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We build Toniorrow
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TABLE OF CONTENTS:
1. Introduction
a. Introduction
b. Objective of the study
c. Location of the Study area
2. Study and identification of rocks
a. Rock definition
b. Classification
c. Field identification
i. Marble
ii. Granite
iii. Schist
iv. Quartzite
v. Phyllite
vi. Slate
vii. Limestone
viii. Gneiss
d. Sketched and photographs
3. Study and identification of geological structures
a. Phenomenon of geological structures
b. Major geological structures
i. Joints
ii. Folds
iii. Faults
iv. Unconformity
v. Thrust
vi. Foliation
vii. Bedding plane
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4. Handling of geological compass and measurement of attitudes of geological
planes
a. Types of geological compass
b. Handling of geological compass
i. Observation data in the field
ii. Sketched and photographs
5. Study of river Channel Morphology
a. Definition of River Channel Morphology
b. Types of River Channel Morphology
c. Feature developed by river channel
d. Sketches, photographs, description of the location
6. Conclusions
7. References
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INTRODUCTION:
Engineering is a study largely based on practical study and field
visits. Among the different fields of engineering, Civil Engineering
is the one in which field visits proves most fruitful for both the
learning students and teaching teachers as only learning by
studying in a classroom is far the insufficient to produce a good
and skilled Civil Engineer. Civil Engineering infact is one the
most interesting study to learn having wide and interdisciplinary
subjects included within the course.
Based on these proven principles, we the 2nd year students
were taken to the field visit for subject Engineering Geology (CE
503) in Malekhu area of Dhading district of Central Nepal as per
the syllabus for B.E Civil given by the Tribhuvan University. This
subject provides the basic knowledge of geology to the students.
It helps to understand how to identify the rocks, minerals,
geological structures, geological processes and their impacts on
engineering structures. Engineering gelogy is one of the most
important subject for civil engineering as every civil engineering
works/construction are done on the land and construction of any
kind of civil engineering projects without taking into account the
geological features of that place can lead to the failure of such
high cost [Link] geology gives the idea of site
selection, proper investigation and eligibility of the area for
particular type of engineering project.
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We would like to acknowledge our subject teachers Mr. Basanta
Raj Adhikari and Mr. Prakash Chandra Gautam for assisting us
during the two day visit. We would also like to thank the civil
department for providing us the transportation facility for the field
visit. This field visit has proven very fruitful for all of us and it
has also given us a basic experience about working in the field
for the first time and this is sure to help us in our near future to
work as a civil engineer. Again we would like thank our teachers
who also assisted us to prepare this report and helped us to
achieve our objectives invariably during this entire semester. We
have tried our best to reduce the errors during the report writing
as well in the fields but there might still be some errors and lack
and hope you will consider them.
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OBJECTIVES OF STUDY:
Our field works was based on the following objectives:
1) Study of geological works of river and landform developed
by erosional and depositional activities of river.
2) Study and identification of rocks in the field ( Marble,
Granite, Schist, Quartzite, Phyllite, Slate, Gneiss, Limestone).
3) Handling of geological compass and measurement of
attitude of geological planes (Bedding plane, Foliation plane,
Joint plane, Fault plane, etc.)
4) Study and identification of geological structures (Joints,
Folds, Faults, Unconformity, Thrust, Foliation, Bedding
Plane).
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LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHY OF STUDY
AREA:
LOCATION:
The study area is connected with Kathmandu valley through the
Prithvi Highway, which is also considered as a channel linking
Kathmandu with Pokhara, Birgunj, Butwal & other major cities of the
country. It has wide range of geological features within a small
range of area. The Malekhu V.D.C. of Dhading district lies about 70
Km south west of Kathmandu valley and is located at latitude of
27o 50' 38''E to 27o 45' 50''E and longitude of 24o49'5''N to 24o50'
50’’N. Malekhu Bazaar is therefore accessible by motor able and
graveled roads.
TOPOGRAPHY:
The topography of Malekhu is very rough. It includes hills, river
valleys, spurs, saddles, river plain and terrace etc. The lowest
altitude of this area is about 340m at the Trishuli river valley and
the highest altitude of this area is about 1525 m at the north of the
Dharapani village.
Malekhu lies on lesser Himalayan unit of Nepal. It is situated on the
bank of Trishuli and Malekhu river. The Trishuli river is running from
the eastern direction to the western direction and the Malekhu river
from south to north which mingles into the Trishuli river. Also, the
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Malekhu river has a tributary namely the Apakhola which meets the
Malekhu river at a distance about 3 kms from the Malekhu bazzar.
Climatically Malekhu is a sub-tropical zone. The Trishuli River, a
snow fed river of the Central Nepal, is the main drainage of
Malekhu and its surrounding areas. It flows through the east to the
west, more or less parallel to the structure strike. Because of the
variation in altitude, ranging from 350 m from sea-level (at the bank
of Trishuli River) to 1000m , the local climate varies throughout the
year. There is tropical to sub-tropical climate in valleys and
temperate climate at higher areas. Physiographic condition, monsoon
winds, altitude & vegetation controls the climate of the area.
Temperature ranges from 250c to 380c in summer and 100c to
200c during winter season. Valley area is relatively warmer than
higher areas. Rainy season brings difficulties in habitation. Various
disasters like floods, landslides etc. cause the damage to the
highway bridges, agriculture lands, houses etc.
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STUDY AND IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS
Rock Definition:
ROCK is a relatively hard, naturally occurring mineral material. It
consists of a single mineral or of several minerals that are either
tightly compacted or held together by a cement like mineral matrix.
Classification of Rocks:
The three main types of rock are Igneous, Sedimentary, and
Metamorphic.
A) Igneous Rock
These types of rocks are formed by the solidification of magma
either under the surface of earth or over it. These are of three
types according to the solidification process.
Plutonic Rock :- The rocks, which are formed underneath the
surface of the earth, are called the plutonic rocks.
Volcanic Rock :- The rocks, which are solidified on the surface of
earth, are called volcanic rocks.
Hypabyssal Rock :- The rocks, which are solidified on the way of
extrusion process, are called hypo basal rocks.
Igneous rocks are commonly identified in the field by the study of
their interlocking crystallization of a number of mineral grains.
Igneous rocks are generally hard, massive, compact, having no
bedding plane and interlocked grains. It usually contains much
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feldspar. By the study of these properties we can identify the
igneous rocks in the field. e.g.,
Granite - generally equigranular texture, light colour
appearance
Gabbro - coarse grain and dark colour
Dolerite - containing dark minerals in good proportion with
medium grain sized
B) Sedimentary Rock:
These rocks are derived from pre-existing rocks through the process
of erosion, transportation and deposition by various natural agencies
such as wind, water, glacier etc. The loose sediments undergo
compaction and form resulting products as sedimentary rocks.
According to the mode of transportation the sedimentary rocks are
divided into three different types.
Clastic Rocks :- The rocks which are formed by deposited
mechanically are known as clastic rocks.
Chemical Deposits :-The rocks which are formed by chemical
precipitation are known as chemical deposits.
Organic Deposits :-The rocks which are formed by deposited
organically are called organic deposits.
Sedimentary rocks are identified in the field by the study of different
layers, which are originally bedded or laminated under suitable
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conditions. There may be the impression of fossils in sedimentary
rocks. The colour and the grain size of the rocks may be different
in different layers. By the study of these properties also the rocks
may be identified. e.g.,
Conglomerate - grain size greater than 2 mm
Sandstone - grain size is equal to sand (i.e. 1/16
mm –2 mm), quartz is common
Clay stone - formed by deposition of clay, shale is
common example
C) Metamorphic Rock
These are formed by alteration of alignment, texture, structure,
chemical composition etc. in pre-existing rocks due to the action of
temperature, pressure and chemical reaction. Metamorphic rocks are
generally hard and having of interlocking grains.
• Contact Metamorphic
• Dynamic Metamorphic
• Dynamo Thermal
• Metasomatic
Metamorphic rocks are distinctly distinguished from other types of
rocks by the development of features like cleavage, foliation,
schistosity and by the presence of such minerals which are known
to be of metamorphic origin. Metamorphic rocks often exhibit an
interlocking texture of the constituent minerals grains. Thus these
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rocks are basically identified in the field on the basis of colour,
texture as well as structure.
Different types of rock cleavages are:
1. Slaty cleavage: Cleavage may be parallel to original bedding
or at certain angles to it. It is due to parallel arrangement of
highly cleavable minerals in rocks. Eg:slate, phyllites
2. Schistosity: Rocks are made up of parallel layers of platy and
flaky minerals. It is due to recrystallization and reorientation of
minerals due to thermal and dynamic metamorphism. Eg:
Schist
3. Gneissosity: Rocks are made of alternate bands of flaky/platy
minerals and equidimensional granular minerals. Alternate black
and white bands are seen.
Slate - slaty cleavage
Phyllite - soapy feeling
Schist - rough, irregular and undulated plane, unequal
growth of minerals
Gneiss - band of contrast colour, composition and
texture (mica band)
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Field Identification
Location 3:About 150m from Malekhu Suspension bridge along
Dhadhing Basi due north.
Sample 1(Slate)
Physical Properties:
Color: Grey
Structure: Foliation-Plane
Texture: Non-Crystalline
Grain Size: Fine
Specific Gravity: Medium
Acid Test: No Acid Test
Hammer Test: No Hammer Test
Mineral Composition: Quartz, Feldspar
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Rock Type: Metamorphic Rock
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Rock Name: Slate
Engineering Properties:
Strength: Low
Drillialibility: High
Blastabity: Low
Uses: Roofing, Construction material
Geological Unit: Benight slate
Location 4: About 100 m from Malekhu Suspension bridge along Dhading Basi due
north.
Sample 2(limestone):
Physical Properties:
Color: White
Structure: Bedding plane
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Texture: Non crystalline
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Grain Size: Fine
Specific Gravity: Medium
Acid Test:
Hammer Test: hammer scratches rock
Mineral Composition: Calcite
Rock Type: Sedimentary
Rock Name: Limestone
Engineering properties:
Strength: Low
Drillialibility: High
Blastabity: High
Uses: To make Cement
Geological Unit: Malekhu Limestone
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Location 6: Situated just after 700m upstream from Broken Bridge and in the right
bank of Malekhu river
Sample 3:
Physical Properties:
Color: Grey
Structure: Foliation Plane
Texture: Non-Crystalline
Grain Size: Fine
Specific Gravity: Low
Acid Test: No acid test
Hammer Test: No hammer test
Mineral Composition: Quartz, Feldspar, Saricite
Rock Type: Metamorphic
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Rock Name: Phyllite
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Engineering properties:
Strength: Low
Drillialibility: High
Blastabity: low
Uses: To make dry wall
Geological Unit: Robang Phyllite
Sample 4:
Physical Properties:
Color: White
Structure: Foliation
Texture: Crystalline
Grain Size: Medium
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Specific Gravity: Medium
Acid Test:
Hammer Test: Rock scratches hammer
Mineral Composition: Quartz [Link]/ioe
Rock Type: Metamorphic
Rock Name: Quartizite
Engineering properties:
Strength: High
Drillialibility: Low
Blastabity: High
Uses: Construction, Riprap material
Geological Unit: Dunga Quartzite
Location 8 :Situated about 850 m upstream from broken bridge and in the right
bank of malekhu river
Physical Properties:
Color: Dark grey
Structure: Foliation(Schistocity)
Texture: Non-Crystalline
Grain Size: Fine
Specific Gravity: Low
Acid Test: no acid test
Hammer Test: no hammer test
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Mineral Composition: Quartz, Feldspar, Chlorite, Biotite, Muscobite
Rock Type: Metamorphic
Rock Name: Schist
Engineering properties:
Strength: Low
Drillialibility: High
Blastabity: LOW
Uses: Construction material
Geological Unit: Raduwa Formation
Location 11: situated about 875 m upstream from broken Bridge and in the right
bank of malekhu river
Sample 6:
Physical Properties:
Color: White
Structure: Random Orientation
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Texture: Crystalline
Grain Size: Coarse
Specific Gravity: High
Acid Test: No acid test
Hammer Test: No hammer test
Mineral Composition: Plogioclase(milky white), Quartz(dirty white)
Rock Type: Igneous
Rock Name: Granite
Engineering properties:
Strength: High
Drillialibility: Low
Blastabity: High
Uses: High Construction material
Geological Unit: Agra granite
(Undigested foreign material present in plutonic rock like granite is xenolith rock)
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Sample 7:
Location 10
Physical Properties:
Color: White
Structure: Random Orientation
Texture: Crystalline
Grain Size: Coarse
Specific Gravity: medium
Acid Test: No acid test
Hammer Test: No hammer test
Mineral Composition: Plogioclase(milky white), Quartz(dirty white)
Rock Type: sedimentary
Rock Name: conglomerate
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Engineering properties:
Strength: Low
Drillialibility: Low
Blastabity: High
Uses: Aggregates
Geological Unit: -
Location 12: situated about 870m upstream from broken Bridge and right bank of
Malekhu river
Sample 8:
Physical Properties:
Color: White
Structure: Accroidal [Link]/ioe
Orientation: Preferred
Texture: Crystalline
Grain Size: Coarse
Specific Gravity: Medium
Acid Test:
Hammer Test: Hammer Scratches sample(hardness 3)
Mineral Composition: 99% calcite
Rock Type: Metamorphic
Rock Name: Marble
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Engineering properties:
Strength: High
Drillialibility: High
Blastabity: High
Uses: Decoration, Flooring
Geological Unit: Bhaisedobhan Marble
Study and Identification of Geological Structures
Study and identification of geological structures was done in
location no 5, about 300m upstream from the old bridge Highway
on the left bank of Trishuliriver.
Structural Geology:
Structural geology is the branch of geology which deals with the
mechanism and types of deformations of the rocks of earth due to
influence of stress generated by various geological processes.
Geological structure:-
The feature developed in the rock during the formation and after the
formation of rock due to the influence of different stresses is known
as geological structure.
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Types of geological structures:
a) Primary geological structures:-
Those structures of features developed by on the rock during the
formation of rock due to the different deformations appeared is
known as primary [Link] is usually found in sedimentary
[Link] example,bedding,cross-bedding,lamination ripple,etc.
b) Secondary geological structures:-
Those geological structures or features developed on the rock after
the formation of rock due to the different deformations is known as
secondary geological [Link] example: fold, fault,thrust, rock
cleavage, etc.
Several of these secondary structures were observed during
our field visit.
a) Fold:-
The ductile deformation of rock due to which the rock strata forms
bendings or 0curvatures is known [Link] force acting may be
shear or [Link] of its formation is a very slow
geological process.
Limb: It is a side of the fold.
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Crest and Trough: These are the convex and concave portions of
the fold.
b) Fault:-
Rupture of fracture along which there is relative displacement of
rock parallel to the fracture plane due to
brittle deformation due to the stress i.e.
compressive, shear or tensile is known as
fault.
c) Joint:-
Rupture or fracture along which there is no
relative displacement along fracture plane
due to brittle deformation under the influence
of shear,compressive or tensile stress.
Classification of fold:-
Based on upward or downward bend:-
a) Anticline fold:-
− strata convex upwards.
− limbs dip away from each other.
− older beds at core.
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− older rocks are exposed near the fold axis and younger rocks
are exposed away from the axis.
b) Syncline fold:-
− strata concave upwards.
− limbs dip towards each other.
− younger beds at core.
− younger rocks are exposed near the fold axis and older rocks
are exposed away from the axis.
− tensile stress acts on the trough.
Axial plane:-The imaginary plane which divides the folds into two
equal halves is known as axial plane.
Based on relationship of the axial plane to the limb:-
a) Symmetrical fold:-
− limbs are mirror image of each other.
− axial plane is vertical.
− limbs of both sides dip at equal angles.
b) Asymmetrical fold:-
− limbs of both sides dip at different angles.
− axial plane is inclined.
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c) Overturned fold:-
− Axial plane is inclined but both the limbs dip at unequal angle
in same direction.
d) Recombent fold:-
− Both the limbs are laid horizontal.
− axial plane is also horizontal.
Classification of fault:-
Genetic classification:-
a) Normal fault:The fault in which
hanging wall moves downward with
respect to the footwall is known as
normal fault.
b) Reverse fault: The fault in which hanging wall moves upward
with respect to the footwall is known as reverse fault.
c) Thrust fault:-These fault are reverse fault in which fault planes
are generally inclined at 10° to 45° to the [Link] known as
thrust [Link] the angle is less than 10° it is known as overthurst.
d) Strike slip fault: In this fault movement takes place parallel to the
strike of the fault.
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Terminologies of faulting:-
a) Fault gauge: During faulting,rubbing and shearing of the rock
takes place. The rocks are finely pulverized into clay like fine black
powder rock material which is caused at the near part of the fault
region called fault gauge.
b) Fault breccia:-The angular, fragmentary material produced during
faulting is known as fault breccia.
Evidences of faulting:-
a) Presence of slicken slides: The parallel grooves formed due to
frictional sliding on flat, polished surface is known as slicken slides.
b) Fault gauge and fault breccia: Presence of fault gauge and fault
breccia on the location indicates faulting.
c) Abrupt termination: Abrupt termination of strata or any geological
structure indicates presence of fault.
c) Unconformity
Surface of erosional and depositional gap within a sequence of
strata is called unconformity.
These are usually the weak contact where the failure starts to
generate. It created permeability contrast thus natural springs or
discharge can occur in such places.
At Chainage 100m from suspension bridge above Trishuli River
along DhadingBesi old road unconformity was seen. Among series
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of rock strata soil and stone deposition could be seen which
established an unconformity at that place.
d) Thrust
A kind of reversed fault in which hanging wall has actually moved
up relative to the footwall is called trust.
e.g.: - Mahabharata thrust separates Nuwakot complex and
Kathmandu complex.
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e) Foliation
Foliation is usually formed by the preferred orientation of minerals
within a rock. Foliation is any penetrative planar fabric present in
rocks. Foliation is common to rocks affected by regional
metamorphic compression typical of orogenic belts. Rocks exhibiting
foliation include the typical metamorphic rock sequence of slate,
phyllite, schist and gneiss.
Foliation in areas of shearing, and within the plane of thrust faults,
can provide information on the transport direction or sense of
movement on the thrust or shear. Generally, the acute intersection
angle shows the direction of transport. Foliations typically bend or
curve into a shear, which provides the same information, if it is of a
scale which can be observed.
f) Bedding Plane
In geology a bed is the smallest division of a geologic formation or
stratigraphic rock series marked by well-defined divisional planes
(bedding planes) separating it from layers above and below. A bed
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is the smallest litho stratigraphic unit, usually ranging in thickness
from a centimeter to several meters and distinguishable from beds
above and below it. Beds can be differentiated in various ways,
including rock or mineral type and particle size. The term is
generally applied to sedimentary strata, but may also be used for
volcanic flows or ash layers.
In a quarry, a bedding is a term used for a structure occurring in
granite and similar massive rocks that allows them to split in well-
defined planes horizontally or parallel to the land surface.
Handling of geological compass and measurements of
attitudes of geological planes
Handling of geological compass was done in location no 4, situated
about 20m downstream from Malekhu suspended Bridge on the
right bank of Trishuli river.
Geological Compass
-geological compass is defined as the combination of compass and
inclinometer.
Types of Geological Compass
There are mainly three types of geological [Link] are:
1. Brunton Compass
2. Clar Compass
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3. Digital Compass
In the geological field we used brunton compass for
measurement of various parameter like dip amount,dip direction
etc.
Brunton Compass
Brunton Compass, properly known as the Brunton Pocket
Transit, is a type of precision compass made by
[Link] most modern compasses, the Brunton Pocket
Transit utilizes magnetic induction daping rather than fluid to
damp needle [Link] Brunton makes many other
types of magnetic compass,the Brunton Pocket Transit is a
specialized instrument used widely by those needing to make
accurate degree and anglemeasurements in the field.
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Fig: Brunton Compass
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Handling Of Brunton Compass:
Brunton compass have three main parts,box,sighting arm,and [Link]
box contains most of components: the needle; bull’s eye level(
round level to read horizontal angles); clinometer level(barrel
shaped) and clinometer scale( for reading vertical angles); damping
mechanism; lift pin( to lock the needle);side brass screw and index
pin(to set and display the declination);graduated circle or card( to
read the bearing).It is used to measure the dip direction and dip
[Link] measuring the dip direction, geographic north of
compass should be pointed towards the water- flow and take the
reading shown by magnetic north of compass.
Measurement of attitudes
S.N. Strike Dip Amount Dip direction
1 165 71 260
2 345˚ 62˚ 262˚
3 171˚ 58˚ 77˚
4 166˚ 83˚ 256˚
5 347˚ 62˚ 262˚
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Dip direction measurement
RIVER CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY
River is a mass of water that flows along a path high to low
gradient carrying different materials and responsible for different
geological actions, such as erosion, transportation and deposition of
sediments. The route along which the river flows is called river
channel. In engineering practice, many structures, such as dam,
bridge, reservoirs etc. are constructed in river channels. Besides
construction of infrastructures, construction materials are also
barrowed from the river territory. Types of river channel and the
availability of construction materials in the site greatly affects the
design and cost of such structures.
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TYPES OF RIVER CHANNEL
1. Straight River: This type of river follows a straight path. The
topography of the area is characterized by steep relief. The
gradient of the river path is also high causing the flow velocity
of water high. Since the energy level of such river is high, the
erosional rate is intensely higher than the deposition of
sediments. Deep scouring along the river path is higher than
the side cutting. Straight rivers are dominantly occurred in the
higher Himalayan region.
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2. Meandering river: This type of river follows a zigzag path. The
topography of the area is characterized by moderate relief. The
gradient of the river path is so moderate that the river strikes
in one end and return to other direction making the path
zigzag. The river is widened and flow with lower velocity than
that of Straight River. Since energy level of such river is
medium, the erosional rate and the deposition rate of
sediments is comparatively equal. The side cutting by the river
is higher than the deep scouring along the river path. In the
striking bank, the side cutting is higher with higher erosional
rate and opposite to strike bank in a depositional bank where
deposition of sediments takes place. Due this phenomenon,
the channel shifting is prominent in such type of river system.
Meandering rivers are dominantly occurred in the midlands and
lesser Himalayan region.
3. Braided river: In this type of river, a single river path is
diverted into several paths and may converge to single later.
The topography of the area is characterized by low relief. The
gradient of the river path is so low and the river area is
widened and flow with lower velocity. Since the energy level of
such river is low, the deposition rate of sediments is intensely
higher than the erosional rate. Thick successions of sediments
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go on depositing along the river path and the river diverts to
other sub paths for flow down. Many channel bars occur along
the river path. Due to this phenomenon, the channel shifting is
prominent in such type of river system. Braided rivers are
dominantly occurred in terai regions.
FEATURES DEVELOPED BY RIVER:
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1. Erosional landforms
a. Ox bow Lake: An oxbow lake is U-shaped body of water
that forms when a wide meander from main stem is cut off,
creating a free-standing body of water. This landform is so
named for its distinctive curved shape, resembling the bow
pin of an oxbow. An example of an entirely artificial
waterway with oxbows is the Oxford canal in England.
b. River valley: A valley formed by flowing water, or river
valley, is usually V-shaped. The exact shape will depend on
the characteristics of the stream flowing through it. Rivers
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with steep gradients, as in mountain ranges, produce steep
walls and a bottom. Shallower slopes may produce broader
and gentler valleys. However, in the lowest stretch of a
river, where it approaches its base level, it begins to
deposit sediment and the valley bottom becomes a flood
plain.
c. Pothole: A pothole is a type of failure in an asphalt
pavement, caused by the presence of water in the
underlying soil structure and the presence of traffic passing
over the affected area. Introduction of water to the
underlying soil structure first weakens the supporting soil.
Traffic then fatigues and breaks the poorly supported
asphalt surface in the affected area. Continued traffic action
ejects both asphalt and the underlying soil material to create
a hole in the pavement.
d. Gorge: It is a deep ravine between pairs of cliffs and is the
most often carved landscape by the erosive activity of a
river over geological timescales. Rivers have a natural
tendency to cut through underlying surfaces so will
eventually wear away rock layers to lessen own pitch
slowing their water; given enough time, their bottoms will
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gradually reach a baseline elevation-which is the same
elevation of the body of water it will eventually drain into.
e. Rock island:
I: Bed rock: It is the part of rock island which is formed by
the erosional activity and some part of rock island gets
removed and the remaining part of rock is called bed rock.
II: Boulder: It is also the part of rock island which is the
removed part from bed rock. It is about 200 mm in size.
2. Depositional landforms
a. Point bar deposit: It is a type of deposition in which many
rivers deposit the sediments at a single point.
b. Side bar deposit: In this type of deposit, the channel moves
in a straight path and it carries away the sediments side by
side forming side bar deposition landforms.
c. Channel bar deposit: Here two channels move in a parallel
format with certain gap between them and deposits the
sediments in the middle of them which gives a formation of
channel bar.
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d. Fan: When sediments flow down from high gradient
tributaries on the low relief, the sediments get accumulate
forming a fan shaped deposit, which is called fan deposit.
Since deposit is due to water, the fan is known as alluvial
fan. If the materials are dominantly composed of large
angular fragments, then the deposit is called debris fan.
e. Delta: This feature is common
on the confluence of river and
sea. Rivers take sediment
along with it and on the flat
land, the sediments spread.
The sediment deposits
resemble the Greek letter delta, so the deposit is called
Delta. Delta is land of fertile soil. Delta of Ganga and
Brahmaputra River, delta of Nile River, Delta of Mississippi
River are the world’s largest Deltas.
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Description of location:
In Malekhu, River channel morphology of Trishulikhola was studied.
The location of our study was along the roadway to Dhadingbesi at
a distance of about 60m from the suspended bridge to the left with
respect to the flow of river.
Following features of river was observed at the site:
1. Meandering river channel
2. Still water present in some parts
3. Rock island formed at the junction of Trishuli and Thopalriver.
4. Point bar deposit in Trishuliriver
5. Large and wide striking bank
6. Oxbow
CONCLUSION:
At last we had concluded the Malekhu and its surrounding is
the answer for geological curiosity. Actually the Malekhu is small in
area but it has large amount or number of the geological
phenomena and features and hence it can provide broad knowledge
for the learners like us.
Along the Malekhu river, we found sedimentary rocks and
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gradually metamorphised from phyllite to crystalline schist and along
the way to Dhading, it gradually metamorphised to limestone to
phyllite and to the slate.
We have learnt different methods of geological data collection
measures and the way how the rock mapping is done. Handling
compass and to measure the attitude of rock outcrop is now very
easy to us. We also got chance to know about river channel
morphology that how the river flows, what are the factors affecting
erosion and deposition and how it occurs.
REFERENCES:
: From the note provided in the field visit.
: From observation of different rocks and structures.
: From book "Engineering Geology" by Prakash Chandra
Ghimire.
: From internet ( google , wikipedia).
[Link]/ioe
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