Course No. Pl.

Path-501 Title: Mycology

Theory:
[Link] Topic
1-2 Introduction to fungi and basic concepts
3-4 Definitions of different terms
5-6 Importance of Mycology in agriculture, relation of fungi to
human affairs including lichens, mushrooms and other
beneficial fungi
7-8 Historical developments of mycology
9 Importance of culture collection and herbarium of fungi
10-11 Somatic characters ,Reproduction in fungi
12-13 Modern concepts of nomenclature and classification of
fungi
14-15 Classification of kingdom fungi : Stramenopila, Protists and
fungal diversity
[Link] Topic
16-20 The general characteristics of protists and life cycle in the Phyla
Plasmodiophoromycota , Dictyosteliomycota , Acrasiomycota and
Myxomycota
21-25 The general chaacteristics of Kingdom Stramenopila : Characters and
life cycles of respective genera under hyphochytriomycota , oomycota
and Labyrinthulomycota
26-28 Kingdom Fungi : General chaacters , ultrastructure and life cycle pattern
in respresentative genera under Chytriomycota , Zygomycota ,
Ascomycota ;
Archiascomycota , Ascomyceteous yeasts , pyrenomycetes ,
Plectomycetes , Discomycetes , Loculoascomycetes , Erysiphales and
anamorphos of ascomycetous fungi
29-32 Basidiomycota ; general characters , mode of reproduction , types of
basidiocarps and economic importance of Hymenomycetes . Uredinales
and Ustilaginales ; variability , host specificity and life cycle pattern in
rusts and smuts . Mitosporic fungi ; status of asexual fungi , their
teliomorphic relationships, Molecular characterization of plant
pathogenic fungi
Ref. Books:
[Link] Mycology By Alexopoulos C. [Link] C. W. &
Blackwell M. 2000
2. An Introductory Mycology By Mehrotra R.S. &Arneja K. R.
1990
3. Introduction to fungi By Webster J.
Lec. No 7-8 Historical Development of mycology
Ancient Era:
Fossi reported in precambium era
Vedas (1200BC): Records of smut, rust and agaricals were found
Atharv veda: (800BC): The work on Diagnosis and controlling of
diseases were started
Buddha (400BC): Noticed diseases of plants (Poisoning of
mushrooms)
Susruta Sanhita: Classified plants on the basis of nutritional valu in
15 divisions and fungi are one of them
Agni Puran: Contain chapter Vrikshayurveda (i.e Modern tree
surgery)
Balmiki Ramayanna: References on “Chatra” (Mushroom)
Rigveda: Mentioned mushroom fungi
Saint Anthony (17th century) : Reported ergotism
Charles de I ecluse (1526-1609) Published monogram “Rariorium
plantarum Historica” which constitute many fungi
 •Modern Era:
Robert Hook (1665): First illustrated fungi in “Micrographia” ,
mentioned mucar and teleospore of rose rust fungi

Micheli (1729): Mycologist, wrote book Nova genera plantarum,

worked on culture of fungi, describe cystidia on the gills of
coprinus. Hence date of birth of mycology is treated to be 1729.
Nees (1817): Introduce the term ascus and coined the name spore
Maritus (1817): Introduce hypomycetes
Linnaeus 18th century: Binomial nomenclature
Persoon (1801): Published book “Synopsis methodia fungorum”
Ehrenberg (1820): Zygospore production in mucoraceae fungus
Fries (1832): Book “Systema Mycologium”
Anton De Bary (1866): First designated Phycomycetes.
Saccardo P.A. (1935): Systematicaly compiled all the
information and described all trhe genera and species up
to 1935.
Thind (1952-77): Published series of 25 papers and
monograph on myxomycetes
Van Ster Beek (1975): Published first book “Theatrum
Fungorum”
Lonicer (1982): Noticed ergot of rye
 Indian Work:
Lt. Col. Kirtikar (1885): Studied and collected fleshy fungi of India
Cunningham (1872): Started work on aerobiology in India by
exposing grease covered slides to atmosphere to collect germs of
cholera and also collected Rhizopus and rust spores.
E. J. Butler (1901-1920): Father of Indian Mycology, did systematic
study of mycology, created herbarium cryptogamme India in 1905 at
Pusa Bihar. Worked on genera like Pythium, Phytopthora,
Sclerospora, Rhizopus, smut and rust fungi. Wrote monograph on 1.
Sugarcane diseases 2. Wheat rust 3. Fusarium wilt 4. Sclerospora
and rice diseases. Published book “ Fungi and diseases in plants”
and “ Fungi of India
J. F. Dastur : Worked on genus Phytopthora P.
parasitica from cotton
S. L. Ajrekar: worked on wilt of cotton
B. B. Mundkur : Control of wilt through varietal
resistance, established Indian Phytopathological
Society with its Journal Indian Phyto-Pathology,
Wrote book Fungi and plant diseases
 Fungi & Their characters
Fungi ?

Important Characters
1. Heterotrophic 8. Differentiated reproductive
& somatic structure
2. Nutrition absortive 9. Opt temp. 25 to 30 oc widely
10 to 40 oc
[Link] chlorophyll 10. Mostly aerobic except yeast

4. Reproduction sexual/asexual 11. Obligate/saprophyte or

parasitic in nature
5. Lack complex vascular 12. Optimum pH 4 -7
system
6. Storage product glycogen

7. Filamentus & Multicellular

 Importance of fungi

1. Forestry Mycorrhizal association

“VAM” fungi
2. Biomas as food Mycoproteins & Yeast
3. Biological control Insect & Nematodes e.g.
Pacellomyces & Trichoderma
4. Enzyme activites Preperation of tempech, chees
& Industrial enzymes
5. Useful Metabolites Plant growth harmones e.
Gibrellin, Antibiotics-
Penicillin
6. Biotransformation Production of sterols & yeast-
Alcohol & bread preparation
 Foes
1. Spoilage of food

2. Alergic responces to human

3. Mycotoxins

4. Animal & human mycosis

5. Plant diseases
 Saccardo group spore terminology)
Amerosporae Unicellular and short Botrytis sinera

Didymosporae Two celled Arthrobotys aceiospora

Phragmosporae Three or multicelled

Dictyosporae Muriform Alternaria microspora

Scelecosporae Filiform, septate and Rhytism asertium

aseptate
Helicosporae Spirally Coiled Helicomyces roseus

Stamosporae Starlike Dendrospora erecta

 Hyphal branching

Simple/ Lateral Single lateral branches on growing hyphae

branching
Opposite Paired lateral branching at opposite direction
Verticillate Three or more branching at apex in whorl
Sympodial Growing apex restricted in growth and is over taken by
lateral branch from below
Monopodial Growing apex continued to grow with most active
lateral branch producing continues main stem
Dichotomos The growth of apex seized and dries into two equal
branchess
[Link]. 9 . Importance of culture collection
and herbarium of fungi
 [Link]. 10 &11. Somatic characters ,
Reproduction of Fungi

Asexual Sexual
1. Fragmentation 1. Planogamatic
conjugation (copulation)

2. Fission 2. Gametangial contact

[Link] 3. Gametangial copulation

4. Asexual spore fomation [Link]

[Link]
Asexual Reproduction: Non involvement of union of gamets &
meosis
[Link]: Fragmentation of hyphae
2. Fission: Spliting of cells in tow daughter cells e.g.
Bacteria & yeast
[Link]: Production of small out growth from parent cells.
The nucleus of parent cells divides and one nucleus is migrated in to
new bud . The bud grows & separate & behave as new individual. E,g.
yeast
[Link] spore formation: Most common method in fungi , The
asexual spores produced at the tip or side of hyphae in various ways
a. Thalospores : spores without conidiophore
b. Terminal: at one end of hyphae ____
c. Intercallary: _______ ______
e.g:Conidium , Oidia, Sporangiospores,Chlomydospores &
gemmae
Sexual Reproduction:
Young ones are produced as a results of union of two nuclei in which
meiosis takes place
Important Phases in sexual reproduction: A. Plasmogamy B. Karyogamy
Meosis
Plasmogamy: It includes union of two protoplast, which brings two
haploid nuclei with in the same cell (n+n)

Karyogamy: Fusion of two haploid nuclei brought together by

plasmogamy . In many lower fungi karyogamy occures immediately
after plasmogamy but in higher fungi the karyogamy is delayed and
each cell contains dikaryons and after karyogamy it become diploid.
(2n)

Meosis: In which number of cell gate multiplied i.e. from one diploid
(2n) cell it produces two haploid cells (n) & (n) from these two
daughter cell due to mitosis it produces four haploid cell.
1. Planogamatic Conjugation / copulation : fusion of motile gamets
a. Isogamy: fusion between like (motile) gamets which are
morphologicaly simillar but geneticaly different.
b. Anisogamy: union between one motile & other non motile gamets.
c. Heterogamy: Union between morphologicaly disimillar gamets.
2. Gametangial contact: It is heterogamous and both gamets are non
motile & morphologically dissimilar.
3. Gametangial copulation: It is fusion of entire content of two contacting
gametangia. The gametangia are non motile.
4. Spermatization: In some fungi male anthredia are not formed in such
cases spermatia (haploid male cell) bears on spermatophore are carried
passively by wind water or insect to female gametangia . The pore
developed at the contact of spermatia , the entire content of spermatia is
transferred followed by plasmogamy than karyosgamy , meosis & mitosis
takes place.
5. Somatogamy:Fusion of somatic cells during plasmogamy i.e. fusion of
vegetative cells of opposite sex (compatible nuclei).
Lec. No. 12-13 . Modern concepts of nomenclature and
classification of fungi

Taxonomy: Science of classification, identification and

nomenclature of fungi.

Classification: Is the grouping of organisms in some ordarly

fashion in case of fungi it is done on the basis
of phylogenetic relationship.

Identification: Is the comparative process of determining

texonomic position.
Nomenclature: Naming the fungi as per “ICBN” rule
 Classification of Fungi
Kingdom
Sub division
Class
Sub class
Order
Sub order
Family
Genus
Species
F. sp.
Race
Varient
Biotypes
 Historical events of classification
Carlous linneus (1707-1778)
1. Plant 2. Animal
Hacekel (1886)
1. Plant 2. Animal 3. Protista
Whittaker (1969)
1. Monera 2. Protista 3. Fungi 4. Plantae 5. Animala
Alexopouls, Mims & Black well (2004) Only Fungi
1. Fungi 2. Stramenopila 3. Protista
Kirk (2008)
Domain : Eukarya
1. Fungi 2. Chromista 3. Protozoa
Characterization of fungi (Different characters
used for knowing taxonomic position)

Character: Any character is any attribute of an

organism can serve
as a basis for comparison with other organism.

Different types of characters:

1. Morphological 2. Anatomical 3. Ultra strutural
4. Biochemical 5. Molecular etc.
1. Morphological:
Shape and colour of thallus, colour and size of spore producing
structure, cultural and morphological characters

2. Anatomical- (Microscopic observations)

Arrangement, size , shape of spore producing structure,
arrangement of asci, basidia and sterile structure and hyphal
structure

3. Ultrastuctural characters:
Electronic microscopic structures associatioed with flagella,
nuclear division, ascus wall structure, conidium anatomy etc.

4. Biochemical:
i. Fungal pigmentation and isozymes
ii. Presence of secondary compounds in group

5. Molucular:
Nucleic acid sequencing (PCR) Polymerage chain reaction
New classification of fungi as per Alexopouls, Mims and
Blckwell (2004):

1. Kingdom Fungi: Monophyletic group

Phylum: i Chitridiomycota
ii. Zygomycota
iii. Ascomycota
iv. Basidiomycota
2. Kingdom Stramenopila : Monophyletic group
Phylum: i. Oomycota
ii. Hyphochytridiomycota
iii. Labyrinthulomycota
3. Kingdom Protistis : Polyphyletic group
Phylum: i. Plasmodiophoromycota
[Link]
[Link]
iv. Myxomycota
 [Link].16-20. General characteristics of Protists
Kingdom: Protistis (Protozoa) Unicellular, Plasmodial, very simple, feeding: by
engulfing
Phylum ( 4 out of 2 imp)
Phylum: Myxomycota Plasmodiophoromycota
Plasmodium or pseudoplasmodium Endoparasitic on plant, parasite on algae,
present, wall less (slime mould) plasmodium present, feeding in an ameboid
fashion, causes enlargement of cell, motile
cell present and are anteriorly biflagellate
both whiplash and unequal
Class: Myxomycetes Class: Plasmodiophoromycetes
Order: Physarales Order: Plasmodiophorales
Genus : 1. Musilago,2. Fuligo 3. Family: Plasmodiophoraceae
Physarum
Causes diseases on aquatic plants Genus: 1. Plasmodiophora brassicae ( club
root of cabbage)
2. Spongospora subtarania ( Scab of
potato)
 Lec. No. 21-25 Kingdom-Chromista/Straminopila
Monophyletic group, Based on flagellum structure, Phototropic, uni or
multicellular contains Brown algae, diatoms, Oomycetes
Phyllum (2)
1. Hypochritridiomycota Oomycota
1. Class : Oomycetes
Hypochytridiomycetes
Motile spores anteriarly Motile cells biflagellate, anterior &
uniflagelate & tinsel type, posterior. Anterior- tinsel type, Posterior-
Aquatic found in fresh & Whiplash type, cell wall contains glucose
marine water, parasitic on and cellulose
algae & fungi saprophytic on
plant & insect debris e.g.
Phsciodermaces apophyses
parasitic on mould & algae
Order (4) Imp. 1
i.e Perenosporales
[Link] Spores always in
1. [Link] sporangia,
dimorphic,holo or
eucarpic hyphae
1. [Link] Spores form in sporangia
1. [Link] or usually in viesicle,
Holocarpic hypha
Perenosporales Total family3
1. Pythiaceae 1. Albuginaceae [Link]
Sporangiophore usually similar, Sporangiophore
indeterminant to somatic hyphae, branched unbranched , club
non obligate parasite or saprophytes shaped , obligate
parasite
1. Phytopthora : 1. Pythium: Eg. Albuga
Zoospores form Zoospres form in candida (White
in sporangia & vesicle rust of crusifers)
usually papillate

Eg. P. infestans (Late Eg. P. debaryanum

blight of potato) ( Damping of
seedlings)
 B. Butleri
D.M. of grasses

S. Graminicola
D.M. of Bajara
P. Viticola
D.M. of grape

P. parasitica
D.M. of crucifers

B. Lactuce
D.M. of lettuce
 [Link]. 26-28 Kingdom Fungi

Lack chlorophyll, Heterotropic, Produce mycelium, The cell wall contains glucans and chitin, Nutrition
osmoheterotropic and absorptive
Phyllum
Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Ascomycota(Sac fungi) Basidiomycota
Produce zoospores that Produces non The sexual spores are ascospores, (Club or mushroom fungi)
have single posterior motile asexual born with in the the ascus in group of Sexual spores are
flagellum (Whiplash spores in eight [Link] having sexual basidiospores, Spore
type), lack true mycelium sporangia, the stages (teleomorph) and asexual stages producing structure is
having mostly round or sexual/resting (anamorph),Produces asexual spores basidium, Most
irregularly shaped spores are (conidia) on free hyphae or asexual basidiomycetes are fleshy
thallus, the cell wall zygospores fruiting structures ( pycnidia & fungi i.e mushroom and also
contains chitin, living produced by the acervuli), ascus in most ascomycetes is include two distructive
entirely with in the host fusion of formed as a result of fertilization of groups which consist rust
cells, On maturity the morphologically female sex cell called ascogonium by and smut
vegetative body is similar gamets i.e. either anthredium or minute male sex fungi,basidiospores are
transformed in to one or isogamus spores called spermatia, produces uninucleated, haploid and
many thick walled copulation, sexual spore fruits. 1. Erysiphales- produces on basidium, some
resting spores or saprobic or clestothecia,2. Pyrenomycetes- basidiomycetes produces
sporangia, As these are parasitic on plant perithecium 3. Loculoascomycetes – clamp connection and
water or soil inhabiting ,human and Pseudothecium or ascogonium4. dolipore septa, No
fungi requires free water animals. Discomycetes - apothecium differentiated sex organs are
for its development. produced except rust fungi.
Phyllum: chytridiomycota Posteriorly uniflagelate (whiplash type)
motile spores

Orders : 03 (Imp. 01)

1. Chytridials 2. Blastocladels 3. Monoblepharials
Families (04) Imp. (02)
[Link]: Olpidium
brassicae
( Root diseases of crucifers)

2. Synchytriaceae: Sychytrium
endobioticum (Wart of potato)

3. Phylctidiaceae
4. Megachytriaceae
Phyllum: Zygomycota
Class: 02 (Imp.01)
Zygomycetes Trichomycetes
Mycelium aseptate, Asexual spores are non motile formed in sporangia
(sporangiospore), Sexual spores are zygospores, saprobic or parasitic

Orders: 07 (Imp. 03)

1. Mucorales 2. Dimargaritales [Link] [Link]
[Link] [Link] [Link]

1. Mucorales- Family: Mucoraceae Genus: Rhizopus (Soft rot of Veg.)

Choanephora cucurbitarum (Soft rot of squash) Mucor (
Bread mould & storage rot of fruit& veg.

2. Endogonales (VAM)-Family: Endogonaceae Genus: Glomus,

Gigaspora, Acaulospora, Scuttellospora, Entrophospora & Sclerospora

3. Entomopthorales : Entomopthoraceae Genus: Entomophaga

Archiascomycetes Loculoascomycetes Plectomyc Discomycetes
etes
Orders 02 (Imp.01) Order : 04 (imp. 02) Not imp. Order: Heliotials
[Link]: Dikaryotic 1. Myrangials: Asci single & Sclerotiana sclerotarum
cell of mycelium form irregularly distributed in (Wilt of brinjal)
subcuticular layer of paranchamatous or
ascogenous cells plectochamatous
Family: Taphrinaceae Family: Myriangeaceae
T. maculens (leaf blotch of Sphacelema ampelina ( Grape
turmeric) antracnose)
2. Endomycetales (Not 2. Pleaosporales : Asci grouped
Imp.) in pseudothecia
Family : 02
1. Venturiaceae Pseudothecia
small ascocarp single septate
(unequal septa)
Venturia inaequalis ( apple scab)
2. Pleosporaceae; Pseudotheia
middle to large size, ascospores
either aseptate, one septate or
many septate
Cochlibolus miyabeanus(Brown
spot of rice)
Class: PyrenomycetesOrders : 04 (Imp. 02)
[Link]: Ascocarp 2. Erysiphales [Link] (Not imp.) 4. Coronophorales (Not
ostiolate imp.)
& not having
superficial mycelium
nor obligate parasite on
higher plant
Families : 03(imp.02)
1. Clavicepitaceae :
Ascocarp filiform Asci
with apical caps or ring
Claviceps fujiformis
(Ergot of bajara)
2. Polystragmataceae :
Ascocarp is not filiform,
Asci without apical cap
or ring
Glomerella cingulata
Perfect stage of
Colletotrichum
 [Link]. 29-32 Basidiomycota
Phyllum: Basidiomycota Clsses 03 (Imp.02)
1. Class: Teleomycetes 2. Hymenomycetes 3. Gasteromycetes (Not
(Hemibasidiomycetes) important)
Basidiocarp absent and replaced Basidiocarp is well developed, Basidiocarp is well developed,
by teleospores or chlamydospores basidia arranged in hymenium. basidia are arranged in
parasitic on host plant Basidiocarp is typically hymenium, saprobic, basidiocarp
gymnocarpus (Open) also is angiocarpus (closed) spores
semigymnocarpus (semi open) are not balisto spores.
basidia are fragmobasidia &
basidiospores are balistospores.

Sub classes 02
1. Phragmo basidiomycetes (Not imp.)
2. Holo basidiomycetes (Without septa)
Orders: 06
1. Exobasidials: Internal leaf parasite of higher plant basidia immerse to form hymenium.
[Link]: Internal leaf parasite
3. Dacrymycetales: Not internal parasite
4. Tulasnells: Not internal parasite
5. Aphyllophorales: Gymnocarpus fruiting body
6. Agaricales: Commonly called as mushroom fungi. Sterigmata relatively small, spores are not
repetitive, fruiting bodies are open or semiopen.
Class: Teleomycetes ,Orders 02
1. Uredinales 2. Ustilaginales
Teliospores terminal, and Teliospores are usually
germinate to give a promycelium intercalary, terminally or laterally
bearing basidiospores on produced basidiospores are
sterigmata from which they are sessile and not forcibly
forcibly discharged discharged
E.g: Rust fungi E.G.: Smut fungi
Order Uredinales
Family : 02
1. Puccinaceae: Teliospores stalked. Teleospores are 2. Melampsoraceae: Teliospores are
not in the form of layer or crust sessile. Telespores united laterally to
form layer, colums or crust
E.g:1. Puccinia 2. Uromyces pisi ( pea rust) e.g. Melampsora lini ( Rust of
graminis var. tritciti Telespores are one celled linseed)
(stem rust of wheat)
Teliospores are
bicelled

3. Phragmidium 4. Hemilia vastatrix ( Coffee

tuberculatum ( Rose rust) Uredenospores are like
rust) Teliospores are segments of an orange.
one celled Teliospores are angular
globose or turnip shaped.
Order: Ustilaginales families : 02
1. Ustilaginaceae : Promycelium septate. 2. Tilletiaceae: Promycelium aseptate.
Basidispores produced laterally from each cell of Basidispores are produced in a terminal cluster
promycelium

[Link]: Sori almost never enveloped in a fungus 1. Tilletia: Spores without large appendages
peridium nor formed around columella of host e.g : T. caries (hill bunt of wheat)
tissue.
e.g. 1. Ustilago hordei (covered smut of barley)
2. Ustilago nuda ( loose smut of wheat & barley)
3. Ustilago scitaminea ( Whip smut of sugarcane)

2. Sphacelotheca: Sori enveloped in peridium of 2. Neovassia: spores with a large hyaline

fungus cells, forming around a central columella of appendages
host tissue e.g. N. indica (karnal bunt of wheat)
e.g. S. sorghi (grain smut of sorghum)

3. Tolyposporidium: Spores in the balls held 3. Urocystis : Spore balls with 1-20 fertile spores
together by interconnected thickening of exospores and cortex of sterile bladder like cells
walls e.g. U. agropyri ( flag smut of wheat)
e.g. T. penicillariae ( smut of pearl millet)
 Deuteriomycetes/Mitosporic fungi/Asexual ascomycetes
Classes : 3

1. Blastomycetes [Link] [Link]

Budding cells are Mycelium well Mycelium well
yeast like, with or developed, developed spores
without mycelium is are born in
Pseudomycelium , sterile , No pycnidia &
Mostly saprobic conidiophore,spo acervuli
(Not important) res are born on
special branch
called sporophore
 [Link]: Hypomycetes
Orders :2
[Link] 2. Hypomycetales
(Mycelia sterile) (Moniliales)
Family: Agromycetaceae Pseudomycelium, conidia are born on
Imp. Genera conidiophore (Pseudomycelium)
1. Rhizoctonia Families: 04
2. Sclerotium

1. Moniliaceae [Link] 3. Tuberculariaceae 4. Stillbillaceae

2. (Hyaline (mycelium & conidia (Produces conidia &
conidiophore) are dark) conidiophore in
sporodochia)
Imp genus Imp genus Genus: Most of the genera
Verticillium Alternaria Fusarium are saprobic
Penicillium Helementhosporium
Ramularia Curvularia
Aspergillus Cercospora
Pyricularia
Odiopsis
Odium
Ovulariopsis
 [Link]: Coelomycetes
Order:2
[Link] [Link]
Conidia produced in pycnidia Conidia produced in acervuli
Families: 2 Famliy:1
• Sphirospidaceae •Melancognaceae

Imp. Genus •Imp. Genus
Phyllosticta •Colletotrichum
Phoma (with setae)
Macrophomina C, lindemuthianum)
Phomopsis (Anthracnose of chilli)
Ascochyta • Glomerella
Diplodia (Without setae)
Septoria G. Singulata
• Zythiaceae (Anthracnose of grape)
• Imp. Genus •Pestalotia
• Zythia fragrance •P, psidi
(Fruit canker of guava)
Classification of Fungi
Kirk 2008
 Genetic and variability in fungi:
The genetic information of all the organisms that is
the information that determines what an organism can be
can do is encoded in its DNA. The DNA is present in
chromosomes. In fungi there are several chromosomes
and they are present in nucleus.

The genetic information in DNA is encoded in a

linear fashion in the order of four bases A-Adenine, C-
Cytosine, G- Guanine and T- Thiamine. Each triplet of
adjacent bases code for a particular amino acid. A gene is
a stretches of DNA molecule, about 100 to 500 or more
adjacent triplets that code for one protein molecule.
The coding region of a gene is often interrupted by non coding
stretches of DNA called interons.
When a gene is active, that is expressed one of its DNA strand is
used as templates and is transcribed in to an RNA and it may be
transfer RNA (Trna) or rRNA (Ribosomal) and the transcription
product is mRNA (Messenger).
The mRNA become attached to ribosome and with the help of
tRNA translate the base sequence of the mRNA in to a specific
sequence of amino acids that fold in to a specific shape and forms a
particular protein.
Different genes code for different protein. Some proteins are part of
cell membrane but most act as enzymes.
Not all gene are expressed at same time.
As different kinds of cells have different function and need. The
turn off and on of gene is governed by additional stretches of DNA
called as promoters, enhancer, silencer or terminator.
 Variability in organism:
Characters of individuals with in the species are not fixed that is
they are not identical but vary from one individual to another.
As a matter of fact all individuals produced are differ in many
characters although they retain most similarities of the species.
This is true in case of fungi which produces sexual spores as well as
asexual also due to its ability to produce astronomical number of
individuals (Conidia, zoospores, Sclerotia etc.).

Mechanism of variability:
Variation in progeny is introduced primarily in sexual reproduction
through segregation and recombination of genes during meiotic
division of the zygote.
In fungi heteroploidy and parasexual processes lead to variation.
 General mechanism of variation:
1. Mutation: Is more or less abrupt change in the genetic matter of an
organism, which is then transmitted in a hereditary fashion to the progeny. It
represents changes in the sequence of base in the DNA, either through
substitution of one base for another or through addition or deletion of one or
many base pairs. Additional changes may be brought about by amplification
of particular segments of DNA to multiple copies.
Mutation occurs spontaneously in nature in all living organism, those that
produce only sexually or only asexually and those reproduce both way.
Mutation in haploid mycelium fungi expressed immediately.

2. Recombination: It occurs primarily during the sexual reproduction of

fungi when two haploid (1N) nuclei containing slightly different genetic
material, which unit to form a diploid (2N) called zygote. After meiotic
division produces new haploid cells. The recombination of genes of two
parent nuclei takes place in zygote and after meiosis haploid nuclei are
produced which are different than the parent gamets. The recombination also
occurs during mitotic cell division in the process of growth of an organism.
 Specialized mechanisms of variability:
In fungi some sexual like processes are involved which results in to
production of variable progeny.
A. Heterokaryosis: Is the condition in which as a result of
fertilization cells of fungal hyphae or parts of hyphae contains two or
more nuclei that are genetically different e.g. Basidiomycetes
dikaryotic state may differ drastically from haploid mycelium i.e.
haploid basidiospores infect barbery and not wheat and dikaryotic
aeciospores and uredospores infect wheat.
B. Parasexualism: Is the process by which genetic recombination
can occur with in fungal heterokaryons due to occasional fusion of
heterokaryons and formation of diploid nucleus and during
multiplication crossing over occur in few mitotic division.
c. Heteroploidy: Is the existence of cells , tissue or whole organism
with number of chromosomes per nucleus that are different from
normal i.e. may be haploid, diploid,triploid or tetraploid or
anemoploid.
Definitions:
Gene: A linear portion of a chromosome which
determines hereditary characters or it’s a smallest
portion of genetic material.
mRNA: A chain of ribonucleotides that codes for
a specific protein.
Ribosomes: A subcuticular particle involved in
protein synthesis.
rR RNA: The RNA involved in protein synthesis.
t RNA: The RNA that moves amino acids to the
ribosomes to be placed in the order prescribed by
m RNA.
Lichens:
A lichen is an association of a fungus with algae or
cynobacteria in which the organism are intertwined to form
a single thallus. The fungus component of the lichen is
called as mycobiont and the photosynthetic component is
called as photobiont.
Forms of lichens based on substrate on which it grow:
1. Soxicolous: grows on rock
2. Endolithic: grows inside rock
3. Terricolus: grows in soil
4. Corticolus: grows on bark
5. Folicolus: grows on leaves.
6. Lignicolus: grows on woody part.
Us1. Mycobiont produces several secondary metabolites
known as lichen acids. They are known for their
contribution to biogeochemical weatering of rock and
soil formation i.e. Pedogenesis and also act as chelating
agents and antibiotics.
2. Lichen with cynobacteria are important in ecosystem
where they provide the bulk of fixed nitrogen.
3. Lichen provides information in archeological events.
4. Winter food for animals, insects and mites.
5. Commercial products such as dyes, litmus essential
oils for perfume manufacture have obtained from
lichen.
6. Produces antibacterial substances
7. Lichen is also used in garam masala (Dagad phule)
eful role of lichens:
Useful role of lichens:
1. Mycobiont produces several secondary metabolites
known as lichen acids. They are known for their
contribution to biogeochemical weatering of rock and
soil formation i.e. Pedogenesis and also act as chelating
agents and antibiotics.
2. Lichen with cynobacteria are important in ecosystem
where they provide the bulk of fixed nitrogen.
3. Lichen provides information in archeological events.
4. Winter food for animals, insects and mites.
5. Commercial products such as dyes, litmus essential
oils for perfume manufacture have obtained from
lichen.
6. Produces antibacterial substances
7. Lichen is also used in garam masala (Dagad phule)
 Fungal Diversity:
Fungi are remarkably diversified in their
habitat. The major diversified groups are as
under.
1. Aquatic: The fungi which requires/ grow
well in water.
2. Terrestrial: The fungi which requires /
grow well in soil.
3. Amphibious: The fungi which grow well
in both soil as well as water condition.
 [Link] diversity: The survival and performance of most of the plant pathogenic
fungi depends on the prevailing conditions like temp., moisture, humidity, pH and
nutrition. Based on all these factors fungi shows great degree of diversity.
2. Diversity due to temperature: Some fungi requires low temperature while some
requires higher temperature for its development.
e.g. 1. Some species of fungi Typhula and Fusarium which causes snow mould of
cereals thrives only in cool season. So also Phytopthora causes late blight of potato fungi
thrives only in cool climate. While Phytopthora strain A2 thrives well in at certain higher
temperature.
2. Some fungi like Fusarium spp. Which causes wilt, and colletotrichum requires higher
temperature and limited to hot area.
3. Diversity due to moisture and humidity:
a. High humidity and Moisture e.g.
[Link] blight: Phtopthora
2. Downy mildew:
3. Apple scab: Venturia
4. Seedling wilt: Pythium
b. Dry climate:e.g.
1. Dry rot of bean : Fusarium solani
[Link] blight: F. roseum
[Link] phaseoli causes charcoal rot of sorghum
 [Link] due to soil pH:
e.g. Plasmodiophora brassicae: club root of cabbage most
prevalent at pH 5.7 and its development stopped at pH 5.7 to
6.2 and completely cecked at pH 7.2 to 8.0
[Link] due to nutrition: More amount of N application
increases wheat rust (Puccinia), fire blight of pear (Erwinia)
and Powdery mildew (Erysiphe)
Reduced amount of N increases Fusarium in tomato and
Altrnaria in solanaseous crops
[Link] of P:
Barley diseases caused by Gauemannomyces granminis
decreases due to application of P but increases Septoria
glume blotch of wheat. So also calcium, iron and silicon
reduces the growth of many fungi.
Thank you