Ricafrente, John Patrick M.

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 11-Mobius

Differential Calculus: Tips and

Shortcuts
I.​ Limits Shortcut: L’Hopital’s Rule
​ Suppose you have a limit:
2
𝑥 +4𝑥−5
lim 𝑥−1
𝑥→1

0
Directly substituting x = 1 will result in the indeterminate form 0
so the normal
method will either be a table of values or factoring method as demonstrated:
(𝑥−1)(𝑥+5)
lim (𝑥−1)
= lim (𝑥 + 5) = 1 + 5 = 6
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

However by using derivatives, one may skip all the tedious work of factoring by
applying the L’Hopital’s Rule. Suppose you are getting the limit of a division of two
0
functions such that it is in indeterminate form when substituted (e.g. ). We may get the
0
derivative of the numerator and the denominator then attempt to substitute the given value
again. Here is the formal definition:

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓'(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑐) 0

lim 𝑔(𝑥)
= lim 𝑔'(𝑥)
if 𝑔(𝑐)
= 0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Let’s try to apply it to the limit earlier:

2
𝑥 +4𝑥−5 2𝑥+4
lim 𝑥−1
= lim 1
= 2(1) + 4 = 6
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

See? It is somewhat faster assuming you’ve mastered the simple power rule for
derivatives, however such an example is too simple to truly appreciate the power of
L’Hopital’s rule. Let us consider another example and compare the factoring method and the
aforementioned shortcut:
 2
𝑥 −4𝑥−12
lim 3 2
𝑥→6 𝑥 +7𝑥 −56𝑥−132

Factoring Method L’Hopital’s Rule

2 2
𝑥 −4𝑥−12 𝑥 −4𝑥−12
lim 3 2 lim 3 2
𝑥→6 𝑥 +7𝑥 −56𝑥−132 𝑥→6 𝑥 +7𝑥 −56𝑥−132
2𝑥−4
= lim 2
Apply synthetic division to the denominator 𝑥→6 3𝑥 +14𝑥−56
with the linear factor (x-6) 2(6)−4 8 1
= 2 = 136
= 17
3(6) +14(6)−56

6 1 7 -56 -132

6 78 132

1 13 22 0

2
𝑥 −4𝑥−12
lim 2
𝑥 → 6 (𝑥−6)(𝑥 +13𝑥+22)

Factor the two quadratics

(𝑥−6)(𝑥+2)
lim (𝑥−6)(𝑥+2)(𝑥+11)
𝑥→6
1 1 1
= lim (𝑥+11)
= 6+11
= 17
𝑥→6

​ As you can see, the shortcut is effective. Additional note: If you applied the rule and it
still gave an indeterminate answer, just apply it again until you get a definite answer. Another
note: rule is applicable to the special trigo and expo limits

II.​ Chain Rule

The basic idea behind chain rule is decomposing a composite function. Suppose you
5 2
want to get the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(4𝑥 + 8𝑥 ). We do not have a known formula for this
specific function so we will have to break it down. We know how to get the derivative of
5 2
4𝑥 + 8𝑥 but unfortunately it is inside of a sine function. So we separate the two by giving
“sin” a placeholder of the variable we used which is “x”. After that, we will also get their
derivatives. Take note that the inner portion will be denoted as g(x) while the outer portion
will be denoted as f(x).

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)

5 2 4
𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 8𝑥 𝑔'(𝑥) = 20𝑥 + 16𝑥

5 2
​ To get the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(4𝑥 + 8𝑥 ), we now apply the chain rule:

𝑦 = 𝑓'(𝑔(𝑥)) · 𝑔'(𝑥)
5 2 4
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(4𝑥 + 8𝑥 ) · (20𝑥 + 16)

III.​ Continuity
A.​Continuity at a Point
​ ​ For a point in a function to be considered continuous it must satisfy these
three conditions:
​ ​ [1] The left-hand and right-hand limits must be equal
​ ​ [2] f(c) must be defined within the function or f(c) exists
​ ​ [3] f(c) = L where L is the limit from condition 1

​ ​ Consider the graph:

Now let’s try to analyze if the function is continuous within the given x-values.

Q: Is the function continuous at x = 3?

A: Yes, the left-hand and right-hand limits are equal, f(3) is defined to be 5 and the limit has
the same value.

Q: Is the function continuous at x = 4?

A: No. Although condition #1 and #2 are followed, the graph at x = 4 clearly violates
condition #3. The location of the limit from the left and right is not the same as the shaded
value.

Q: Is the function continuous at x = 7?

A: No. The two limit sides are not the same and the function is not defined at x = 7.

​ ​ Consider the piecewise function

Now let’s try to analyze if the function is continuous within the given x-values.

Q: Is the function continuous at x = 0?

A: Yes. The left-hand and right-hand limits are the same since zero is only within one of
those intervals and does not border any other interval. f(0) is well defined by solving 5(0) + 2
= 2. The limit and the function value are the same by limit evaluation.

Q: Is the function continuous at x = 3?

A: Yes. You have to be more careful when applying condition #1. Although x = 3 is only
located within the third interval, x = 3 also borders the 4th interval which influences its
right-hand limit. To find out the left-hand and right-hand limit, substitute the given value to
the subfunctions of all intervals that either contain or border 3 (which are the 3rd and 4th
interval). Both of them will result in 10. f(3) is defined to be 10. This basically means all
three conditions were satisfied and the function is continuous at x = 3.

Q: Is the function continuous at x = 5?

A: No. If we substitute x = 5 to the subfunctions of the 4th and 5th interval, the limits from
both sides will differ which violates condition #1.

Q: Is the function continuous at x = 6?

A: No. Although x = 6 is only critical to one interval, it becomes undefined when substituted
2𝑥
to 𝑥−6
. Since f(6) is undefined, condition #2 is violated.

B.​Continuity at an interval​
​ ​ For an interval of a function to be considered continuous, all points within the
said interval must be continuous. The existence of at least one discontinuous point within the
interval makes the entirety discontinuous. This tells us the procedure is using our intuition to
observe if there exists a discontinuous point within the interval.

​ ​ Consider the graph:

Now let’s try to analyze if the function is continuous within the given intervals

Q: Is the function continuous within (0,1)?

A: Yes. There are no holes or gaps within the said interval.
Q: Is the function continuous within (0,2)?
A: Yes. Although x = 2 is discontinuous, it is not included within the interval because
parentheses were used.

Q: Is the function continuous within (0,2]?

A: No. The interval has the discontinuity x = 2

Q: Is the function continuous within (1,5)?

A: No. The interval has the discontinuities x = 2, 4

​ ​ Consider the piecewise function:

Now let’s try to analyze if the function is continuous within the given intervals

Q: Is the function continuous within (-5,-3)?

2
A: Yes. The given interval falls within the 𝑥 definition of the graph which is well-known to
be a parabola which does not have any discontinuities.

Q: Is the function continuous within (-2,1)?

A: No. There is a discontinuity at x = -1.
 C.​Types of Discontinuities
​ ​ A discontinuity is a point that violates at least one of the three conditions for
continuity.

Conditions for specific types

Type Condition

Removable Discontinuity The left-hand and right-hand limits at that point must be
equal

Connected graphs with holes

Jump Essential Discontinuity Both left-hand and right-hand limits exist however they
are not equal.

Disconnected graphs

Infinite Essential Discontinuity At least one of the one-sided limits approaches either
positive or negative infinity.

The graph has a vertical asymptote at that point.

​ ​ Identify the different discontinuities within the graph:

Removable Discontinuities at x = 1, 5
Jump Essential Discontinuities at x = 3, 9
Infinite Essential Discontinuities at x = 2, 8
IV. Differentiability
​ For a point of a function to be considered differentiable, these three conditions must
be satisfied:
​ [1] Must be continuous at that point
​ [2] Must NOT be a sharp corner; You may observe the graph itself if it is a sharp
corner however if only the function is given, you will have to solve the left-hand and
right-hand limit of the limit definition of the derivative. I would avoid manually solving for
such so as much as possible try imagining its graph to see if it is smooth or sharp.
​ [3] Must NOT have a VERTICAL tangent line; Without the graph, this is easily
solvable by checking if f’(c) is defined.

Examples:
2
Q: Is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 10𝑥 + 25 differentiable at x = 13?
A: Yes. The function is continuous at x = 13. The function is obviously a parabola (because it
is a polynomial where the degree is 2) which guarantees there is no sharp corner. The tangent
line at x = 13 is not vertical because f’(13) is defined by getting f’(x) = 2x + 10 and then f’(3)
= 2(3) + 10 = 16.

3
Q: Is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 differentiable at x = 0?
A: No. Although conditions #1 and #2 were satisfied. f’(0) is undefined which violates
condition #3.

Q: Is 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| differentiable at x = 0?

A: No. Just by imagining the graph of the absolute value function, you will see that it has a
sharp corner at x = 0.

V. Higher Order Derivatives

​ Simply just get the derivative over and over until you get what is asked.

Example:
9 5 3
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 27𝑥 + 50
8 4 2
First Derivative: 𝑓'(𝑥) = 9𝑥 + 25𝑥 − 18𝑥 + 27
7 3
Second Derivative: 𝑓''(𝑥) = 72𝑥 + 100𝑥 − 36𝑥
6 2
Third Derivative: 𝑓'''(𝑥) = 504𝑥 + 300𝑥 − 36
(4) 5
Fourth Derivative: 𝑓 (𝑥) = 3024𝑥 + 600𝑥
(5) 4
Fifth Derivative: 𝑓 (𝑥) = 15120𝑥 + 600
 (6) 3
Sixth Derivative: 𝑓 (𝑥) = 60480𝑥
(7) 2
Seventh Derivative: 𝑓 (𝑥) = 181440𝑥
(8)
Eighth Derivative: 𝑓 (𝑥) = 362880𝑥
(9)
Ninth Derivative: 𝑓 (𝑥) = 362880
(10)
Tenth Derivative: 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0

​ The sequence stops as soon as the derivative reaches zero (11th, 12th, etc. are still
zero)

​ However there are some cases where higher order derivatives create a cycle
Example:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)
𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)
𝑓''(𝑥) =− 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)
𝑓'''(𝑥) =− 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)
(4)
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)

​ Notice that every 4th derivative would just lead sin(x) back to itself. Let’s say you
were asked to get the 123rd derivative of sin(x). Since every 4th derivative is just sin(x), just
cancel 120 derivatives (120 is a multiple of 4) and just get the remaining 3rd derivative.
Therefore, the 123rd derivative of sin(x) is -cos(x).

VI. Intermediate Value Theorem

​ The IVT states that if a function f(x) is continuous within the closed interval [a,b] and
if there is a value of K such that 𝑓(𝑎) < 𝐾 < 𝑓(𝑏). There exists a value of c that satisfies
𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏 such that f(c) = K.

Example:
This is the 14th item of the first online test (2nd summative) of Basic Calculus.

Problem: The temperature (in celsius) of a substance over time (in minutes) is given by the
3 2
continuous function 𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑡 + 2𝑡 + 2𝑡 + 4. Use IVT to prove/disprove that there exists
time t within [1,4] such that the temperature is 6C

Solution:
K = 6, a = 1, b = 4
T(1) = 9; T(4) = 108; 6 is not in (9, 108) therefore there is NO solution
VII. Extreme Value Theorem
​ EVT states that if function f(x) is continuous within interval [a,b], there exists
absolute minimum and maximum within the interval.

​ Step by step process to get the absolute minimum and maximum

1.​ Find the critical value/s by getting the derivative of f(x) then setting it to zero
2.​ Make a table with the critical value/s along with a and b
3.​ Input each of them to the original f(x) to see their corresponding values
4.​ Whichever points with the corresponding value that is the lowest/highest will become
the absolute minimum and maximum respectively.

Example:
2
Find the absolute minimum and maximum points of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 at interval [-3,5].

STEP 1:
f’(x) = 2x + 2 = 0
2x = -2
x = -1

STEP 2:

x -3 -1 5

STEP 3:
f(-3) = 9 - 6 = 3
f(-1) = 1 - 2 = -1
f(5) = 25 + 10 = 35

STEP 4:

x -3 -1 5

y 3 -1 35

Absolute minimum point: (-1, -1)

Absolute maximum point: (5, 35)

IX. Calculus Concepts to Remember

​
Absolute/Global Minimum - The smallest possible value within an interval
 Absolute/Global Maximum - The largest possible value within an interval

Local/Relative Minimum - The graph goes down then passes through this value then
goes up

Local/Relative Maximum - The graph goes up then passes through this value then
goes down

Differentiation (to differentiate) - the process of getting the derivative of a function

​ Indeterminate - A special case where both the numerator and denominator are zero or
infinity. (Meron pang iba pero dito nalang magfocus ahahaha)

​ Undefined vs Indeterminate - undefined is where there is no value while

indeterminate is where the value is not known (cannot be determined)

​ If a function is continuous at a point then it is always differentiable at that point -

FALSE; Continuity is insufficient to determine the differentiability of a function at a certain
point

​ If a function is differentiable at a point then it is always continuous at that point -

TRUE; Anything differentiable is always continuous