionally superior to imported varieties. This effort helped preserve biodiversity and
enhance food security in marginalized communities (Fernandez, 1988). Amidst
economic hardship, the government, through local initiatives, encouraged the
establishment of "survival gardens" in urban and peri-urban areas. This involved
utilizing available spaces, such as backyards and vacant lots, to grow vegetables and
fruits, providing a supplementary food source and fostering a culture of self-sufficiency.
This movement, while small-scale, had a significant psychological impact, fostering a
sense of agency and resilience.

However, the pursuit of food security under Aquino's leadership was consistently
thwarted by the complex realities of the era. The need to service the country's massive
foreign debt led to an aggressive push for agricultural exports, often at the expense of
domestic food production. This resulted in the diversion of land and resources towards
export crops like bananas and pineapples, leading to shortages of staple foods and
increased reliance on imports. This policy ironically undermined food security while
attempting to address economic woes (Broad, 1988).While CARP aimed to redistribute
land, it also inadvertently created opportunities for "crony agribusiness" to consolidate
landholdings through legal loopholes and political influence. This resulted in land
grabbing, displacement of small farmers, and the concentration of agricultural wealth in
the hands of a few, exacerbating food insecurity for the most vulnerable (Hawes, 1987).

Furthermore, the government's promotion of high-yielding varieties and chemical

fertilizers, often driven by international aid programs, led to environmental degradation
and increased dependence on costly inputs. This "fertilizer fiasco" resulted in soil
depletion, water pollution, and reduced long-term agricultural productivity, undermining
the sustainability of food production (Lappé & Schurman, 1989). While international food
aid provided temporary relief, it also created a "food aid dependency trap," undermining
local food production and creating a disincentive for farmers to invest in agriculture. This
dependency made the country vulnerable to fluctuations in international food prices and
aid policies (Maxwell, 1991).

The economic crisis and political instability during Aquino's term led to a "brain
drain," with many agricultural experts and scientists leaving the country for better
opportunities abroad. This loss of expertise hampered the development and
implementation of effective agricultural policies and programs, further undermining food
security (Tan, 1992).While agriculture received much attention, the fisheries sector, a
crucial source of food and livelihood for millions of Filipinos, was largely neglected.
Overfishing, illegal fishing practices, and destruction of coastal habitats led to declining
fish stocks and jeopardized coastal food security, particularly for marginalized fishing
communities (Primavera, 1998).

In terms of fairness and justice, Aquino faced the daunting task of rebuilding
democratic institutions, particularly the justice system. Her tenure, while celebrated for
its restoration of democratic ideals, presented a complex and often contradictory legacy
concerning the pursuit of justice. Aquino's immediate actions signaled a clear departure
from the Marcos era. The restoration of the 1987 Constitution, a cornerstone of her
administration, provided a legal framework that prioritized human rights and due
process. As De Guzman (2018) argues, this constitution "significantly strengthened the
judiciary's independence and enshrined the principles of checks and balances," laying
the groundwork for a more equitable legal system.

One of Aquino's most significant contributions was the restoration of judicial

independence, a crucial step in dismantling the political patronage that had plagued the
judiciary. By depoliticizing judicial appointments, her administration aimed to establish a
merit-based system, ensuring that judges were selected based on their qualifications
rather than political affiliations (David, 2010). Furthermore, the establishment of the
Presidential Commission on Human Rights (PCHR) demonstrated a commitment to
addressing the human rights abuses of the past. As Bautista (2005) notes, the PCHR
played a vital role in documenting these violations, laying the foundation for potential
accountability. The release of political prisoners, a symbolic act of reconciliation, and
the revitalization of the Commission on Elections (COMELEC) to ensure free and fair
elections further underscored Aquino's commitment to democratic principles (McCoy,
1999; Coronel, 1991). The ambitious Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
(CARP), though fraught with challenges, represented an attempt to rectify historical
injustices related to land ownership (Reyes, 2003). Finally, the fostering of a vibrant civil
society provided a crucial check on governmental power, allowing organizations to
advocate for human rights and promote transparency (Sison, 2012).

Differently, the path to justice was far from smooth. The deep-seated legacy of
authoritarianism, coupled with political instability and economic constraints, hindered the
full realization of Aquino's reform agenda. A critical failing was the lack of accountability
for the human rights abuses committed during the Marcos era. Despite the PCHR's
efforts, the culture of impunity persisted, as those responsible were rarely brought to
justice (Anderson, 2008). The Mendiola Massacre in 1987, where protesting farmers
were killed by security forces, highlighted the ongoing problem of military abuses,
demonstrating that the restoration of democracy did not automatically translate to
respect for human rights (Doronila, 1991). The implementation of CARP was marred by
bureaucratic inefficiencies and resistance from powerful landowners, resulting in limited
land redistribution and perpetuating agrarian unrest (Putzel, 1992). The resurgence of
vigilante groups, often linked to the military, created a climate of fear and lawlessness,
undermining the rule of law (Gutierrez, 1994). Moreover, the numerous coup attempts
that plagued Aquino's administration diverted resources and attention away from reform
efforts, hindering the government's ability to address systemic problems within the
justice system (Hedman & Sidel, 2000).
 Finally, the persistent problems of corruption and inefficiency within the justice
system continued to impede access to justice for ordinary Filipinos (Montes, 1999).
Cory Aquino's impact on the Philippine justice system was a complex tapestry of
progress and setbacks. Her administration's commitment to restoring democratic
institutions and human rights laid the groundwork for significant reforms. However, the
legacy of authoritarianism, political instability, and economic constraints hindered the full
realization of her reform agenda. While she successfully restored some aspects of
judicial independence and fostered a more open political environment, the persistent
problems of impunity, military abuses, and corruption underscored the challenges of
transitioning from authoritarian rule.

Aquino's most celebrated achievement was the peaceful restoration of democracy

following the ousting of Ferdinand Marcos in the 1986 People Power Revolution. This
marked a crucial turning point, ending years of authoritarian rule and ushering in a new
era of civil liberties (Wurfel, 1988). The re-establishment of democratic institutions,
including the revival of Congress and the drafting of a new constitution, laid the
groundwork for a more participatory and accountable government (McCoy, 1999).
Furthermore, Aquino's emphasis on reconciliation and national unity helped to heal the
deep divisions created by the Marcos regime (Landé, 1996). Her administration's
commitment to press freedom and human rights created a more open and tolerant
society (Sidel, 1999). Additionally, her moral leadership, rooted in her personal integrity
and commitment to democratic principles, resonated with the Filipino people and the
international community, bolstering the nation's image (Timberlake, 1991). The return of
international aid, linked to the restored democratic image, provided additional resources
for the country (Boyce, 1992). Finally, her focus on the importance of basic education
helped to increase literacy rates, which is a vital component to long term economic
growth (Balisacan, 1994).

Despite these achievements, the Aquino administration faced numerous formidable

challenges that hindered its ability to fully address the nation's problems. The
implementation of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP), a cornerstone
of her social agenda, was significantly delayed and hampered by landowner resistance
and bureaucratic inefficiencies (Riedinger, 1995). This resulted in limited land
redistribution and continued rural poverty. The numerous coup attempts and political
instability created a climate of uncertainty, discouraging foreign investment and
hindering economic growth (De Dios & Remolona, 1991). These destabilizing events
diverted government resources and attention away from crucial development initiatives.
The substantial debt burden inherited from the Marcos regime constrained government
spending on social programs, limiting the resources available for poverty alleviation
(David, 1991).
 The administration also struggled to address persistent income inequality, with the
benefits of economic growth not being evenly distributed (Intal & Medalla, 1993).
Furthermore, natural disasters, such as the 1990 Luzon earthquake and the 1991
Mount Pinatubo eruption, devastated communities and exacerbated poverty in affected
regions (Manzano, 2000). Finally, the energy crisis during the late 80's and early 90's
caused many blackouts, and caused many businesses to have a difficult time operating
(Pernia, 1991).

Corazon Cojuangco Aquino's presidency, a chapter etched deeply into the Philippine
narrative, remains a subject of profound reflection. Stepping into the nation's highest office in
1986, following the seismic shift of the "People Power Revolution," she inherited a country
burdened by the weight of decades of authoritarian rule. This transition was not merely a
change of leadership; it symbolized a collective yearning for freedom and a repudiation of the
Marcos regime's legacy. As a Filipino, the events of that era resonate beyond historical
accounts, embodying a spirit of national unity and courage that continues to inspire. However,
the idealism of the revolution confronted the stark realities of governance, revealing the
complexities of rebuilding a nation fractured by economic instability and social inequality. This
essay seeks to delve into the multifaceted impact of Corazon Cojuangco Aquino's leadership,
examining her administration's endeavors and their enduring effects on the Philippines.

The most indelible mark of her presidency lies in the restoration of democracy. This single
act reshaped the nation's political landscape, laying the groundwork for a more open and
participatory society. While the Philippines continues to grapple with issues of political
patronage and corruption, the re-establishment of democratic institutions stands as a testament
to her commitment to freedom. Research, as evidenced by McCoy (1999), underscores the
significance of this transition, highlighting the shift from authoritarianism to a more democratic
environment. Personally, I witness the continued importance of free elections and civil liberties
as direct descendants of this era, a testament to the enduring power of her actions.

However, the economic challenges inherited from the Marcos regime proved to be a
formidable obstacle. The burden of national debt, the complexities of land reform, and the
lingering effects of crony capitalism created a landscape of persistent inequality. Studies by De
Dios & Bautista (1996) and Putzel (1992) illuminate the enduring impact of these economic
policies, or rather, the limitations thereof. The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
(CARP), intended to redistribute land to landless farmers, serves as a poignant example. Its
implementation, hampered by resistance and loopholes, highlighted the difficulties of enacting
meaningful change in a society deeply entrenched in existing power structures. The
consequences of these challenges are still visible today, with rural poverty and uneven
economic distribution remaining pressing issues.

Furthermore, the efforts to reform institutions, such as the creation of the Presidential
Commission on Good Government (PCGG), were crucial steps towards accountability. As
Caoile (1999) demonstrates, the PCGG's work, while significant, also revealed the challenges of
combating deep-seated corruption. The persistence of this issue, along with the slow pace of
judicial reform, underscores the reality that institutional change is a protracted and arduous
process. The need for a robust and impartial justice system remains a critical lesson from this
period.

The social fabric of the nation also bore the marks of Corazon Cojuangco Aquino's
administration. Efforts to improve education and address poverty, while facing limitations,
highlighted the importance of social welfare. Research, as seen in Bernardo (2004), illustrates
the enduring challenges within the education system. The need to improve access to quality
education and reduce inequality remains a priority, reflecting the unfinished work of her era. The
understanding that social programs require proper funding, and management, is a lesson that is
still being learned.

In summary, Corazon Cojuangco Aquino's presidency was a period of transition, marked

by both triumphs and tribulations. She successfully restored democracy and laid the groundwork
for economic recovery. However, her administration faced significant challenges in addressing
deep-seated societal problems. The legacies of her era—democratic restoration, economic
challenges, institutional reform, and social welfare—continue to shape the Philippines today.

Looking forward, the lessons learned from her presidency offer valuable insights for
addressing contemporary challenges. First, the importance of strengthening institutions cannot
be overstated. Future efforts must prioritize institutional reform, including enhancing the
judiciary, combating corruption, and improving bureaucratic efficiency. Second, sustainable and
inclusive economic development must be a central focus. Policies should aim to diversify the
economy, promote equitable growth, and reduce dependence on external factors. Third,
comprehensive and well-funded social programs are essential for addressing poverty and
inequality. Fourth, continued work on agrarian reform, that truly benefits farmers, is needed.
Finally, the "People Power Revolution" demonstrated the power of civic engagement. Fostering
a culture of active citizenship and promoting transparency and accountability are crucial for
sustaining democratic governance. Ultimately, Corazon Cojuangco Aquino's legacy is a
reminder that democracy is a continuous process, demanding constant vigilance and
commitment. Her era provides invaluable lessons for navigating the complexities of nation-
building and striving towards a more just and equitable
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