Enhancing cold-weather performance of electric

vehicles through innovative thermal management

strategies

Bennie Farai Chademunhu [Link] Gupta

Electrical Engineering (EV) Electrical Engineering (EV)
Chandigarh University. Chandigarh University
Mohali,Punjab,India. Mohali,Punjab,India
22MEV10005@[Link] surbhi.e9023@[Link]

Abstract— In cold weather, electric and hybrid vehicles (EVs/ deadlines to stop selling gasoline and diesel cars [11]. For
HEVs) experience reduced performance due to slowed instance, the UK aims to end sales of these cars by 2030
electrochemical processes, resul ng in power and energy loss. [2]. The US and Norway have similar plans [8].In the UK,
To mi gate this, ba ery thermal management systems are there could be nearly 24 million EVs by then, and in
employed, o en drawing power from the ba ery itself when Norway, almost all new cars sold could be electric [3].
not connected to the grid, impac ng overall range. This paper China is leading the world in EV adoption, with millions of
proposes a novel strategy for EVs/HEVs to op mize energy EVs already on the road [1]. The advancements in electric
usage and ba ery longevity. U lizing heat from the motor and vehicle (EV) technology in recent years have been
an electro-thermal ba ery model developed using MATLAB/ significant, particularly in areas such as increasing energy
Simulink and accoun ng for aging, the strategy aims to strike a density and reducing the expense of high-voltage batteries,
balance between energy conserva on and ba ery health. improving the efficiency of electric motors, enhancing
Simula on results highlight the shortcomings of current power electronics and control strategies [2]. However,
approaches, par cularly in addressing cold-induced ba ery despite these advancements, the limited driving range due
aging, emphasizing the need for op mized solu ons. the high cost of batteries remains a central challenge for the
widespread adoption and commercialisation of electric
Keywords —Electric Vehicle, Ba ery Management Systems , vehicles [9].Various factors significantly affect the actual
range of an electric vehicle one of this factors is low
Ba ery aging, energy loss
temperatures. The range of electric vehicle is directly linked
to battery’s [Link] lithium- ion battery is currently
leading is as the go to battery chemistry used in electric
I. INTRODUCTION vehicles.

Climate change is a big problem for our planet. It's Overview of (Lithium-Ion) Battery Technology Background
mainly caused by humans emitting a lot of carbon dioxide
and other gasses into the atmosphere, which trap heat and Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are crucial for EVs, and
make the earth warmer [3]. One major source of these understanding their technology is essential. Lithium-ion (Li-
emissions is transportation, like cars and trucks that run on ion) batteries have become the foundation of electric vehicle
gasoline or diesel. To tackle this problem, countries are (EV) technology due to their greater energy density, cycle
trying to switch to cleaner forms of energy and reduce their life, and power output compared to other traditional battery
emissions. They're focusing on things like electricity and chemistries[3].However Several challenges hinder the
transportation because they contribute a lot to the issue. For widespread deployment of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries,
example, in the UK, a significant portion of greenhouse gas especially in electric vehicle (EV) applications. Some of
emissions come from supplying energy and transportation. these challenges include poor energy capacity in cold
Many countries have set goals to produce zero emissions by [Link] strategies have been proposed to address
2050 [9]. Electric vehicles (EVs) are a big part of this plan. these challenges and improve the performance of LIBs at
They produce much fewer emissions than traditional cars low temperatures. One approach is electrolyte optimisation,
because they run on electricity, especially if that electricity where additives or alternative electrolyte formulations are
comes from renewable sources like solar or wind power [6]. used to enhance ionic conductivity and maintain fluidity at
Governments are encouraging people to buy EVs by setting low [Link] active approaches such as
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electrolyte reformulation and electrode material impedance. This reduction in capacity is depicted in figure
modification show great promise in overcoming the above, showing a significant decrease in Lithium-ion
challenges associated with using LIBs at low temperatures battery performance below zero °C temperatures. For
[8]. In addition to electrolyte reformulation, another positive instance, Lithium-ion cells at -8°C may only provide 65%
approach involves modifying the electrode materials to of the usable energy compared to ambient at a temperature
improve their performance at low temperatures. For of 25°C, batteries typically exhibit higher capacity
e x a m p l e , o n e s t u d y. i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e u s e o f compared to lower temperatures. However, battery capacity
Li1.1Ni0.4Mn0.4Co0.1O2 (LNMC) as a cathode material peaks around 21°C and significantly diminishes below 0°C,
for LIBs operating at low temperatures [12]. They found meaning Electric Vehicles (EVs) in colder climates require
that LNMC exhibited excellent rate capability and cycling more frequent charging for similar travel distances. Another
stability, making it a promising candidate for issue related to capacity loss is unbalanced capacity caused
lowtemperature applications. Similarly, same study by temperature variations and non-homogeneous heat
produced a developed composite cathode material distribution within the battery. This can occur due to the
consisting of LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 (NCA) and distributed nature of Li-ion cells across an EV, resulting in
Li2MnSiO4 (LMS) for enhanced low-temperature some cells operating at different temperatures than others.
performance of LIBs [12]. By combining different electrode Slower electrochemical kinetics and increased battery
materials, they achieved improved capacity retention and polarization at low temperatures further exacerbate capacity
rate capability at low temperatures compared to loss [4]. In addition to slower kinetics at low temperature
conventional cathode materials. the internal chemical reaction rates slow down and the
activation energy goes higher. Speed of the Chemical
reactions determines the power released by the battery.
II. LOW TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON BATTERY Since battery power is directly linked the EV torque/horse
power the adoption of EV in hilly cold areas like Himachal
A. Battery capacity and Battery power Pradesh has been very slow. Furthermore, the presence of
low-capacity cells within the battery, installed for protection
Now, let's explore the effects of cold temperatures on against overcharging and discharge, can further limit the
electric vehicles. As discussed cold temperatures can reduce operating conditions of the battery, especially in cold
the energy storage capacity of Lithium-ion batteries,
thereby reducing the overall driving range of Electric temperatures
Vehicles. Additionally, cold temperatures result in an
increase in the battery’s internal resistance hindering the B. Battery Degradation
movement of lithium ions through the electrolyte. This
resistance makes it more challenging for the battery to While the suggested operational temperature range for
charge and discharge efficiently, limiting its power output Battery Electric Vehicles typically spans from -20°C to
[3].The figure below show how capacity and internal 60°C, the optimal temperature falls between 17°C to 25°C
resistance is affected by cold temperatures on the cells of [11]. However, the majority of degradation processes in
lithium ion batteries. Lithium-ion cells occur at extreme temperatures, such as
cold temperatures. Cold weather conditions not only lowers
the rate of lithium ion diffusion and reaction within the
battery but also lead to lithium plating [12]. Lithium
plating, which is the growth of lithium dendrites, can
significantly cause battery degradation, resulting in a
reduction in range, heightened internal resistance, loss of
capacity, decreased energy efficiency, and potential
overheating. Developing degradation modeling methods is
essential for understanding battery degradation under
different temperature conditions. There are two main types
of models: theoretical models derived from empirical data
and electrochemistry and models developed from actual
experiments. Theoretical models focus on active materials
and lithium ion loss, explaining various degradation
mechanisms influenced by battery use and condition. For
example, the impact of temperature could be modeled using
Arrhenius equations, which describe the rate of reaction
based on activation energy and temperature [14]. While
FIGURE 1. Battery characteristics at different temperatures for Arrhenius models provide high-level estimations of battery
resistance and capacity operation, they lack detailed insights into the internal
structure of the battery and the degradation processes at the
Lowering the temperature affects the rate of diffusion of molecular level. Empirical models, on the other hand, offer
electrodes, the conductivity of the electrolyte, and that of simplicity for storage planning and operational studies but
the (SEI) layer, leading to increased internal resistance. As a are constrained by the empirical data upon which they rely.
result, capacity loss occurs due to higher incremental Semi-empirical models, combining theoretical analysis with
practical observations, offer a more reliable and effective
approach, bridging the gap between theoretical and
empirical models [15]. Battery degradation encompasses
various factors leading to decreased performance and
capacity over time, like driving patterns, elapsed time,
charging habits, and environmental conditions. It's a
complex process initiated by physical and chemical
transformations inside the components of the battery.

C. Battery Ageing
While aging and degradation are often used
interchangeably, aging specifically refers to the the
combined impact of usage and time on battery performance
[7]. Battery aging, specifically, refers to degradation over
time due to usage and the passage of time [9]. Enhancing
the lifespan of batteries is crucial, considering batteries are FIGURE 2. Calendar Aging For Parked EV in Cold Weather
often the costliest component of electric vehicles (EVs).
Especially at low temperatures, understanding battery aging This suggests a nuanced understanding of the
mechanisms is essential for estimating and extending environmental factors influencing battery lifespan. Batteries
vehicle lifespan. Battery aging initiates at the boundaries aged under different temperature regimes. At higher
between electrodes and electrolytes, primarily because of temperatures, accelerated degradation was observed,
the chemical composition of the electrolyte within the cell. indicating the importance of temperature control in battery
The composition of electrodes plays a crucial role in [Link], batteries stored at colder temperatures
shaping aging processes, that can manifest as mechanical or exhibited slower degradation rates, albeit with increased
chemical phenomena. Two primary outcomes of battery degradation at subzero conditions. These insights are
aging include increased internal resistance and diminished crucial for optimizing battery management strategies in
battery capacity. Several chemical-based processes, electric vehicles, where long-term performance is
determined by electrode materials, contribute to reduced paramount. Additionally, the study underscores the need for
battery performance, resulting in a reduced driving range robust thermal management systems to mitigate the adverse
and increased resistance. effects of temperature extremes on battery health.

a) Aging in Standby
b) Aging in Charging and Driving
In Electric Vehicles calendar aging takes place when a The gradual loss of a battery's life during charging and
battery is stored without current flow, typically during discharging cycles, which occurs while an electric vehicle
periods of parking [8]. During this time, the primary aging (EV) charges or being driven is called Cycle aging.
mechanism is the formation and expansion of the (SEI) Charging efficiency and available energy decrease under
layer on the anode. Several factors affect calendar aging, low temperatures, and battery capacity lowers with
including parking time, temperature, and state of charge decreasing ambient temperature during charging.
(SoC) levels [10]. Prolonged parking, extreme Additionally, lithium plating, where lithium deposits as a
temperatures, and high or low SoC levels accelerate SEI metal onto anode surfaces, is a major issue during cold
formation, leading to increased aging. A study carried out weather conditions and higher C rates, further accelerating
over a period of a year investigated calendar aging in battery [Link] empirical study aimed to estimate capacity
commercial Li-ion batteries by considering storage SoC and losses per full equivalent cycles (FEC). The battery capacity
temperature [4]. The study examined six distinct SoC per full equivalent cycle (FEC) is dependent on the ambient
storage levels (ranging between (0% and 100%) and four temperature. The capacity loss is minimal for temperature in
distinct storage temperatures (-8°C, 2°C, 17°C, and 30°C) the range of (20°C to 30°C). Discharge during driving also
[4]. Throughout the study, electrochemical measurements contributes to battery aging, with degradation influenced by
were conducted monthly to track changes in battery factors such as depth of discharge (DoD), current discharge
performance. The data revealed notable trends in capacity during travel, and ambient [Link] related
retention and internal resistance as the calendar aging While aging during driving is more difficult to control,
process [Link] findings shed light on the intricate various charging methods can help mitigate aging during
relationship between temperature and battery degradation the charging process. These methods include charging
over extended storage periods. Interestingly, the research methods such as fast, pulse, trickle, and smart charging,
uncovered that subzero temperatures exacerbated along with temperature control, all aimed at reducing
degradation processes within the batteries [5]. battery degradation and charging time. Appropriate
temperatures along with optimized charging methods reduce
cell aging during charging. Thermal
 battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Among these, air heating
was one of the earliest heating management methods
adopted. Liquid and air heating methods are mostly used for
external heating in EVs due to their ease of implementation
and lower technical complexity. PCM, on the other hand,
demonstrates superior performance as an external heating
element when it comes to the rate at which it can heat the
battery. Internal heating methods, on the other hand, can
obtain a greater rate of temperature increase in lesser time
compared to external heating methods. For instance,
incorporating multilayer nickel foil to serve as a a heater
and a temperature sensor inside the battery cells allows for
rapid heating, reaching from -50°C to room temperature in
just one minute. This rapid internal heating minimizes the
effects of thermal aging and allows the battery to reach an
80% state of charge (SoC) level in just 13 minutes at a
FIGURE 3. FEC at Different Temperatures temperature of -50°C. However, internal heating techniques
require complex control systems and may potentially
management and other external protection measures are compromise battery pack safety. While internal heating
also employed to preserve battery health. methods offer advantages in terms of rapid heating and
minimizing thermal aging, they are still at the laboratory
stage and have not been widely adopted in practical
I I I . B AT T E RY T H E R M A L M A N A G E M E N T applications. External heating methods, such as air and
SYSTEMS AND HEATING STRATEGIES liquid heating, remain the more common choice due to their
simplicity and ease of implementation. However,
Developing accurate models of the thermal properties of advancements in internal heating techniques may lead to
EV batteries is crucial for addressing operational challenges their broader adoption in the future, particularly as battery
experienced under low temperatures. Several modeling technology continues to evolve. Preheating technique is
techniques have been employed in the literature for this commonly used to warm up the Lithium-ion battery of an
purpose. These include the use of general heat rejection electric vehicle (EV) before driving in low-temperature
equations, one-dimensional modeling to predict temperature conditions. This entails employing an external power
in battery cells, experimental data analysis under different source, such as a charger, to warm up the battery pack.,
temperature and discharge rates, and combining heat elevating its temperature to an optimal temperature.
generation equations with chemical reactions within the Preheating is usually carried out during parking and
battery. Batteries operating in cold weather conditions connected to the grid, allowing the battery to heat up prior
necessitate advanced model-based battery thermal to starting the vehicle. Preheating batteries is a relatively
management techniques in EV's. Battery models play a simple and effective method to improve battery
critical role in understanding internal processes, performance in cold weather conditions. However, it
degradation effects, and ensuring optimal performance and typically takes tens of minutes for the battery to reach the
longevity. Advanced battery thermal management systems desired temperature, which can cause inconvenience for EV
(BTMS) are essential for maintaining battery temperatures drivers who need to wait before using their vehicles. To
within operational envelopes, typically ranging from 15°C address this issue, a control strategy has been developed to
to 37°C. One emerging direction in battery thermal actively manipulate and control the battery temperature
management focuses on improving the architecture of the while driving, eliminating the need for preheating. This
battery pack to enhance range and charging times. BTMS control strategy utilizes energy from regenerative braking
commonly employ heating strategies to maintain batteries for battery charging while driving, effectively serving as
within operational thresholds during low temperatures. The internal heating to restore the battery power. By using
detrimental impacts of low temperatures on battery regenerative braking energy as internal heating, the control
operational efficiency and electrochemical characteristics strategy ensures the efficient use of braking energy to
can significantly impact the performance of EVs. restore the battery's power without compromising the EV’s
Therefore, reliable BTMS are crucial to ensuring optimal perfomance. As a result, the temperature remains elevated
performance and mitigating negative impacts. In this paper, when the driving cycle ends, preparing the EV for potential
BTMS are categorized into two main categories based on fast charging. This control strategy not only eliminates the
the type or location of heat generation and working waiting time associated with preheating but also ensures
medium. These categories aim to provide effective thermal that the battery is maintained at an optimal temperature for
management solutions for EV batteries operating in low- improved performance and longevity. It represents an
temperature conditions. innovative approach to battery thermal management in EVs,
maximizing the utilization of available energy while
A. Battery Thermal Management System minimizing energy waste and inconvenience for the driver.
Indeed, while preheating during driving offers the
Phase-change materials (PCMs), Air and liquid are advantage of reducing waiting time and ensuring the battery
commonly used as mediums for cooling and heating the is ready for use, it does come with some drawbacks. One
significant disadvantage is the additional energy A thermal management system simulation is proposed for
consumption required to power the heating system, a battery electric vehicle (BEV) featuring two coolant loops
potentially diminishing the range. Moreover, preheating and a cabin HVAC loop to control temperatures of the
while EV is moving might not be as efficient as alternative powertrain, cabin and [Link] coolant loops offer
warming methods, as factors like airflow can cause the versatility, operating in serial or parallel mode via a 4-way
battery to continue cooling down. Each option possesses its valve. During cold conditions, they operate in series mode,
own set of disadvantages and advantages contingent on heat generated from the motor operation is used to warm
factors like driving conditions and temperature. Heating the batteries. Additional heating is available from a
techniques, whether internal or external, involve using heat dedicated heater if needed.
sources to actively control the battery's temperature. These
methods are typically regarded as better equipped in
minimizing the impact of cold weather on battery operation
compared to heating techniques, which rely on surrounding
temperatures to control the battery temperature. Ultimately,
the choice of heating strategy depends on various factors,
including the specific temperature conditions, driving
patterns, and vehicle design. Engineers and designers must
carefully evaluate these factors to determine the most
suitable heating strategy for maximizing battery
performance and longevity in electric vehicles. Indeed,
internal heaters and preheating are often favoured for their
ability to provide targeted and efficient heating of batteries FIGURE 6 . NERD driving cycle
in EV’s. However, it's essential to evaluate the effectiveness
of any heating strategy based on its capacity to alleviate
battery degradation and enhance overall operation. Other The HVAC loop includes a PTC heater , evaporator , blower
techniques also strive to advance battery parts, such as and cabin interface. The heater (PTC) is active in low
electrodes and electrolytes, to withstand a broader temperature and inactive during summer. The blower
temperature range. This approach is crucial because many regulates airflow to keep the temperature in the cabin in the
cooling and heating techniques are effective only within desired range. Scenarios modelled include a drive cycle in
specific temperature ranges. By enhancing the thermal cold weather at -10°C, requiring activation of the PTC
stability of battery components, it becomes possible to heater and battery heater to heat and warm the cabin and
operate the battery more efficiently across a wider range of battery[17] .At low temperatures, the radiator is skipped to
temperatures. Moreover, thermal management strategies allow the powertrain heat to warm the batteries, controlled
can extend beyond direct heating or cooling of the battery by a 3-way valve directing coolant flow The battery heater
itself. For example, creating microclimate zones in charging functions as both a source of heat flow and a thermal mass
stations can help ensure that Li-ion batteries remain within within the system. Its activation during low temperatures
optimal temperature ranges regardless of external weather aims to elevate the battery temperature beyond 5 degrees
conditions. This approach can contribute to maintaining Celsius. Similarly, the PTC heater, also characterized by its
battery health and optimising charging efficiency, function as a heat flow source and a thermal mass, operates
ultimately enhancing the overall performance and longevity during cold weather to supply warmth to the vehicle cabin
of electric vehicle batteries.

IV. SIMULATION AND RESULTS

FIGURE 7 : Thermal strategy current comparison

Throughout the drive cycle, the power demand undergoes

FIGURE 5 :MATLAB-SIMULINK model noticeable fluctuations, reflecting the varying demands
 placed on the vehicle's systems. Acceleration phases Additionally, the operation of the Positive Temperature
typically trigger spikes in power demand as the motor draws Coefficient (PTC) heater is responsive to the cabin
higher current to propel the vehicle forward swiftly. temperature set points. The PTC heater remains active as
Concurrently, during these acceleration phases, there is an needed to provide supplemental heating to the cabin,
uptick in heat generation within the motor and batteries due ensuring occupants' comfort without compromising energy
to increased activity, leading to a rise in temperature. At the efficiency. Overall, this dynamic system of power demand
commencement of the drive cycle, both the cabin and fluctuations and heater modulation serves to optimize both
battery heaters are activated to expedite warming up the the performance and energy efficiency of the vehicle across
batteries and ensuring a comfortable interior temperature. various driving conditions and climates

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