GENERAL REPRODUCTION

What is Reproduction?
• Reproduction is a biological process by which an
organism reproduces an offspring that is biologically
similar to the organism.
• Reproduction enables and ensures the continuity of
species, generation after generation. It is the main feature
of life on earth.
Types of Reproduction
There are basically two types of reproduction:

[Link] Reproduction
[Link] Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
“Asexual reproduction refers to the type of reproduction in which
only a single organism gives rise to a new individual.”

In asexual reproduction, one parent copies itself to form a

genetically identical offspring
• Asexual reproduction does not involve the fusion of
gametes, and therefore, the offsprings produced are genetically
identical to the parent.

• The organisms produced by asexual reproduction are less diverse

in nature.
• This type of reproduction is practised widely by unicellular
organisms.

• The process involves rapid population growth and no mate is

required for the process.
• However, a lack of genetic diversity makes organisms more
susceptible to diseases and nutrition deficiencies.
Fig 1: Asexual Reproduction (Binary Fission)
FORMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
[Link] Fission: the cell splits into two, each cell carrying a
copy of the DNA from the parent cell. For eg., Amoeba.

[Link]: a small bud-like outgrowth gives rise to a new

individual. The outgrowth remains attached to the
organism until it is fully grown. It detaches itself and lives
as an individual organism. For eg., Hydra

[Link]: the parent organism splits into several

parts and each part grows into a new individual. For eg.,
Planaria

[Link]: a new organism grows from the spores.

These can be created without fertilization and can spread
through wind and animals.
Sexual Reproduction
“Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that
involves the production of an offspring by the fusion of
male and female gametes.”

In sexual reproduction, an organism combines the

genetic information from each of its parents and is
genetically unique.
Fig 2: Diagrammatic Expression of Sexual Reproduction
• In sexual reproduction,
• male and female gametes are formed to produce an offspring.

• These gametes are either formed by the same individual or by

different individuals of the opposite sex.
• This process is usually slow and complex compared to asexual
reproduction.

• The organisms so produced are genetically diverse.

• Thus, they can evolve along with the changing climatic conditions

• Humans and many multicellular organisms exhibit sexual mode of

reproduction.
Reproduction in Plants
• Plants reproduce by sexual and asexual means.

• Vegetative reproduction is the main mode of plant

reproduction.
• Roots such as a corm, stem tuber, rhizomes and stolon
undergo vegetative propagation.
Fig 3: Diagram of Asexual Reproduction in Plants
• Sexual reproduction in plants takes place
through pollination in which the pollen grains from the
anther of a male flower transfer to the stigma of the
female flower.
Fig 4: Sexual Reproduction in Plants – Diagram
• A few plants produce seeds without
fertilization and the process is called
apomixis. Here, the ovule or the ovary
gives rise to new seeds.
Reproduction in Animals
• Animals reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
• Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and
female gametes.
• This process is known as fertilization.
• Fertilization can be external or internal.
• External fertilization is the process in which the male
sperm fertilizes the female egg outside the female’s
body.

• in internal fertilization, the fusion of male and female

gametes takes place inside the body of the female.
• How Animals Reproduce

• Most organisms reproduce by mating, which increases the genetic

variability of the organism.

• The males and females have separate reproductive organs known

as gonads. These gonads produce gametes that fuse together to
form a single cell called the zygote.

• Few animals such as earthworms, snails, slugs, etc. are

hermaphrodites and possess male and female reproductive
organs in the same organism.
• Asexual reproduction involves reproduction processes
such as binary fission, budding, fragmentation, etc. The
organisms may have no reproductive systems and
therefore no formation of male and female gametes
takes place.

• This symbolizes the importance / beneficial of

reproduction to ensure continuity of life on earth.
Modes of Reproduction
• Animals also have two types of reproduction:
[Link] Reproduction.
[Link] Reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
• The process in which the male and female gametes
fuse together to form a new individual is called sexual
reproduction.
• Brief description of the human reproductive organs and
their role in reproduction.
• Reproductive Organs
• The male reproductive organs comprise a pair of
• testes,
• sperm ducts
• penis.
• The sperm cells are produced by the testes. The sperm cells
are very small in size with a head, a middle piece, and a tail.

• The female reproductive organs comprise a pair of

• ovaries
• oviducts,
• uterus.
• The eggs (ova) are produced by the ovaries. The
development of the baby takes place in the uterus. A mature
egg is released into the oviduct every month.
Process of Sexual Reproduction in Animals

• Fertilization
• The semen contains millions of sperm cells. A single
sperm cell fuses with the ova during fertilization.
• The nuclei of the egg and the sperm cell fuse together to
form a single nucleus thereby forming a zygote.
Fertilization is of two types:
• Internal Fertilization
• The fertilization that takes place inside the body of the
female is known as internal fertilization. For eg., humans,
cows, dogs, etc.
• This method is more prevalent in terrestrial animals.
However, some aquatic animals also adopt this method.

• This may take place by direct introduction of sperm cells

by the male in the female reproductive tract, or the male
deposits the sperms in the environment which is picked
up by the female in her reproductive tract.
• There are three ways by which offspring are produced
by internal fertilization:
[Link]– The fertilized eggs are laid outside, where
they receive nourishment from the yolk.
[Link]– The fertilized eggs are retained in the
female’s body where they receive nourishment from the
yolk. The eggs are laid right before they are hatched.
[Link]– The offspring are born directly instead of
hatching from the eggs. They receive nutrition from the
mother. This can be seen in mammals.
External Fertilization
• The fertilization that takes place outside the female is
called external fertilization. For eg., frogs, and fish. Most
fertilization takes place during the process of spawning.
Environmental signals such as water temperature
trigger spawning.
• Embryo Development
• The zygote divides repeatedly to form a ball of
cells. This is known as the developing embryo.
These cells differentiate into respective tissues
and organs. The embryo gets implanted in the
uterine wall. This process is known
as implantation.

• When all the body parts of the embryo start

being visible, it is called a foetus. The child is
developed after nine months in humans.
Viviparous and Oviparous Animals
• Oviparous and viviparous animals are two different
groups of animals, which are classified on the basis of
fertilization. The main difference between oviparous and
viviparous animals are listed below:
Table 1: Difference between Oviparous and Viviparous
Oviparous Viviparous

Meaning

Egg-laying animals Animals that give birth to the young ones

Fertilization

Either internal or external Fertilization is internal

Nutrients to the developing embryo

Provided by the egg yolk Provided by the mother through the placenta
Development of zygote

There is very little or no development of the embryo

The embryo develops entirely inside the mother.
inside the mother.
Survival chances

There are fewer chances of survival since the eggs are The young one is protected inside the mother and so the
laid outside the body chances of survival are more.
Examples

Insects, hens, fish, amphibians, etc. Humans, dogs, cats, horses, etc.
• Asexual Reproduction in Animals
• Besides sexual reproduction, the other major type of
reproduction seen in the animal kingdom is asexual
reproduction. This type of reproduction is mostly observed in
lower organisms and unicellular microbes.

• It is the process in which a new individual is formed by the

involvement of a single parent without the involvement of the
gamete formation. The individuals produced are genetically
and morphologically similar. The cells divide by mitotic
division and no fertilization takes place. The division occurs
very rapidly.
• Types Of Asexual Reproduction
• Asexual Reproduction is of the following types:
• Binary Fission
• It is seen in amoeba and euglena. The parent cell undergoes
mitosis and increases in size. The nucleus also divides. Two
identical daughter cells are obtained, each containing a
nucleus. Prokaryotes like bacteria majorly reproduce by
binary fission.

Budding
• In this, the offspring grows out of the body of the parent. It
remains attached to the parent until it matures. After
maturation, it detaches itself from the parent and lives as an
individual organism. This form of reproduction is most
common in Hydras.
• Fragmentation
• In some organisms like Planarians, when the body of an
organism breaks into several pieces each piece grows into
an individual offspring. This is known as fragmentation. It can
occur through accidental damage by predators or
otherwise, or as a natural form of reproduction. In a few
animals such as sea stars, a broken arm grows into a
complete organism.
• Regeneration
• It is a modified form of fragmentation and occurs mostly in
Echinoderms. When a part of an organism, like an arm,
detaches from the parent body, it grows into a completely
new individual. This is known as regeneration.
• Parthenogenesis
• This is a form of asexual reproduction where the egg
develops without fertilization. This process occurs in
bees, wasps, ants, aphids, rotifers, etc. Ants, wasps, and
bees produce haploid males. Parthenogenesis has been
observed in a few vertebrates such as hammerhead
sharks, Komodo dragons, and blacktop sharks when the
females were isolated from the males.