GENDER AND SOCIETY
CHAPTER 2
GENDER IDENTITY, ROLE AND
DEVELOPMENT
“There may be several roles you portray in life
but the best role you can have is to be yourself.”
(MCF Siwagan)
Learning Objectives Hormones play a huge role
At the end of this chapter, students are in gender differences and the DNA
expected to: is one of the main predictors of
behavior as men and women. Men
1. Examine the differences between and women have different brain
male and female biological makeup; structures. Women have evolved to
2. Distinguish the agents of
be the carriers of children whilst men
socialization;
3. Discuss the roles of culture and have evolved to be the providers for
socialization in the construction of their families. Women have
gender, and; predetermined characteristics like
4. Expound the theories of being: more caring, protective and
socialization: Social Learning, and loyal than men. Men have
Cognitive Development. predetermined characteristics like
being: more aggressive, competitive and dominant than women.
The fundamental cause of our gender differences is our genetic
makeup, more specifically, the DNA found in our two 23rd chromosomes -
the chromosomes that dictate which sex we are.
Hormones: The Biological Cause of Gender Differences
Hormones are chemicals in the
Key Concepts body that regulate changes in our cells. This
Gender identity – defined as a
includes growth and is as a result very
personal conception of oneself as
important in explaining our gender
male or female (or rarely, both or differences. You may have heard of the
neither) largely male hormone: testosterone and the
largely female hormone: estrogen - and
Gender role – refers to the know that they have effects in our bodies
outward expression of gender that lead men and women to act more like,
identity based on cultural and
well, men and women.
social expectations
Gender development – means It is well documented that there are
the maturation of gender identity differences between the brain structures of
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GENDER AND SOCIETY
men and women (men have a larger hypothalamus - both the BSt and the
SDN-POA). This can be seen by studying very young children (who have not
yet had much social influence) and seeing if boys and girls act differently. The
research made by Connellan et al. (2000) showed that newborn girls were more
interested in faces (suggesting superior social skills) whilst newborn boys were
more excited by mechanical items.
Chromosomes: The Fundamental Cause of Gender
Differences
Humans typically have 23 pairs of chromosomes (totaling 46) and on
the two 23rd chromosomes the DNA that decides whether a newly fertilized
ovum (egg) becomes a male or female is found. If the sperm that fertilized the
ovum is carrying a Y chromosome, then the zygote (the name given to an egg
that has just been fertilized) will contain both an X and a Y chromosome and
the baby will be a boy. If the sperm carried an X chromosome, then the zygote
will have two X chromosomes (XX) and become a girl. The above statements
are empirical facts and, so we know that at its very core the cause of physical
differences in men and women is due to biological differences in DNA.
At first, the embryo (the name given to a zygote that has started to
develop) has the same sex organs whether it has XY or XX chromosomes. But
6 weeks after conception and the Y chromosome in males result in changes
that lead to the gonads becoming testicles. If the Y chromosome is not present
(and the zygote has XX chromosomes) then the gonads become ovaries. This
idea that both males and females start off with the same sex organs is where
the common 'fact' that 'all men were once women' comes from. The formation
of testicles and ovaries are very important because they are the key producers
for the sex hormones androgens (including testosterone) and estrogens which,
as mentioned in the above section, result in many gender differences.
Meanwhile, an individual's personal sense of maleness or femaleness is
his or her gender identity. Outward expression of gender identity, according
to cultural and social expectations, is a gender role. Either gender may live out
a gender role (a man or a woman, for instance, can be a homemaker) but not
a sex role, which is anatomically limited to one gender (only a woman can
gestate and give birth).
Gender identity appears to form very early in life and is most likely
irreversible by age 4. Although the exact cause of gender identity remains
unknown, biological, psychological, and social variables clearly influence the
process. Genetics, prenatal and postnatal hormones, differences in the brain
and the reproductive organs, and socialization all interact to mold a toddler's
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GENDER AND SOCIETY
gender identity. The differences brought about by physiological processes
ultimately interact with social‐learning influences to establish clear gender
identity.
Psychological and Social Influences on Gender Identity
Gender identity is ultimately derived from chromosomal makeup and
physical appearance, but this derivation of gender identity does not mean that
psychosocial influences are missing. Gender socialization, or the process
whereby a child learns the norms and roles that society has created for his or
her gender, plays a significant role in the establishment of her or his sense of
femaleness or maleness. If a child learns she is a female and is raised as a
female, the child believes she is a female; if a child is told he is a male and is
raised as a male, the child believes he is male.
Beginning at birth, most parents treat their children according to the
appearance of their genitals. Parents even handle their baby girls less
aggressively than their baby boys. Children quickly develop a clear
understanding that they are either female or male, as well as a strong desire to
adopt gender‐appropriate mannerisms and behaviors. This understanding
normally occurs within 2 years of age, according to many authorities. In short,
biology sets the stage, but children's interactions with social environments
determine the nature of gender identity.
Developmentalists indicate that adults perceive and treat female and
male infants differently. Parents probably do this in response to having been
recipients of gender expectations as young children themselves. Traditionally,
fathers teach boys how to fix and build things; mothers teach girls how to
cook, sew, and keep house. Children then receive parental approval when they
conform to gender expectations and adopt culturally accepted and
conventional roles. All of these lessons are reinforced by additional socializing
agents, such as the media. In other words, learning gender roles always occurs
within a social context, with the values of the parents and society being passed
along to the children of successive generations.
Gender roles
Gender roles are both cultural and personal. These roles determine
how males and females think, speak, dress, and interact within the context of
society. Learning plays a role in this process of shaping gender roles. These
gender schemas are deeply embedded cognitive frameworks regarding what
defines masculine and feminine. While various socializing agents—educators,
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GENDER AND SOCIETY
peers, movies, television, music, books, and religion—teach and reinforce
gender roles throughout a child's life span, parents probably exert the greatest
influence, especially when their children are very young.
There are four major theories that can be attributed to the
development of a person’s identity: Psychoanalytic, Social-Learning Theory,
and Cognitive-developmental Theory.
Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychological development explained that
children satisfy their basic biological motivations which were discovered
through a treatment known as psychoanalysis, the examining of the
unconscious. As Ovesey (1983) commented, “Thus, psychoanalysis was the
first comprehensive personality theory that attempted to explain the origins of
what we now call gender” He concluded that there were primary aspects of
the psychoanalytic theory: the id, ego and superego. The personality combined
the id (basic instincts such as, hunger, desires and aggression/personality for
example, an infant is 100% id), ego (reality testing and
rationalization/psychological) and the superego (conscience, moral
judgment/social).
The stages of psychosexual development were developed and based
upon an erogenous zone. If a stage is unsuccessful and not completed it meant
that a child would become fixated on that erogenous zone and either over or
under indulge once he or she becomes an adult. The first stage called the oral
stage takes place between birth and two years old where pleasure and self-
gratification is centered on the mouth through the erotic, rooting energy of
sucking. The next stage of psychosexual development is called the anal stage.
The anus is the erogenous zone. The child must learn to control the id and
meet the demand of society and parents by becoming toilet trained. Conflicts
take place due to the child wanting to control retention and elimination. There
is a conversion of involuntary to voluntary behavior and the first attempt at
controlling instinctual impulses. Sexual identity is formed in the third early
stage called the phallic stage. According to Freud, gender role development
occurs during this stage at about five or six years old where identification takes
place with the same sex parent. This is a time of discovery and pleasure which
is now focused on the genitals. It is during this stage that patterns were seen
in males and were considered the norm, yet female patterns were somehow
deviant. (Golombok & Fivush 1994, 57). It is at this age when castration
anxiety creates fear resulting in Oedipal Conflict. Also, when boys are proud
of their penis, and girls wonder why they don’t have one. By five or six the
child has completed the period of early development.
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GENDER AND SOCIETY
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of gender development suggests that
gender development takes place during the third stage of his psychosexual
theory of personality development. He called this the phallic stage, which
occurs between three and six years old. During this stage, the child’s libido is
focused on his or her genitals. Development of gender in psychoanalytic
theory is different for boys and for girls: boys experience the Oedipus complex
and identify with their father and take on a male gender role; girls experience
the Electra complex and identify with their mother and take on a female gender
role.
Social Learning Theory
The Social Learning Theory was proposed by Bandura as a way of
explaining how children acquire their gender identity based on the influence
of other people (particularly their parents).
Stages of Learning
There are four stages that a child goes through when develop gender behavior.
These are:
1 Attention. This is merely where the behavior is noticed and
observed.
2 Memory. This is when the behavior is memorized and committed
to memory.
3 Imitation. The behavior is performed or 'reproduced' based on
Imitating what they see around them.
4 Motivation. Their behavior is based on the desired consequences
or what will be gained by the behavior, either immediately or in the
near future.
This can be illustrated by the example of boys playing sepak takraw. A
boy may see his friends playing the game (attention) and then memorize this.
Later, at school, he joins in a game (imitation) and a teacher comments on how
good he is (motivation).
Social Learning theory is based on outward motivational factors that
argue that if children receive positive reinforcement they are motivated to
continue a particular behavior. If they receive punishment or other indicators
of disapproval they will tend to stop that behavior. In terms of gender
development, children receive praise if they engage in culturally appropriate
gender displays and punishment if they do not. When aggressiveness in boys
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GENDER AND SOCIETY
is met with acceptance, or a “boys will be boys” attitude, but a girl’s
aggressiveness earns them little attention, the two children learn different
meanings for aggressiveness as it relates to their gender development. Thus,
boys may continue being aggressive while girls may drop it out of their
repertoire. Socialization of children is one of the major causes of gender
differences between boys and girls. Children are encouraged to do the
appropriate sex-typed activities by the parents, media, and school.
Cognitive Developmental Theory
This approach focuses upon the thought processes underlying
learning. It emphasizes to cognition when understanding and explaining
behavior. This theory gives importance to the internal states of the person as
well as the environmental events; however, it is the thinking and perception
that is the key factor. The term cognition refers to "knowledge" as well as "the
process of knowing" Cognitive approach emphasizes: thoughts, feelings,
thinking, values, expectations, etc.
The theory proposes the interaction of mental schema and social
experience in directing gender role behavior. The cognitive approach focuses
upon the child's "understanding". A child's understanding refers to the way
he/she perceives and tackles a phenomenon. Information about gender is
organized into sets of beliefs about the sexes i.e. gender schema Gender
schema (plural schemata or schemas) is a mental framework that organizes and
guides a child understands of information relevant to gender. Example:
information about which toys are for girls and which toys are for boys form
schema that guides behavior. Example: If a son sees his mother and sisters
respected in the family, he will perceive women as respectable beings; and if
he has seen his mother being battered and maltreated by his father he will
perceive that women are taken as some less valued individuals.
Cognitive Learning states that children develop gender at their own
levels. The model, formulated by Kohlberg, asserts that children recognize
their gender identity around age three but do not see it as relatively fixed until
the ages of five to seven. This identity marker provides children with a schema
(A set of observed or spoken rules for how social or cultural interactions
should happen.) in which to organize much of their behavior and that of
others. Thus, they look for role models to emulate maleness or femaleness as
they grow older.
Children’s own cognitions are primarily responsible for gender role
development Kohlberg children identify with and imitate same-sex parents,
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GENDER AND SOCIETY
and others of their same gender after children label themselves as male or female, the
development of gender related interests and behavior quickly follow the following stages:
1 Gender Identity: children develop a concept of what sex category they belong to
2 Gender Consistency: children realize that their gender and that of other do not
change with age, dress, or behavior appropriate female or male activities identified
and imitated, once gender consistency is established external world rewards or
punishes them for their choices.
Summary
1. Hormones play a huge role in gender differences. Biological aspects create a critical
interplay with the gender roles pursued by an individual.
2. Biological make up may play a major part on an individuals gender identity, however,
psychosocial and societal factors still influence an individual’s view of
himself/herself.
3. Gender roles are both cultural and personal. It maybe derived from the environment
directly affecting the individual, however the personal experiences of the person
plays a crucial part in one’s gender role discovery.
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