Quantum Levitation

For Undergraduate and High School Teachers

Demonstrations, student activities and the physics behind them

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Superconductivity in high school?
Since its discovery in 1911, superconductivity was only discussed at the high school physics
level as an interesting topic or an anecdote. The phenomenon couldn’t be observed in class
because it occurred only at extremely low temperatures – a few degrees above absolute
zero (0 K).
During the late 1980s, the rapid succession of newly discovered high-temperature
superconductors which can operate at liquid nitrogen temperatures (77 K) turned the tables.
Superconductivity was now well within the reach of high school students. It was now possible
to perform classroom demonstrations of magnetic levitation and to easily observe quantum
phenomena using relatively cheap liquid nitrogen!
Quantum Levitation demonstrations always capture students’ attention. They become
entranced by an upside down levitated magnet, they wonder how it works and predict what
it can be used for – scientific inquiry has begun! Students’ curiosities will be limited only by
their imagination.
Superconductivity is widely regarded as one of the great scientific discoveries of the
20th century and, in four occasions, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for work on
superconductivity. Nevertheless, the history of superconductors is only just now beginning.
The possible discovery of room temperature superconductors has the potential to bring
superconducting devices into our everyday lives. Superconductivity is already being applied
to many diverse areas such as transportation, power production, medicine and more. At
the dawn of the 21st century, superconductivity forms the basis for new horizons that are
transforming our daily life as we speak.

Table of Contents:
Chapter A - Fascinating properties of superconductors

Chapter B - Problem Solving

Chapter C - Demonstrations and Student Activities

Chapter D - Quantitative Experiments and Science Fair Projects

Chapter A
Fascinating properties of superconductors

1. Zero Resistance at low temperatures

It had been known for many years that the resistance
of metals fell gradually when cooled below room
temperature, but it was not known what limiting value
the resistance would approach if the temperature
were reduced to very close to absolute zero.
The era of low-temperature physics began in 1908
when Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
first liquefied helium, which boils at 4.2 K. Three
years later, Onnes passed a current through a very
pure mercury wire and measured its resistance as
he steadily lowered the temperature. Much to his
surprise, there was no leveling off of the resistance
until the temperature reached 4.2 K, at which point the
resistance suddenly vanished. Current was flowing
through the mercury wire and nothing was stopping
it; the resistance was zero. Onnes called this new
state of zero resistance ‘superconductivity.’
In 1913, Onnes was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Figure 1: The original graph from
physics for the study of matter at low temperatures
Onnes’s publication from 1911
and the liquefaction of helium. Soon afterwards, showing the resistance of mercury as
many other metals were found to exhibit zero a function of its temperature. (H. K.
resistance when their temperatures were lowered Onnes, Comm. Leiden, 124c, 1911).
below a certain characteristic temperature, called
the critical temperature, or Tc.
The importance of this discovery to the scientific
community as well as its commercial potential was clear. An electrical conductor with no
resistance could carry current to any distance with no losses.

Did you know?

In one experiment conducted by S. S. Collins in Great Britain, a current was maintained in a
superconducting ring for 2.5 years, stopping only because a trucking strike delayed delivery
of the liquid helium that was necessary to maintain the ring below its critical temperature.
2. Expulsion of magnetic fields – the Meissner effect
The magnetic properties of superconductors are
as dramatic as their complete lack of resistance. In
1933, Hans Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld studied
the magnetic behavior of superconductors and found
that when certain ones are cooled below their critical
temperatures, they have an interesting property of
expelling a magnetic field. They discovered that a
superconductor will not allow a magnetic field to
penetrate its interior. It achieves this by producing a
“magnetic mirror,” surface currents which produce a
magnetic field that exactly counters the external field.
The phenomenon of the expulsion of magnetic fields
from the interior of a superconductor is known as the
Meissner effect. Figure 2: superconductor in the
presence of an external magnetic
A good comparison to electricity is that a good conductor field. (a) At temperatures above
expels static electric fields by moving charges to Tc, the field lines penetrate
its surface. In effect, the surface charges produce the sample because it is in its
an electric field that exactly cancels the externally normal state. (b) When the rod
applied field inside the conductor. In a similar manner, is cooled to T<Tc and becomes
a superconductor expels magnetic fields by forming superconducting, magnetic flux is
surface currents. At ordinary temperatures, these excluded from its interior by the
induction of surface currents.
currents decay almost instantaneously due to the finite
resistivity of the conductor. However, when cooling the
superconductors below Tc, persistent surface currents are induced and produce a magnetic
field that exactly cancels the externally applied field inside the superconductor.
Levitation of a magnet above a cooled superconductor can been explained by the Meissner
Effect. If a superconductor is cooled below its critical temperature while in a magnetic field,
the magnetic field surrounds but does not penetrate the superconductor. The magnet induces
currents in the superconductor which create a counter-magnetic force that causes the two
materials to repel. The induced currents are due to the presence of the external field and not
due to flux changes as frequently seen in metals (Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws).
Note that the Meissner effect will occur only if the external magnetic field is smaller than the
superconductor’s critical magnetic field, or Bc. If the magnetic field becomes too great, it
penetrates the interior of the metal and the metal loses its superconductivity.

3. High temperature Superconductors

It has long been a dream of scientists working in the field of superconductivity to find a
material that becomes a superconductor at room temperature. About half of the metallic
elements and also a large number of alloys have been found to super-conduct at very low
temperatures, which requires the handling of liquid helium, a complex and expensive task.
Therefore, a great deal of effort has been directed towards finding new superconductors
with higher critical temperatures.
Early in 1986, Georg Bednorz and Karl Alex Müller Did you know:
made a remarkable discovery that has revolution-
The mercury-based cuprate
ized the field of superconductivity. They found that HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+δ exhibits
an oxide of lanthanum, barium, and copper became the highest known critical
superconducting at about 30 K. Inspired by these de- temperature known to date:
velopments, scientists worldwide worked intensively around 133 K at ambient
to discover materials with even higher Tc values. A pressure.
year later, a ceramic material, YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO),
was found to super-conduct at 92 K. This was an im-
portant milestone in high-temperature superconduc-
tivity because the transition temperature of this compound is above the boiling point of liquid
nitrogen (77 K), a coolant that is readily available, far safer, inexpensive, and much easier
to handle than liquid helium.
In recognition of their important breakthrough in the discovery of ceramic superconductors,
Bednorz and Müller were awarded the 1987 Nobel Prize in Physics.
The superconductor material encapsulated inside the levitator of Quantum Levitation is
YBCO, a compound made from yttrium, barium, copper, and oxygen. Its atoms are arranged
in an orthorhombic crystallographic structure (a cuboid shaped unit cell). The material is a
bad electrical conductor at room temperature and becomes a superconductor below 92 K.
The superconductor thickness inside the levitator is only 1-3 microns, crystal grown on top
of a metallic substrate (hast alloy/stainless steel) and protected by a silver layer.

a
Highest Tc of superconductors and their year of discovery
Tc[K]
140
HgBaCaCuO
130
TlSrBaCuO
120
110 BiCaSrCu2O9

100
90 YBa2Cu3O7

80 Boiling temperature of liquid nitrogen b

70
60
50
40
LaBaCuO4
30 Nb3Ge 1
Nb3Sn
NbN
20
Nb
Figure 4: (a)
Pb
10 Hg Boiling temperature of liquid helium YBCO sample
(the dimensions
1900 1920 1940 1960 1990 2000 of the sample are
Year of discovery 4x4x1 cm), and
(b) a part of its
Figure 3: Timeline of the highest Tc superconductors and their year of discovery.
lattice structure.
4. Applications of superconductors
Electrical Power
The ability of superconductors to conduct electricity with
zero resistance can be exploited in the use of electrical
transmission lines. Currently, a substantial fraction of
electricity is lost as heat through resistance associated
with traditional conductors such as copper or aluminum. If 2
power transmission lines could be made superconducting, Figure 5: Regular and high
these losses could be eliminated and substantial savings in temperature superconducting
energy costs would result. cables for 12,500 amperes
used at and Large Hadron
New High Temperature Superconductors (HTS) in CERN (above and below
technologies have undergone rapid development in the respectively).
comparatively short time of three decades since 1987.
Today, the HTS industry has advanced to full-scale power
equipment prototypes and demonstration projects.
The foundation of these applications is a new generation of wire, capable of carrying vastly
(on the order of 100 times) higher currents than conventional copper wires of the same
dimension, with zero or negligible resistive losses.
Today’s prototype and demonstration technologies have made use of a proven, readily
available and high-performance second generation HTS wire. These wires, in short, bring the
promise of a revolution in the way electricity is generated, delivered and consumed – much as
the introduction of optical fiber led to a technological leap forward in the telecommunications
industry.

Transportation
Magnetically levitated trains, employing superconducting
electromagnets on the train, offer a way to make trains
literally “fly” to their destination by using powerful magnets
which allow them to float above their railway or track.
Superconductor electromagnets on the train induce
currents in the railway beneath the train, which in turn create 3
magnetic forces that repel the onboard electromagnets
thereby levitating the train. In 2015, the SCMaglev, a Figure 6: Maglev train
superconducting magnetically levitated train in Japan, undergoing test-running on
the Yamanashi Test Track,
attained top speeds in excess of 600 km/h.
Japan.
Superconductivity can leverage the advantages of
electrified transportation of various types, ranging from
high-speed trains to advanced ship propulsion systems. The
incorporation of superconductor technology into transportation system design can improve
the efficiency and performance, reduce weight and fuel consumption, and extend the range
of transportation systems of all types. One can envision a future society of vehicles of all
sorts gliding above a freeway, making use of superconducting magnets.
 Did you know?
In 2015, Lexus revived Back to the Future’s
famous hover-board by constructing it from
an isolated core containing high temperature
superconducting blocks. These were housed
in a reservoir of liquid nitrogen inside the
board which was placed above a track
containing permanent magnets.

MRI
The first large scale commercial application of superconductivity was in magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI). The intense magnetic fields that are needed for these instruments are a
perfect application for superconductors.
Although normal electromagnets can be used for electromagnets, because of resistance they
would dissipate a great deal of heat and have huge power and heat dissipation requirements.
Superconducting magnets on the other hand have almost no power requirements apart from
cooling. Once electrical current flows in the superconducting wire, the power supply can be
switched off and since the wires are formed into a loop the currents will persist indefinitely,
as long as the temperature is kept below the transition temperature of the superconductor.
The heart of any MRI system is a superconducting magnet. The typical field values required
for its operation cannot be achieved using conventional magnets. Just as importantly, high
homogeneity and stability of the magnetic field are essential to achieve the resolution,
precision and speed required for economical clinical imaging, and superconductors provide
a unique solution to these requirements.

4
5. The physics behind superconductivity – a quantum phenomenon
Superconductivity is a pure quantum phenomenon. Not surprisingly, a successful theoretical
explanation had to wait almost 50 years for the basis of quantum mechanics to be well
consolidated, until the theory could be formulated.

The theoretical understanding of superconductivity requires knowledge of quantum

mechanics which is beyond the scope of this booklet. In this section, fundamental terms and
phenomena of superconductors will be discussed qualitatively.

BCS and Cooper pairs

According to classical physics, part of the resistance of a metal is due to collisions between
free electrons and the crystal lattice’s vibrations (called phonons). In addition, part of the
resistance is due to scattering of electrons from defects or impurities in the metal. Soon
after the discovery of superconductivity, scientists recognized that this classical model could
never explain the superconducting state because the electrons in a material always suffer
some collisions, and therefore resistivity can never be zero.
In 1957, three American physicists at the University of Illinois, John Bardeen, Leon Cooper,
and Robert Schrieffer, developed a model that has since stood as a good mental picture of
why superconductors behave as they do.
The central feature of the theory is that two electrons in the superconductor are able to
form a bound pair called a Cooper pair if they somehow experience an attractive interaction
between them. This notion, at first sight, seems counterintuitive since electrons normally
repel one another because of their similar charges. However, a net (or effective) attraction
can be achieved if the electrons interact with each other via the motion of the crystal lattice
as the lattice structure is momentarily deformed by a passing electron. The second electron
(the Cooper pair partner) comes along and is attracted by the displaced ions.

Area of higher
positive charge

Second electron chases -

e e- First electron
positive charge

Cooper
pair

Figure 9 shows two electrons inside the atom lattice. The existence of electron 1 causes nearby
ions to move inward toward the electron, resulting in a slight increase in the concentration of positive
charge in this region. Electron 2 (the second electron of the Cooper pair) is attracted to the distorted
(positively charged) region. The net effect is a weak delayed attractive force between the two
electrons, resulting from the motion of the positive ions.
The interaction between a Cooper pair is transient. Each electron in the pair goes on to form
a Cooper pair with other electrons, and this process continues with the newly formed Cooper
pair so that each electron goes on to form a Cooper pair with other electrons. The end result
is that each electron in the solid is attracted to every other electron forming a large network
of interactions.
For the advanced reader: The new pair acts as a new effective particle that has completely
different properties than the original electrons. Unlike their creators, the new particles are
Bosons (named after the Indian physicist, Satyendra Nath Bose) which possess the ability to
occupy the same energy state. The Pauli Exclusion Principle does not apply to Bosons and so all
the Cooper pairs condensate to occupy the same lowest energy level available. This new state
has substantially lower energy and hence highly stable. Cooper pairs passing current inside the
Superconductor will not shift their energy upon collision and hence no energy dissipation will occur.

The model is expressed in terms of advanced ideas of the science of quantum mechanics,
but the main idea of the model suggests that electrons in a superconductor condense into
a quantum ground state and travel together collectively and coherently. In 1972, Bardeen,
Cooper and Schrieffer received the Nobel Prize in Physics for their theory of superconductivity,
which is now known as the BCS theory, after the initials of their last names.

Flux pinning
High-temperature superconductors are characterized by a partial penetration of the magnetic
field under a high enough external magnetic field. The penetration is in the form of thin
filaments, called flux lines or vortices. These magnetic vortices, which create a cylindrical
swirl of current surrounding it, repel each other and move to arrange themselves in an
orderly array known as a fluxon lattice.
Depending on the quality of the superconductor, the vortices may either be free to move (clean
samples) or may be strongly pinned to defects (dirty samples). In practice, high temperature
superconductors have defects (missing or misplaced atoms, impurity atoms) in their crystal
lattices. The crystal defects and boundaries stop the motion of the vortices, known as flux
pinning. Pinning the motion of the magnetic field lines also means stopping the motion
relative to the magnet. Pinning sites can be intentionally introduced into superconducting
material by the addition of impurities or through radiation damage.
Figure 10: The partial penetration
of a magnetic field is in the form of a
regular array of normal conducting
regions (shown as the dark regions B
in Figure 10). These normal regions
allow the penetration of the magnetic
field in the form of thin filaments. The
vortices are so named because each 6000 Å
is a “vortex” or swirl of electrical current
(shown on the left in Figure). One can
view a vortex as a cylindrical swirl of
current surrounding a core that allows
some flux to penetrate the interior of
the superconductors.
Chapter B
Problem Solving

Questions:
1) Discuss the problems that scientists must overcome before superconductors can be
effectively used in our daily lives.
2) In your own words, explain the Meissner Effect.
3) Why was the discovery of YBCO so important? What made it different from the other
superconductors that were known at that time?
4) List the four occasions the Nobel Prize was awarded to advancements in the field of
superconductivity and mention the prize motivation in each case.
5) List two applications of superconductors that are currently in use today and describe the
role of the superconductors in their application.

Problems:
6) What is the resistance of a superconductor at room temperature if 500 milliamps of
current are passing through the sample and 3.5 millivolts are measured across the
voltage probes?
Answer: R = 0.007 Ω
7) What is the resistivity of the superconductor in problem #6 at room temperature assuming
the sample is rectangular? The sample is 2.5 mm wide, 3.4 mm high, and the distance
between the probes is 2.5 cm?

Answer: use = , = 238 × 10 − 6 [Ω ]

8) What is the temperature in Kelvin and what state of matter will nitrogen be in at
= −319 ℉. [assume atmospheric pressure]. The conversion formula from Fahrenheit
5
to Kelvin is =( ℉ + 459.6) × 9 .
Answer: The nitrogen temperature is 78 K, which is above its boiling temperature. The
nitrogen is in gas state.
Graph analysis:
9) A student ran an experiment to collect data on a YBCO sample. During the experiment,
a 100mA current was flowing through the sample and the student measured the voltage
on the superconductor. The voltage measured and temperature are in the following
table.

R (Ohm) Temp (K) Voltage (V) R (Ohm) Temp (K) Voltage (V)
93.8 0.000844 118.2 0.001037
93.5 0.000783 116.1 0.001027
93.2 0.000639 114.8 0.00106
93 0.000505 112.9 0.001049
92.6 0.000379 110.9 0.001035
92.1 0.000243 109.1 0.001022
91.7 0.000093 106.9 0.001009
91.4 0.00001 105 0.000989
91 0.000003 103.5 0.000975
90.8 0.000002 102.2 0.000967
89.9 0.000002 100 0.000951
89.5 0.000001 97.9 0.000944
88.8 0.000001 95.8 0.000918
85.5 0.000001 95 0.000911
85.1 0.000001 94.3 0.000892

a) Complete the table above using Ohm’s law.

b) Using the data, make a graph plotting resistance as a function of the temperature.

c) Calculate the slope of the graph where the temperature is above = −173 ℃ .
The conversion formula from Celsius to Kelvin is ( ) = ( ) + 273.
d) Estimate the critical temperature from the slope of the graph and the data in the table.
Explain how you determined it.
Answer:
1) The completed table:

R (ohm) Temp (K) Voltage (V) R (ohm) Temp (K) Voltage (V)
0.0084 93.8 0.000844 0.0104 118.2 0.001037
0.0078 93.5 0.000783 0.0103 116.1 0.001027
0.0064 93.2 0.000639 0.0106 114.8 0.00106
0.0051 93 0.000505 0.0105 112.9 0.001049
0.0038 92.6 0.000379 0.0104 110.9 0.001035
0.0024 92.1 0.000243 0.0102 109.1 0.001022
0.0009 91.7 0.000093 0.0101 106.9 0.001009
0.0001 91.4 0.00001 0.0099 105 0.000989
0.0000 91 0.000003 0.0098 103.5 0.000975
0.0000 90.8 0.000002 0.0097 102.2 0.000967
0.0000 89.9 0.000002 0.0095 100 0.000951
0.0000 89.5 0.000001 0.0094 97.9 0.000944
0.0000 88.8 0.000001 0.0092 95.8 0.000918
0.0000 85.5 0.000001 0.0091 95 0.000911
0.0000 85.1 0.000001 0.0089 94.3 0.000892

2) The graph:
Resistance vs. Temperature of YBCO
0.012

0.01
Resistance (ohm)

0.008

0.006

0.015

0.004

0.002

0
80 90 100 110 120

Temperature (K)

ℎ
Slope:
3) Slope: = 7 ∙ 10−5

4) = 91.5 = −181℃
10) A critical magnetic field (Bc) is the external magnetic field that will cancel the
superconductivity of a superconductor.
The formula for Bc as a function of temperature (T) is an empirical formula based on
 2
experimental evidence rather than on a solid theoretical foundation: = 0 1 − 2  .
 
Here Tc is the critical temperature in the absence of an external magnetic field. B0 is Bc
at 0 Kelvin.
In the table below, you can see four different metals, their critical temperature, and their
critical magnetic field (at 0K).

Bc (T) Tc (K) Element

0.01 1.20 Al
0.0058 1.08 Ga
0.041 4.15 Hg
0.1991 9.26 Nb

1) Use the formula above and plot curves for the following elements of Bc (y-axis) against
T (x-axis). The temperature scale should be from 0K to Tc (Tc is the max value on the
x-axis).

2) Is mercury (Hg) a superconductor when an external magnetic field of 0.03 [Tesla] in

applied and it is cooled to a temperature of 3 K? Explain.
3) Is aluminum (Al) a superconductor when an external magnetic field of 0.002 [Tesla] is
applied and it is cooled to a temperature of 1 K? Explain.
4) From the four elements in the table, which one is the least sensitive to an external
magnetic field? Explain.
Answer:
a. The graphs of all four 4 elements:

Critical Magnetic Field vs. Temperature of various elements

0.25

0.2

Hg
0.15
Bc (T)

Al
Ga
0.1
Nb

0.05

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Temperature (K)

b. No, mercury is not a superconductor when an external field of 0.03 [Tesla] is exerted on
the element at a temperature of 3 K. The superconductor is above its critical magnetic
field as can be observed by its coordinates in the plot.

Critical Magnetic Field vs. Temperature of Mercury

0.045
0.04
0.035
region of non-superconductivity
0.03
Bc (T)

0.025
0.02
0.015
region of superconductivity
0.01
0.005
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Temperature (K)

c. Yes, aluminum is a superconductor when an external field of 0.002 [Tesla] is exerted on

the element at a temperature of ~1 K. The superconductor is below its critical magnetic
field as can be observed by its coordinates in the plot.
(iv). Niobium (Nb) is the least sensitive to an external magnetic field. The area under the
curve of Niobium is the largest of all the elements in the table.
Chapter C
Demonstrations and Student Activities

This part of the booklet contains the demonstrations and the student activities that can be performed
with the Classroom Quantum Levitation kit.
The activities in this booklet are written as student activities that can be executed individually or
in small groups. They can also easily become teacher demonstrations and be accompanied by a
discussion in the classroom.
Each activity is accompanied with the necessary equipment, a description of the demonstration,
and a physical explanation using the theoretical knowledge students have acquired beforehand.
The demonstrations and activities in this booklet will increase the student’s theoretical knowledge
and allow them to experience the practical side of superconductors.

Warning – Neodymium Magnets:

The “Quantum Levitation” experiments uses extremely strong
neodymium magnets. If not handled carefully, these magnets can
cause serious injury! These magnets need to be kept away from
magnetic materials and sensitive electronics.

Warning – Liquid Nitrogen:

Liquid Nitrogen is extremely cold: -320 ºF. It can cause severe frostbite or eye damage
upon contact. Substances may become brittle upon contact with liquid nitrogen and shatter
sending pieces flying. Proper personal protective equipment should be worn at all times.
This includes gloves, goggles or other eye protection, and lab coats.

Quantum Levitation
The phenomenon of quantum levitation is composed of two different effects that occur
simultaneously:
1. The Meissner Effect.
2. Quantum locking.
The rationale behind this teaching sequence is to separate these two effects. Therefore,
students will be able to understand the role each effect plays in the levitation. After
demonstrating the levitating effect to the students, POE (Predict, Observe and explain)
student activities are listed. These activities start by focusing on the Meissner Effect, continue
by showing the special quantum properties of quantum locking, and are finalized by creating
frictionless motion through symmetry in the magnetic fields.
Teacher demonstration -Quantum levitation
Equipment:
Quantum Levitator, plastic tweezers and a strong magnet.
Method:
1) Cool the levitator in liquid nitrogen and place it on the table
- logo face down.
2) Take the small magnet and gently lower it towards the levitator.
3) When the magnet is about 2cm above the levitator, let go of the magnet. The magnet
will levitate and wobble above the levitator.
Teacher’s Explanation:
This simple yet amazing demonstration can be explained by two effects which were explained
in the theoretical background: (1) the Meissner Effect and (2) quantum locking.
The Meissner Effect causes the magnet to levitate due to a repulsion force between the
magnet and the superconductor. The magnet induces this effect in the superconductor, by
creating a magnetic field that repels the magnet.
The quantum locking causes the magnet to stay in place and rotate only on its own axis.
This locking force is created on the superconductor and is resistant to any change, due
to Newton’s third law the same locking force is exerted on the magnet, but in an opposite
direction. Therefore, the magnet is locked in position and is only able to rotate around its
symmetrical axis. This does not harm the magnetic flux inside the superconductor. The
purpose of this separation is to address the two phenomena that occur in quantum levitation.
The purpose of this separation is to address the two phenomena that occur in quantum
levitation.

POE student activity – Predict, Observe, Explain

POE is a teaching strategy that allows immediate observations that can be used for
finding out students’ initial ideas and can generate discussions through confronting
the students’ predictions and observations.
There are three steps for the POE activities:
Step 1: Predict - Ask the students to write their prediction of what will happen and
explain it based on their previous knowledge.
Step 2: Observe - Carry out the demonstration allowing time to focus on observation
and ask students to write down what they observe.
Step 3: Explain - Ask students to amend or add to their explanation. This is to take
in to account their observations. After students have committed their explanations to
paper, bring the class together to discuss their ideas.
The Meissner Effect
Student activity #1
Equipment: Quantum Levitator, plastic tweezers and a strong magnet.
Instruct the students to cool the levitator in liquid nitrogen. Remove the levitator from the
liquid nitrogen and gently bring the levitator closer to a small magnet that sits on a table.
Predict:
What will happen to the small magnet as it gets closer to the cooled levitator? What will
happen if we repeat the experiment with the magnet flipped upside down? Use the Meissner
Effect to explain your prediction.
Observe:
The small magnet will always be repelled from the levitator even when we flip its polarity!
Teacher’s explanation:
This is a beautiful demonstration of the Meissner Effect. The superconductor repels the
magnet regardless of its polarity (unlike the forces between regular magnets). When a
magnet is placed near a superconductor, currents are formed in the superconductor and
create a magnetic field similar in size, but opposite in direction to the original magnetic field
that formed it. This magnetic behavior is called “Diamgnetism”. A superconductor is a perfect
diamagnet.
When the magnetic field near the superconductor changes, due to the flipping of the magnet
for instance, the magnetic field inside the superconductor immediately changes to create a
mirror field.
This effect causes the superconductor to produce a magnetic field that repels every magnet
close by, no matter the polarity of the magnet.

Student activity #2
In this activity, the students observe trapped magnetic forces and currents inside the
superconductor.
Equipment: Quantum Levitator, plastic tweezers, Handheld magnetic device and a compass.
Demonstrate the magnetic force the magnet in the Handheld magnetic device exerts on the
compass needle by slowly brining the compass towards the magnets.
Predict:
What will happen if a cooled superconductor is first locked in a magnetic field and then, when
the surrounding magnet is removed, placed next to a compass? Consider the Meissner
effect.
Observe:
The compass needle moves due to magnetic fields created by the superconductor which is
acting as a magnet.
Teacher explanation:
When the superconductor is placed in an external field currents begin to circulate inside,
creating an opposite internal magnetic moment in an effort to expel the external field
(Meissner effect). Since there is no electrical resistance, the currents do not dissipate even
when the superconductor is pulled away from the magnet thus turning the superconductor
into a magnet.

Quantum Locking
In this activity, the students are faced with a phenomenon
that cannot be explained by the Meissner Effect. It can
only be explained by the quantum locking effect.
Student activity #1
Equipment: Quantum Levitator, plastic tweezers and
the handheld magnetic device.
Instruct the students to soak the levitator in liquid
nitrogen and then place it above the magnetic matrix. Illustration: Some of the
The levitator will levitate. external magnetic field
lines penetrating the
Predict: superconductor
What would happen if we try to gently move the levitator
while it is levitating above the magnet (using the
tweezers)?
Observe:
The levitator will resist any change to its position.
Teacher’s explanation:
In type II superconductors, like the YBCO in our levitator, when the external magnetic field
is strong enough it will penetrate the superconductor in discrete quantities, called fluxons
or magnetic vortices. Since, inside any vortex superconductivity is locally destroyed, the
superconductor will prefer to have these at spots where superconductivity is the weakest.
The fluxons will be locked in these pinning centers thereby locking the entire superconductor
in space.
This phenomenon is called quantum locking and is a key component to understanding
Quantum Levitation. If the levitator moves from its position, the vortices’ positions will shift
from their original location and the energy will increase. This energy change is translated to
a drag force that resists any movements.
Student activity #2
Equipment: Quantum Levitator, plastic tweezers, and the Handheld magnetic device.
As in the previous activity, instruct the students to cool the levitator and place it above the
magnetic matrix.
Predict:
What would happen if the magnets are turned over upside down? Will the levitator fall? Try
to predict what will happen by using the quantum locking phenomenon.
Observe:
The levitator will hover underneath the Handheld device, and will not fall to the ground!

Levitator hovers under the magnets

Teacher’s explanation:
The quantum locking forces can either be attractive or repulsive. The locking force acts to
keep the superconductor in the same place, thanks to the magnetic vortices that are pinned
to defects in the superconductor.
The levitation in this case cannot be explained by the Meissner Effect which is strictly
repulsive. Therefore, a quantum locking phenomenon is observed!
POE – Quantum locking and Frictionless Bearing
Equipment: Quantum Levitator, plastic tweezers and the Handheld magnetic device.
The small magnetic rings in the Handheld device are made of two circular magnets.
Predict:
What would happen if a cooled levitator is placed on the circular magnet? Consider the
magnet’s radial symmetry.
Observe:
The levitator will rotate freely around the symmetry axis of the rings (not around the center
of the levitator! Try to lock it sideways and see).
Teacher explanation:
In this setting there is a radial symmetry around the center of the circular magnet rings.
This symmetry also exists in the magnetic field lines which enables the superconductor to
freely move perpendicular to the radial axis (or rotate around the center of the rings). The
superconductor will not be able to move parallel to the radial axis because it will result in
changes to the magnetic flux inside it (the field changes along the radius).
Final demonstration – The Maglev Track
This is the most impressive demonstration of quantum levitation.
Equipment: Quantum Levitator, plastic tweezers and the Maglev track.
Method:
Have the students cool the levitator in liquid nitrogen and then place the cooled levitator on
the circular magnetic rail. Push the levitator slightly towards the magnets until it is locked.
Allow the levitator to move freely along the track with a slight push.
Teacher explanation:
The magnetic track is assembled of magnets with their North/South polarity pointing
perpendicular to the plane. All of the magnets in the inner ring point north and all the outer
magnets point south.
This configuration forms a symmetry axis similar to the rings in the Handheld device. The
magnetic field is identical along the track which allows the superconductor to move freely in
that direction, but to be locked in all other directions.
Chapter D
Quantitative Experiments and Science Fair Projects

Quantum levitation allows students not only to observe the quantum phenomena in a
qualitative manner but also to perform quantitative measurements of the phenomena. This
section provides ideas for easy to conduct student experiments that can be measured using
simple and common sensors. These experiments will enrich your student’s understanding
and enable them to measure real quantum phenomena with their own hands!

Experiment 1: Measuring the Levitation Force

Objective: Measure the levitation and locking forces of the Meissner effect and quantum
locking.
Equipment: Handheld magnetic device, quantum levitator, plastic tweezers, liquid nitrogen
and a Force Sensor Balance Stand.
Methods:
1) Place the Handheld magnetic device on the force sensor and tare the scale of the
sensor to 0.
2) Cool the levitator using liquid nitrogen and hold it with the tweezers while you start the
recording of the force sensor.
3) Bring the levitator closer to the magnets until reaching a distance of a few millimeters
and then continuously pull it back up and increase the distance from the magnet in a
continuous manner.
4) Repeat the measurement until a clean and continuous graph is achieved.
Data analysis:
If the experiment was performed correctly, the resulting graph should look similar to the
graph in Fig. D1.
As the levitator gets closer to the magnet (Region 1), the repulsion force between the
levitator and the magnet increases and the net force that the magnet applies on the force
sensor increases. Both the Meissner effect (always repulsive) and the locking force (resists
the increase in the field) are repulsive in this region and contribute to the force. This makes
a net force that sums up to ~1 Newton.
According to Newton’s third law, the levitator experiences the same force but in an opposite
direction (in our case upwards against gravity). We can conclude that the repulsion force
between the magnet and the levitator can carry a weight as high as 100 grams. This fact is
amazing especially since the levitator itself weights only ~3 grams, but even more strikingly,
the mass of the superconductor inside is less than 0.025 grams. The superconductor levitates
a weight that is a couple of thousand times its own weight!
 Figure D1: The change in force acting on the force sensor is due to the interaction between the
magnetic matrix in the handheld device and the superconductor in the levitator. Region 1 represents
the movement of the levitator towards the magnet and Region 2 represents the movement of the
levitator away from the magnet. The force sensor is tared to 0 when the Handheld device is placed
upon it.

Meissner Quantum
Effect Locking
Velocity Velocity Quantum
of levitator of levitator Locking

Meissner
Effect

Force Force
Sensor Sensor

Figure D2: The magnetic forces acting on the levitator and Handheld device throughout the motion
of the levitator towards (left) and away (right) of the magnet. Only the magnetic forces that are acting
on the levitator and magnets are shown in this figure.
One of the most interesting parts
of the experiment occurs when
the levitator moves away from the Did you know?
magnet (Region 2). As expected, The superconductive layer inside the levitator is
the force gradually decreases with only a few microns (10-6m) thick, but can carry up to
distance, but instead of gradually 50,000 times its own weight. If we could synthesize
decreasing to 0 the net force on a superconductor a few centimeters thick with the
the magnets becomes negative same quantum properties as our levitator, it would
- a force is pulling the magnets be able to levitate a small car!
upwards. This attraction cannot be
explained by the Meissner Effect
which can only create a repulsion
force between the levitator and the magnet. This leaves the quantum locking force which
resists changes to the magnetic flux inside the superconductor and hence acts as a friction
force – always opposite to the direction of motion. In region 2 the motion is upwards and the
locking force is pointed downwards on the levitator and upwards on the magnets (Newton’s
third law). If the locking is strong enough to negate the Meissner repulsion, the total force
will be negative (attractive) and the magnets will be pulled upwards.
You just observed a quantum phenomenon that can be measured by both macroscopic and
quantitative tools!

Experiment 2:
Measuring the Critical Temperature Using Magnetic Levitation
Objective: Measure the critical temperature of the superconductor using a resistance
thermometer.
Equipment: Levitator with a resistance thermometer attached, multimeter, Handheld
magnetic device, tweezers, and liquid nitrogen.
Methods:
Phase A: Calibrating the resistance thermometer
A platinum resistance thermometer is thermally coupled to the superconductor in the
levitator. Resistance thermometers are used as sensors to measure temperature. This is
done by correlating their resistance with temperature. Platinum resistance thermometers
offer excellent accuracy over a wide temperature range (from –200°C to +850°C) because
the relationship between temperature and their resistance is, within good approximation,
linear in the above temperature range.
There are several ways to calibrate the resistance thermometer. A simple way is to use a
home thermometer or a thermocouple and measure the temperature of an object as it is
cooled with both the reference thermometer (home thermometer or thermocouple) and the
resistance thermometer. The object can be cooled using ice or any another method. During
cool down we can record the resistance values at each temperature, plot a graph of the
values, and calculate a trend line to find the formula of the temperature as a function of
resistance of the thermometer.
Phase B: Measuring the critical temperature using magnetic levitation
1) Connect the resistance thermometer to the multimeter and cool the levitator using liquid
nitrogen.
2) Place the levitator horizontally above the magnetic matrix of the Handheld magnetic
device and record the temperature when the levitator stops levitating and completely
lands on the magnet. The lack of any levitation is an excellent indicator for the state
of the superconductor and the transition temperature: above the critical temperature
the material is in the normal state and does not possess any magnetic properties
(the magnetic field penetrates the material and the Meissner and locking effects are
completely eliminated).
Data Analysis:
Compare the experimental results with the theoretical value of the critical temperature of
YBCO. What may be the reasons for a difference between the two?

20 Ω

Experiment 3:
Superconductivity as a Mean to Investigate Classical Mechanics
Quantum Levitation and frictionless motion provide an excellent accessible and easy to use
tool to investigate classical phenomena that involve motion. We can use the lack of friction
to get better measurements of classical quantities such as energy, speed, etc.
Harmonic motion
Objective:
Investigate the harmonic motion of the levitator at different values of the restoring force.
In this experiment, students measure the frequency of the motion as a function of the slope
angle of the Maglev Track.
Equipment:
The Maglev Track, a stand to change the slope angle of the track, a stopwatch, liquid nitrogen
and a levitator.
Methods:
1) Cool the levitator in liquid nitrogen.
2) Place the cooled levitator on the tilted Maglev Track at a low point and release.
3) The levitator should move in a simple harmonic motion along the circular magnetic
track. The gravity force has two components -
I. perpendicular to the surface (Normal) which is canceled by the levitation force
II. Parallel to the surface and along the track.
The latter acts as the restoring force in the harmonic motion.
4) Change the angle of the track by adjusting the height of the stand.
5) Using the stopwatch, measure the time it takes the levitator to complete its harmonic
motion.
6) Take several measurements at the same height to reduce the measurement error.
Data analysis:
The motion of the levitator can be simulated by the motion of a mathematical pendulum that
is tied by a rope of length L (in our experiment the radius of the track). Using small angle

approximation, the time period of a simple gravity pendulum is =2 .

In our case the effective gravity is only the component which is parallel to the surface. We can
now formulate a relation between the time period T, and the slope angle : =2 ( )
The results of the experiment can be shown using a linear graph of the square of the period
1
time as a function of ( )
.
N

mgsin(α)

mgcos(α)

α
Conservation of mechanical energy
Objective:
Investigate the law of conservation of mechanical energy in a frictionless system. In this
experiment, students find the relationship between the velocity of the levitator as a function
of the height it was released from on the Maglev track.
Equipment:
The Maglev track, a stand to change the slope angle of the track, levitator, liquid nitrogen,
long ruler, a photogate or high speed camera, and a Tracker software.
Methods:
1. Cool the levitator in liquid nitrogen.
2. Measure the initial height from which the levitator will be released from relative to the
lowest point on the track using the long ruler.
3. Set up the instrument to measure the velocity of the levitator either using the photogate
or high speed camera with tracker software.
4. Place the photogate at the bottom of the track and ensure the levitator passes entirely
through the photogate horizontally with its sides parallel to the track.
5. Film the levitator with the high speed camera at the bottom of the track and analyze the
video using Tracker software to obtain the velocity.
6. Repeat the experiment at different heights and take multiple velocity measurements at
each height to increase the accuracy of your measurements. Remember to measure
the height every time it is changed.

E = Ep = mgh

mv2 h
E = Ek =
2
Data analysis:
Conservation of mechanical energy occurs when the work of all non-conservative forces is
equal to 0. In our case friction is negligible and the magnetic force is in a radial direction that
is perpendicular to the motion of the levitator; therefore, it is not exerting work. The initial
potential energy of the levitator is transformed to the kinetic energy at the bottom of the track:

=
2
= ℎ
2

Solving the equation yields the relationship between the final velocity v and the initial height
h:

= 2 ℎ

The students can plot the relationship between and in order to receive a linear graph.

Credits
Picture 1
Photograph by Maxim Bilovitskiy from Wikipedia distributed under a CC-BY 2.0 license
Picture 2
Photograph by Rama from Wikipedia distributed under a CC-BY 2.0 license
Picture 3
Photograph by Saruno Hirobano from Wikipedia distributed under a CC-BY 2.0 license
Picture 4
Photograph by KasugaHuang from Wikipedia distributed under a CC-BY 2.0 license
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The first hand-on experiment

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Quantum Levitation
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Demonstrations, student activities and the physics behind them