Environment (By-JayaKrishna)

Class 01
THE CLASS AT STARTED (05:08 PM)
OBJECTIVE OF STUDYING ENVIRONMENT (05:11 PM):
 Syllabus:
 Prelims:
 General issues in Environment ecology, Biodiversity & Climate Change.
 Mains:
 Conservation, Environmental degradation, Pollution & Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA).
 Approach To Deal With The Topics:
 1) Ecology & Environment.
 2) Biodiversity.
 3) Climate change & Global Warming.
 4) The environmental pollution, loss & environmental impact assessments.
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT:
 Definitions of basic terms.
 Terminologies e.g. niche, carrying capacity, limiting factors, etc.
 Approaches to Ecological Studies: Aut and Syn Ecological studies.
 Ecosystem and its different types, ecotones, and functions of ecosystems.
 Biodiversity:
 What is meant by biodiversity and how to measure biodiversity, threats, types, and
conservation techniques (ex-situ & in-situ)?
 Biosphere reserves, National Parks, and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
 Different conventions for Biodiversity & institutions like IUCN, and TRAFFIC.
 Captive breedings, Botanical Parks, DNA Banks, Zoo, Seed Banks, CCMB (lab for
conservation of endangered species.).
 Climate Change & Global Warming:
 Basic terms & definitions.
 UNEP, Conference on Environment & Development.
 IPCC.
 United Nations Framework On Climate Change (UNFCCC): UN Convention On
Biological Diversity (UNCBD), United Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD).
 Elements of geographies.
 Kyoto Protocol, CoP, Paris Agreement.
 Pollutions:
 Types and factors of pollution.
 New Policy Guidelines on solid waste management & biomedical wastes.
  Plastic rules.
 National Green Tribunal (NGT).
 Environmental Impact Assessment.
SOURCES FROM WHERE TO STUDY: (06:18 PM):
 Primary Sources (refer to the below primary sources only):
 1(a). Class 12th Biology NCERT (chapters: 13, 14, 15, 16, 17).
 1(b). NIOS's Environmental Module (chapters: 1 to 7, 8A & 8 B).
 Newspapers:
 The Hindu & The Indian Express, etc.
 Websites:
 www.wiienvis.nic.in
 From the website of pib.gov.in study the Year End Review of MOEFCC.
 Magazines:
 Yojana & Kurukshetra magzines.
 Down to Earth.
 VisionIas Printed Material for the Environment.
THE ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY (07:00 PM):
 The environment is defined as the total of all the conditions & influences that affect
the development of life on the earth.
 The word Environment is derived from the French word Environer.
 If any one of the realms gets affected, life will perish on Earth.
 *draw the Venn diagram as drawn by the sir.
 Ecology: It is a scientific study of interactions & interdependencies between
the abiotic components & biotic components on one hand & the biotic component on
the other hand. These interactions are known as Ecological Interactions.
 The term Ecology is coined by Ernst Haeckel in the year 1869. According to
him, Ecology means Oikos+Logos in which 'Oikos' are places of living
and 'Logos' means study.
 Terminologies:
 1) Habitat: It is defined as a place of living of species. It is a physical environment in
which an organism lives, the physical environment is providing all the facilities for
survival. The facilities like Shelter, Protection, Food, and Conducive Weather
Conditions.
 2) Niche: It is also called an Ecological Niche.
 Niche is the functional role of the species.
 If the habitat is the address of the specie niche is the job of the species.
 The Niche is of three different types:
 Food Niche: In the limited resources, when the food is the same for the two species
They cannot co-exist indefinitely in the same ecosystem/habitat.
 for example, lions & tigers cannot co-exist for long in the same habitat due to their
food niche. This rule is called the 'Competetive Exclusion Principle' also called
the 'Gause Rule'.
 Habitat Niche: Different species may have the same habitat but their habitat niche is
clearly defined.
 E.g. the tree may be a habitat for sparrows, crows & woodpeckers but their habitat
niche is different. The woodpeckers live on the stems, crows on the branches &
sparrows on the top.
  Reproductive Niche: Species of the same population on mating produce fertile
offspring/species.
 The indifferent species on mating may produce offspring but not fertile.
 Male Lion mates with Female Tiger produces infertile Liger & Tigon.
LIMITING FACTORS (07:49 PM):
 Some abiotic factors like the availability of water & sunlight limit the growth of the
species.
 In the xerophytic vegetation availability of water is the limiting factor that converts
leaves into thorns/spines e.g. Acacia, Cactus, etc.
 In the Equatorial broad-leaf vegetation, the limiting factor is sunlight.
 The rainforest is rich in canopy & obstructs the sun's rays and thus sunlight acts as
a limiting factor in making the leaves broader.

Class 02
THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:04 PM)
LEVEL OF TOLERANCE (5:12 PM)
 Every species has a certain level to tolerate climatic conditions.
 More the level of tolerance, the more their geographical distribution, and the less the
level of tolerance higher they are sensitivity.
 It is level of the tolerance which decides the distribution of the species.
 Even the structure, shape, and anatomy are also affected by the level of tolerance.
CARRYING CAPACITY (5:27 PM)
 It is the regenerative capacity of the ecosystem to sustain a healthy habitat.
 The species' average population size in our ecosystem is the carrying capacity of the
ecosystem.
 The species' population size is limited by environmental factors like adequate food,
shelter, water, etc.
 If these needs are not met then the population will decrease until the resource
rebounds.
 Earth's Overshoot Day:
 The earth's regenerative capacity to provide resources to the people.
 Earth's overshoot day is the day that humanity demands ecological resources that
exceed the resources that Earth can generate within that year.
 Earth's overshoot day is a good example of measuring the carrying capacity of the
Earth, In 2022 it fell on 28 July.
HOLISM IN THE ECOLOGY (5:54 PM)
 It is the levels of the organization in the ecological studies.
 It starts with a basic unit called individual or single species.
 Species/ Individual -> Population -> Community -> Ecosystem -> Biome ->
Biosphere.
 Population means the group of similar species.
 A group of populations makes a community.
Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of the environment.
It includes both the biotic and abiotic elements.
Biome is a group of ecosystems with similar climatic conditions is called Biome.
A Group of biomes is called Biosphere, Earth is a Biosphere.
APPROACHES TO THE ECOLOGICAL STUDY (6:11 PM)
 There are two broad approaches to studying ecology:
 1) Autecological approach:
 The study of interactions of an individual organism with living and non-living factors
of its environment is called the autecological study, This is also called species
ecology.
 The interactions between the species and its surrounding can be of two types:
 a) Acclimatization:
 It is a short-term adjustment to the environment by the species to survive.
 For Example, if A person is climbing a mountain he needs to take deep breaths to get
a sufficient level of oxygen.
 b) Adaptation:
 It is a long-term adjustment or permanent adjustment.
 It is a process that enables organisms to adjust to their environment to ensure
survival.
 The adaptation is of three types:
 Structural/ Morphological Adaptation:
 The physical features of the organism that enables them to survive in its
environment are called structural or morphological adaptation.
 For Example, The development of fur over the body of species in colder areas.
 Penguins have blubber skin to protect their body from harsh climatic conditions.
 Shedding of fur during the summer by the species.
 Behavioral Adaptation:
 Any species can adapt to one type of climate but not the two extreme types.
 The birds in cold climatic conditions migrate to warm climatic conditions for
survival.
 Migration is the best example of behavioral adaptation.
 Those animals which can't migrate have to reduce their metabolic activities and
needs to go dormant.
 In the case of animals and plants, Hibernation occurs usually in winter and
Aestivation occurs in the summer.
 Physiological Adaptation:
 The internal changes at the cellular level or at the tissue level of an organism that
enables them to survive in its environment.
 Example: Snakes produce venom to ward off predators and to capture the prey.
 The adaptations of the species depend upon extreme climatic conditions.
 The species can adapt to any one extreme but not both therefore the equatorial
region has a minimum level of adaptations.
 2) Synecological approach:
 It is the study of the organization and functioning of the communities which as
assemblages of interacting populations of the species living within a particular
habitat.
  The interactions among the populations in the communities are called ecological
interactions.
 The ecological interactions can be of two types:
 a) Positive ecological interactions:
 When two species are interacting both species get benefitted is the positive
ecological interactions.
 It is called mutualism.
 Mutualism: when two species from different populations interact both get benefitted,
such interaction is known as mutualism.
 For Example Honey bees and flowers.
 The good example of mutualism is symbiosis.
 Symbiosis:
 This is a very popular type of ecological interaction in which both species get
positively benefitted.
 a) Obligate Symbiosis:
 In this, both species need to live in close association, for example, Coral polyps and
zooxanthellae
 Coral polyps support shelter however zooxanthellae algae provide nutrients and
dissolved oxygen for the polyps.
 If the zooxanthellae get expelled then the coral reef becomes pale whitish color
called coral bleaching.
 Coral bleaching is not the death of the corals, rather it is an indication that the health
of the ecosystem is not good.
 b) Facultative Symbiosis:
 When two species come together they derive extra benefits but when they are apart
they can live individually.
 Example: Red ants and the caterpillar, the caterpillar is placed in the path of the red
ants and gets protected from the predators.
 While the red ants get nutritious food which is secreted from the growth of the
caterpillar.

Class 03
CONTINUATION OF BIOTIC INTERACTIONS: COMMENSALISM (1:12 PM):
 It is a +,0 type of ecological interaction.
 It is an interaction where one individual benefits from another species, whilst the
other is unaffected.
 Even blood donation is an example.
 For example- Epiphytes (grow on the surface of a vascular plant and derive their
moisture and nutrients from the air) in equatorial or monsoonal climates are the
best examples.
 At the budding stage, they are called propagules.
 Once the roots develop from the branches, they become independent.
  The banyan tree, orchids, etc are very good examples of epiphytes.
 The epiphytes have their own mechanism of food production and they do not
consume the food prepared from the host vascular tree.
 Epiphytes only use the host vascular tree for support.
 A vascular plant is a plant with a well-developed Xylem and Phloem.


Circular removal of bark from the tree:
o Though the bark itself may be non-living, the bark consists of
various vascular and other living tissues.
o These present tissues help transport the food(sugar) made in the
leaves to the other parts of the tree, especially to the roots.
o Removal of bark will intensely affect the xylem function.
o The xylem transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots
to the leaves and other tree parts.
o The phloem transports the food downward from the leaves to the
roots.

o
NEGATIVE ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS (1:30 PM):
Amensalism:
 It is a negative interaction in which one species is affected and the other is
unaffected.
 It is also called -,0 interaction.
 One species is negatively affected and the other species is not affected at all.
 This can be seen in both animals and plants.
 For example- The bacillus thuringenesis bacteria produce thurioside that repels
the bollworm pest on the cotton crops.
 Through genetic modification, most of the cotton production in India is under BT
cotton, which has the bacillus thuringenesis gene.
 The American company Monsanto is the leading company for such genetic
modifications.
  The Indian Institution TERI - The Energy and Resources Institute, has produced
the Oil zapper which is a bacteria that will help in the reduction of oil spills.
 TERI has also created Oilivorous which will be useful for sulfur compounds.
 Such type of process is called bio-remediation.
 Amensalism can be of two types- Allelopathy and Antibiosis.
 Allelopathy refers to the conditions where through some secretions by an organism,
the growth of some other organism gets inhibited.
 Antibiosis is an ecological interaction that is detrimental to at least one of the
species
 Antibiotics are the result of antibiosis, like penicillin.
PREDATION (2:00 PM):
 This is a very common type of ecological interaction in which one species is
benefitted and the other loses its life or gets badly affected.
 This is also known as +,- ecological interaction.
 For example- A tiger chasing deer, a deer grazing grass, etc.
Parasitism:
 Parasitism is a type of predation in which a smaller organism lives off another host
to cause trouble(lice on our head) to the host and even death(leeches).
Brood parasitism:
 This parasitism sees animals relying on other animals to raise their children.
 For example- Cuckoo is making the Reed Warbler raise its chicks, at the cost of its
own chicks.
 Egg Mimicry:
 The parasite mimics its eggs like that of the other bird and lays its eggs in the nest of
the other bird.
 The cuckoo's eggs look the same as the eggs of the other bird which will nurse the
cuckoo's eggs.
 Cuckoo chicks push the other eggs out of the nest after hatching.


 Mafia Hypotheses:
  Even after the host bird identifies and rejects to nurture the parasite egg, then the
mother parasite bird affects the host badly and even may kill her.
 The Cuckoo will even attack the smaller bird if the smaller bird refuses to hatch the
cuckoo's bird
Zanzibar is also called the clove capital of the world.

Note: Students are expected to identify Vanilla countries( vanilla triangle), banana countries,
etc.
COMPETITION (2:30 PM):
 Competition is a truly negative ecological interaction.
 It is represented as a -/- type of ecological interaction.
 There is both intraspecies and inter-species competition.
 Intraspecies competition:
 The competition is for food habitat and mates.
 Inter-species competition:
 This is between two unrelated species.
 The inter-species competition gave way to Gauss's Rule.
 The rule states that- two species that compete for the same limited resource cannot
coexist for a long time.
Ecologically significant species:
 There are some species that are highly significant in their ecosystem.
 These species are referred to by different names:
 I. Keystone species.
 II. Flagship species.
  III. Indicator species.
 IV.Foundation species.
 V. Umbrella species.
Keystone species:
 These species are the key to the entire ecosystem.
 If these species are removed, the entire ecosystem collapses.
 The Pygmy hog( smallest pig species) of Assam is very helpful for grass cultivation,
which is vital for the forest ecosystem.
 Other examples of keystone species are honeybees (for pollination),
dugongs(clearing seagrass), starfish(clearing mussel mollusks), etc.
Flagship species:
 These species have charismatic appeal and they act as brand ambassadors for the
entire ecosystem.
 These animals can be represented as logos, trademarks, mascots, etc
 For example- Bhoor Singh for Kanha national park, Olive Ridley Turtles, Panda for
World Wildlife Fund, etc.
INDICATOR SPECIES (3:10 PM):
 These species indicate the health of the ecosystem.
 They alarm the people and give the health of the habitat- like canary birds were used
to indicate the carbon monoxide levels in coal mines.
 Their indications will help the conservators to take positive steps and protect the
ecosystem.
 For example- Coral bleaching is an indicator of ocean water acidification, frogs, etc.
Foundation species:
 These species are responsible for the development of the ecosystem.
 They facilitate the conditions for the growth of higher-level species.
 So they are called foundation species.
 For example- Lichens(algae & fungi).
Umbrella Species:
 The species have migration character- they migrate to longer distances.
 In the conservative process, the entire ecosystem is protected along with the other
species.
 So these species act as an "umbrella" for the ecosystem.
 For example- Elephants, Dolphins(Gangetic & Irrawaddy), Dugongs, etc.
ECOSYSTEM (3:40 PM):
 The ecosystem is the basic functional unit of the environment.
 The ecosystem is defined as the study of the interactions among the species and with
their surroundings.
 It was Sir Arthur George Tansley in the year 1935 who introduced the systems
approach to ecology and gave the term ecosystem.
 The systems approach deals with the coordination of different components in an
input-output-feedback-processing inter-related mechanism.
 
 The system works only as per the output.

Relief:
o In geographical terms, relief refers to the difference between the
highest and lowest point of any region.

o
o The relief of any region is very important for the agricultural
pattern and overall culture of any region
 Output can be of two types- positive and negative.
 Negative feedback stabilizes the system.
Components of the Ecosystem:
 Biotic:
 I. Autotrophs-Phototrophs & Chemotrophs.
 II. Heterotrophs -Phagotrophs(Herbivorve, Carnivorve, Omnivorve) & Saprotrophs-
(Decomposers & Detritus feeders)
Abiotic:
 I. Lith-related -Soil, Minerals, Relief, Slope, and Topography.
 II. Atmosphere-related -Temperature Pressure, Humidity, Cloud Cover, Precipitation,
and Winds.
 III. Water-related - Salinity and PH of the water.

Class 04
THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:04 PM)
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS (5:10 PM)
 The ecosystems can be broadly classified into two types:
 1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:
 a) Forest Ecosystem.
 The prominent Forests are:

Evergreen
Deciduous Forest
Forest
o Dry Deciduous
forests like
Tropical Dandakaranya
rainforests Forest.
in the o Moist
Western Deciduous
Ghats. Forest like
sathyamangalam
forest
 b) Grassland Ecosystem:

Tropical Temperate
Grasslands Grassland
For Example: For Example:
Savanna Steppe
 c) Desert Ecosystem:

Cold
Hot Desert
Desert
o Reg Desert:
Large Sand
deserts
(Atacama
Desert)
o Erg Desert:
For It is not a
Example: sandy desert
Gobi rather stones
desert of are there.
Mongolia (Taklamakan
and China Desert)
o Hamada
Desert:
There is no
tree or sand
and only
bare rock is
 present. (
Hamada-al-
arab desert
in Libya)
 2) Aquatic Ecosystem:

Lentic Ecosystems Lotic Ecosystem
o Fresh o Fresh
Water Water
Ecosystem Ecosystem
o Saline o Saline
Water Water
Ecosystem Ecosystem
 3) Transition Ecosystem:
 The transition ecosystem is of two types:

Ecotone Ecocline

It is a transition
It is transition
ecosystem along
Ecosystem along
the horizontal
vertical manner.
manner
 Different Types of transition ecosystems :
 a) Ecocline:
 Tropical Evergreen vegetation:
 Temperature is high.
 High Rainfall.
 High relative Humidity.
 Species: Mahogany, ebony.
 Temperate Evergreen Vegetation:
 Height of 1,500 meters.
 Temperature is mild.
 Rainfall is Moderate.
 Species: Beech, Oak, Laurel, Silver.
 Coniferous Vegetation:
 It is also called Boreal vegetation.
 All the trees have cone shape structures.
 In the western Himalayas, Deodar forests are observed.
 Example: Alpine trees.
 In India, the areas like Jammu and Kashmir the alpine grass is called merg.
 In the Uttarakhand region alpine grass is called Bugyals.
 b) Ecotone:
 When salinity is less than 5%, it is called Freshwater.
 When salinity is more than 5% and less than 24.9% is brackish Water.
 When the salinity is more than 25% then the water is called Saline Water.
 The ecotone is observed along the Brackish water ecosystem.
 Edge Effect: The edge effect refers to the changes or alterations that occur at the
boundary between two different ecosystems or habitats
 The species living along the transition zone of the two ecosystems, we observed the
unique characteristics among the species called edge species
 The Example of Ecotone, Mangrove Ecosystem:
 Mangrove ecosystem is a transition ecosystem, It is the best example of the edge
effect, and the species growing in these regions are called Edge species.
 Characteristics of the mangroves:
 The mangroves have pneumatophores on the roots.
 The roots are elongated in order to anchor the soil firmly.
 They are having stilt root system.
 In the Stilt root system the roots come from the stem and anchor the soil thereby
interconnected with the neighboring roots. This is the reason the mangroves act as a
speed breaker for tsunami water and strong topical Gale winds.
 Mangroves have salt-secreting leaves.
 They require more photo energy.
 They are confined to the tropical region of the world.
 These trees can grow to a height of 20 meters.
 They have characteristics of viviparity.
 Mangroves are rich in biodiversity.
 The species can swim and live on land, amphibians, reptiles, fishes, lobsters,
Saltwater crocodiles, Olive ridley turtles, Star tortoises, and birds like Kingfishers are
found in this ecosystem.
 Mangrove Regions of India:

Example of the
State
Mangroves
West Bengal Sundarbans
Bhitarkanika
Odisha
Mangroves
Coringa
Andhra Pradesh
Mangroves
Pitchavaram and
Tamilnadu Vedaranyam
Mangroves.
Myristica
Kerala
Swamps.
Kundapur
Karnataka
Mangroves
Sindhudurg
Maharashtra
Mangroves
 Gulf of Cambay
Gujarat
Mangroves.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ECOSYSTEM (7:16 PM)
 1) Energy Flow:
 The main function of the ecosystem is the energy flow.
 The flow of energy happens in the form of the food chain and food web.
 Food Chain:
 The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as a food chain.
 The various steps through which the food energy passes in an ecosystem are called
trophic levels.
 The first tropic level is always the producers.
 Example: Grass -> Grasshopper->Frog->Snake-> Hawk.
 Two Types of the food chain:
 a) Grazing Food chain.
 The grazing food chain starts with the green plants and goes to the decomposers or
detritus food chain
 Example: Grass-> Deer-> Tiger.
 b) Deteriteous Food chain:
 It starts with the dead organic matter and goes to the grazing food chain meaning
both food chains are interconnected.
 Food Web:
 The Interlocking pattern of the various food chain in an ecosystem is known as the
food web.
 A food web is a complex network of interconnecting and overlapping food chains
showing feeding relations.
 A food chain shows how matter and energy from food are transferred from one
organism to another, whereas a food web illustrates how food chains are
interconnected in an ecosystem, also it demonstrates that most organisms consume
or are consumed by more than one species which food chains often do not show.
 From each and every tropic level the transfer of energy is just 10% and it is
called Lindeman's Law of 10%
 According to Lindeman's Law of 10%, the Efficiency of energy transfer from one
trophic level to another is just 10%.
 2) Ecological productivity
 3) Ecological succession.
 4) Nutrient Flow.
 5) Homeostasis

Class 05
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS: (1:07:34 PM):
 It is a graphical representation of the relationship between organisms at various
trophic levels in a food chain.
 This concept was introduced by Charles Elton.
  They are of 3 categories:
 1) Pyramid of numbers:
 The factor that is taken into account in this pyramid is the number of species at the
trophic level.
 As we go up, the levels of the pyramids and the number of organisms decrease.
 Always the producers form the base of the pyramid.
 It can be either upright or inverted.
 Upright Pyramid:
 The number of individuals decreases from lower to higher trophic levels.
 The forest ecosystem best represents the pyramid of numbers in an upright fashion.
 Inverted pyramid;
 Individuals increase from lower to higher trophic levels.
 Ex- Tree ecosystem>> Trees-->Birds-->Trees.
 2) Pyramid of Energy:
 To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem, the energy
pyramid is the most suitable.
 It represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and the loss of energy at
each transfer to another trophic level.
 Hence the pyramid of energy is always upright with a large energy base at the
bottom.
 3) Pyramid of Biomass:
 Usually determined by collecting all organisms occupying each trophic level
separately and measuring their dry weight.
 This overcomes the size difference problem because all kinds of organisms at a
trophic level are weighed.
 Can be upright or inverted.
 Upright Pyramid of Biomass;
 For most ecosystems on land, The pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary
producers with a smaller trophic level at the top.
 The biomass of the producers is at the maximum, the biomass of the next trophic
level i.e. the primary consumers is less than the producers, and so on.
 Inverted Pyramid of Biomass:
 Most of aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass assumes an inverted form.
 This is because the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grows and reproduce
rapidly.
 Significance of Ecological Pyramids;
 They show the feeding patterns of different organisms.
 It shows the efficiency of energy transfer.
 Helps in taking decisions as they represent the health of the ecosystem.
ECOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY:(EP): (1:32:05 PM):
 Kari-- peat soils of Kerala.
 Peat soils are formed in the water-logged area.
 Another in the Almora district of Uttrakhand and some in parts of Western Ghats.
 The rate of biomass production in an ecosystem is called ecosystem Productivity.
 Biomass is the dry weight of organic matter.
 EP--2 types:
 Primary Productivity: (PP):
 The energy flow begins with it.
 Amount of light energy converted into chemical energy by the Autotrophe in an
ecosystem in a given period of time.
 2 Types:
 Gross PP:
 The total amount of solar energy that was synthesized by the autotrophs in a given
period of time.
 Net PP:
 Energy is left over after the respiration by the autotrophs.
 NPP=GPP- Respiration.
 Net PP is the source of energy for all consumers.
 NPP is measured in the units
 Units= Kg/sq meter/day.
 Secondary Productivity: (SP):
 Rate of synthesis of organic matter by the consumers.
 It is of two types:
 Gross SP.
 Net SP.
 Net Sp= Gross SP- Respiration.
 Differences between PP and SP. (2:15:41 PM):
 Primary productivity is-- Rate of synthesis of organic matter by Producers, and
Secondary productivity is--Rate of synthesis of organic matter by Consumers.
 Primary productivity-- High, and secondary productivity--Low.
 Primary productivity--Due to the synthesis of Inorganic matter into organic matter,
Secondary productivity-- Synthesis of Organic matter into organic matter.
 EP necessary for higher species is more on continents than in oceans.
 Though life forms are more in oceans, the size is small and biomass is less, hence the
NPP is less in oceans.
 Areas of High Net Primary Productivity: (In decreasing order):
 Continental Ecosystems with Rich NPP.
 Wetlands, Tarai regions, Mangroove regions, Swamps, and marshes.
 Tropical rainforest-- Congo region, etc.
 Tropical Deciduous Forest.
 Temperate Evergreen rainforest.
 Temperate Deciduous Forests.
 Boreal forest.
 Savanna.
 Cultivated lands.
 Shrublands.
 Lakes and Streams.
 Temperate Grasslands.
 Tundras.
 Desert.
 Aquatic Ecosystem:
 Coral reefs.
 Salt Marshes.
 Upwelling zones- Cold currents.
 Continental Shelf.
 Open seas.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:(ES): (3:00:39 PM):
 The observed process of change in the species structure of an ecological community
over a period of time.
 The ecosystems are constantly changing.
 Succession is a gradual process of change and replacement of the type of species in a
community.
 Each new community makes it harder for the previous community to survive.
 During the 1960s, F.E. Clements brought the concept of ecological succession.
 According to him, there are different steps in ecological succession:
 Nudation:
 This is the development of bare areas without any form of species.
 This may occur due to topographical and climatic changes.
 Invasion:
 Successful establishment of a species in a bare area.
 It includes:
 Migration.
 Ecesis.
 Aggregation invasion.
 Competition and Coaction:
 Aggregation of a large number of species in a limited space develops completion for
space and nutrition.
 Individuals affect each other's life-- Coaction.
 Reaction:
 Mechanism of modification of environment through the influence of living
organisms.
 Very significant stage-- Changes take place in the soil, water, light conditions,
temperature, etc.
 As a result of the reaction, the environment is modified and becomes unsuitable for
the existing community which sooner or later is replaced by another community
called the seral stage.
 Stabilization:
 The final stage of succession is called a climax community.
 This stage is called the climax stage.
 Types of ecological succession: (3:45:03 PM):
 Based on continuity:
 Primary succession--Occurs in an area that is barren. Secondary Succession-- Area--
which has been devoid recently and previously inhabited.
 Primary succession-- No soil present. Secondary Succession-- Present.
 Primary succession--New area, ex-- a volcanic island, Secondary Succession--Old
area followed by a forest fire or maybe by a flood.
 Primary succession-- Lichens and mosses come first, Secondary Succession-- seeds
and roots are already present.
 Primary succession-- Low biomass, Secondary Succession--higher biomass.
 Based on where the succession is happening:
 Xerarch:
 If succession starts over the land.
 Hydrarch:
 If succession starts over the water.
  Based on modifications of the area;
 Autogenic:
 Modification brought by the species themselves.
 Allogeneic:
 Modification happens naturally like geographical changes.

Class 06
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES (1:09 PM)
 The organization TEEB (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity) has
initiated a Green Domestic Product concept and focused on making nature's value
visible.
 Its principle objective is to mainstream the values of biodiversity and ecosystem
services into decision-making at all levels.
 It aims to achieve this goal by following a structured approach to valuation that helps
decision-makers recognize the wide range of benefits provided by ecosystems and
biological diversity, demonstrate their values in economic terms, and where
appropriate, capture those values in decision-making.
 The Millenium Assessment Report (2005) has identified the ecosystem services as
follows:
 (a) Provisioning Services
 The goods produced that are provided by the ecosystem.
 It includes food, shelter, timber, wood, clothing, etc.
 (b) Regulating Services
 Regulating services are the benefits that the ecosystem provides by the regulation of
ecosystem processes.
 It includes water purification, air purification, soil replenishment, pollination, pest
regulation, etc.
 (c) Cultural Services
 These are the non-material benefits provided by the ecosystem.
 The ecosystem provides the basis for recreation, aestheticism, education, spirituality,
creativity, etc.
 (d) Supporting Services
 The factors necessary for producing ecosystem services are called supporting
services.
 These are the circulations between the biotic and the abiotic components that
support life.
 It includes photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, hydrological cycle, and soil formation
PAVAN SUKHDEV (1:29 PM)
 Pavan Sukhdev worked on the concept of Green Domestic Products.
 This concept holds that man will give importance to ecosystem services if they are
calculated in monetary terms.
 Pavan Sukhdev was given the Tyler Prize in 2020 for his contributions.
 Tyler Prize is equivalent to the Noble Prize in environmental studies.
NUTRIENT CYCLES (1:54 PM)
 These are biogeochemical cycles.
 These cycles are more or less circular pathways through which matter and energy
circulate from the environment to organisms and back from organisms to the
environment.
 There are two types of biogeochemical cycles: The gaseous and sedimentary cycles.
 Gaseous Cycle
 If the reservoir or the pool of material is either the atmosphere or hydrosphere, then
it is called the gaseous cycle.
 For example, Nitrogen Cycle, Hydrological Cycle, etc.
 Sedimentary Cycle
 If the reservoir or the pool of material is the lithosphere, then it is called a
sedimentary cycle.
 For example, Phosphorous Cycle.
GASEOUS CYCLE (2:07 PM)
 Hydrological Cycle
 The water converts into vapours when it absorbs heat from the atmosphere.
 This vapour rises vertically and condenses into clouds.
 This falls into the land and the ocean in the form of rain.
 The water that is being absorbed by the plants gets released by the process of
transpiration.
 Some water is stored in the form of groundwater and soil moisture.
 The water that is absorbed by the animals also ends up in the environment due to
urination, perspiration, and decay of dead bodies.


 Carbon Cycle
 Carbon is found in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
 It is used by plants during photosynthesis to produce food and gives out oxygen.
 Animals consume the energy stored by plants and absorb oxygen to release carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere through the process called respiration.
 Some carbon is trapped in dead plants and animals and can convert into fossil fuels.
 The burning of these fuels returns the carbon into the atmosphere.
 The decomposed organic matter in the form of humus is taken up by plants and
utilized in photosynthesis.
 On the death of plants and animals, the biotic carbon again gets released into the
abiotic environment.
 The carbon is stored in the ocean in the form of organic and inorganic matter.
 The increased carbon in the atmosphere has led to global warming and the
intensification of Cyclones. For example, Cyclone Freddy.


 Nitrogen Cycle (3:05 PM)
 Nitrogen gas is naturally found in the atmosphere and is the most abundant gas in
the atmosphere.
 Nitrogen is unusable by most living beings. The lightening process changes the
nitrogen gas into a chemical form such as ammonia, or ammonium.
 The plants and animals, on excretion or death, release ammonia. This process is
called ammonification.
 The ammonia gets converted into nitrites and nitrates by the nitrifying bacteria. An
example of a nitrifying bacteria is Nitrosomonas.
 The nitrates are consumed by plants and passed on to animals. They again return to
the soil as excretion or dead animal or plants.
 The excess of nitrates converts into nitrogen gas by the denitrifying bacteria. An
example of denitrifying bacteria is Pseudomonas.
 
NINE PLANETARY BOUNDARIES (3:18 PM)
 This concept presents a set of nine planetary boundaries within the limits of which
humanity can continue to develop and thrive.
 Stockholm Resilience Centre has come up with this concept.
 Climate change has already breached the threshold limit. We are still within the
resilience limit.
 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion has been brought within the threshold limit with the
help of international cooperation.
 Biogeochemical flows and Biosphere integrity has already breached the limits.
QUESTION DISCUSSION (3:25 PM)
 Q1. The excess of nitrogen in the ecosystem leads to devastating impacts. Enlist some
of the implications on all of the realms of the world. (150 words/10 marks)
 Fodder points for the answer
 (a) Eutrophication
 (b) Acid rain
 (c) Diseases like blue baby syndrome
 (d) Photochemical smogs
 (e) Algal blooms
 (f) Development of marine dead zones.
SEDIMENTARY CYCLES (3:42 PM)
 Sulfur Cycle
 The sulfur is locked up in the rocks and salts, that are buried deep in the oceans.
 The naturally occurring sulfur is through volcanic eruptions and microbial activities.
 In the present time, human activities like burning fossil fuel in industries as well as
vehicles increase the concentration of sulfur oxides in the atmosphere.
 The excess of sulfur oxides returns to the surface in the form of sulphuric acid.
 The plants absorb the sulfur and in turn, sulfur is magnified in the animals. On death
or through excretion, sulfur returns to the soil.
 The sulfate rocks on weathering release the sulfur and through the run-off, it reaches
the sea/ocean to get deposited as sulfate rocks.
 
 Phosphorous Cycle
 The major source of the phosphorous is rocks. It enters the cycle with the help of
weathering, mining, etc.
 Phosphorous is being used by plants and animals.
 The death of the animals or plants and the excretion process releases phosphorous
into the environment.
 Phosphorous is taken to the ocean by the rivers.
 The phosphorous in the ocean comes to the surface by the deep ocean current.
 Guano is the accumulated excrement of the birds. It is extremely rich in phosphorous
as the birds found along the South American coast feed on anchovies fish.
 In Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary the bird droppings are collected as they are rich in
phosphorous.

Class 07
THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:05 PM)
FUNCTIONS OF THE ECOSYSTEMS (5:09 PM)
 Homeostasis:
 It is the self-regulatory mechanism by which the biological system tends to maintain
stability while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival.
 If homeostasis is successful, life continues.
 Any ecosystem's sustainability depends on the dynamic equilibrium.
 It is a balance that resists outside forces of change.
 The stability is attained and continues to change but relatively uniform conditions
prevail.
 In a forest ecosystem, the prey-predator relationship is as follows When the prey
population is at the lower side the predator population is at the zenith, and when the
predator is unable to find its prey, its population declines alternatively the prey
population increases.
 Such a relationship in any ecosystem is called a dynamic equilibrium.
 This is one of the main functions of the ecosystem.
  GAIA Hypothesis:
 The hypothesis was formulated by James Lovelock.
 According to the Gaia hypothesis, living organisms on Earth interact with the
physical and chemical components of the planet, such as the atmosphere, oceans,
and land, in a way that regulates and maintains favorable conditions for life to thrive.
 These interactions involve feedback mechanisms, where changes in one component
of the Earth system can influence other components, leading to self-regulation and
stability.
BIODIVERSITY (5:39 PM)
 Biological diversity: The variability among the living organisms from all sources such
as terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of
which they are part this includes diversity within species, between species, and of
ecosystems.
 Levels of Biodiversity:
 1) Species Diversity:
 It refers to diversity at the most basic level and it is the variety and abundance of
different types of individuals of a species in a given area.
 2) Genetic Diversity:
 Varieties within the same species differ from one another in shape, size, color, and
taste due to variations at the genetic level.
 3) Ecosystem Diversity:
 It refers to the variability among the species of plants and animals living together
and connected by the flow of energy and cycling of nutrients in different ecosystems.
 Measuring Biodiversity:
 Biodiversity is defined and measured with the help of species richness and evenness.
 1) Richness and evenness:
 Richness is several groups of genetically or functionally related individuals.
 Generally, richness is expressed as the number of species in a given ecosystem and is
usually called species richness.
 Evenness: it is the proportion of species or functional groups present on a site, the
more equal species are in proportion to each other the greater the evenness of that
site.
 An ecosystem with low evenness indicates that a few species dominates in that
ecosystem.
 Based on richness and evenness, there are three types of biodiversity measurements
 a) Alpha Diversity:
 Richness and evenness of individuals within a habitat unit.
 b) Beta Diversity:
 Expression of diversity between the habitats.
 c) Gamma Diversity:
 Landscape diversity or the diversity of the habitat within a landscape or region.
 Importance of Biodiversity:
 Economic Importance:
 Biodiversity provides humans with raw materials for consumption and production.
 Many livelihoods such as Farmers, Fishermen, Lumberjacks, etc. are dependent upon
biodiversity for their survival.
 The biodiversity is providing timber, food, medicinal plants, etc.
 Ecosystem Values:
  Biodiversity supports the functions of ecosystems like the Purification of gases,
purification of water, bioremediation, etc.
 Education:
 FAO has identified the GIAHS (Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems)
 India has three GIAHS such as
 a) J&K Zaffron cultivation.
 b) Odisha's Koraput unique mixed farming is practiced.
 c) Kerala's Kuttanad below mean sea level paddy cultivation is practiced.
 All the above three are unique agricultural practices identified globally as
Agriculture Heritage Sites.
 Leisure and Recreation:
 Biodiversity is acting as a good place for tourism, spirituality, etc.
 Many recreational activities depend on unique biodiversity.
 tourism is depending upon rich biodiversity.
 The activities in tourism are bird watching, fishing, hiking, and rafting along the
rivers.
 Cultural Importance:
 The culture is closely connected to biodiversity through the expression of identity
through spirituality.
 The Indigenous people have strong connections and obligations to biodiversity
arising from their spiritual beliefs about plants and animals.
 Some of the medical practices like Sowa Rigpa, and Sowa Rigpa are one of the seven
Ayush systems.
 The Sowa-Rigpa is derived from the Bhoti language.
 It is one of the significant healthcare systems in India, predominantly in the
Himalayan region.
 Ethical Importance:
 Protection of biodiversity from times immemorial is imbibed in Indian ethical values.
 Examples: Chipko Movement by Suderlal Bahuguna, Amrita Devi Bishnoi, Gaura
Devi, etc.
 The Apiko movement is a similar type of movement in Karnataka.
 Vijay Jardhari is known for his efforts in protecting traditional seed varieties,
conserving local biodiversity, and promoting sustainable farming practices.
 Rajendra Singh, also known as "Waterman Rajendra Singh", is recognized for his
efforts in water conservation, river rejuvenation, and community-based water
management.
 Scientific Importance:
 Biodiversity represents a wealth of systematic ecological data that helps us to
understand the natural world and its origin.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY (7:55 PM)
 The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services (IPBES), Global Assessment Report mentions that biodiversity is at a
serious loss.

Class 08
THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:09 PM)
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY (5:10 PM)
 Habitat destruction:
 Habitat fragmentation and destruction is a prime reasons for the loss of biodiversity.
 In the name of developmental projects like the Construction of Dams and reservoirs,
Mining areas, expansion of agricultural areas into forests, Interlinking of river
projects and other infrastructural developments have degraded the habitat of the
species leading to the extinction of the species.
 Due to human-induced climate change, the coastal areas are fast submerging along
with islands thereby destroying the habitat of the species.
 Examples:
 The first mammal that got extinct due to human-induced climate change is
the Bramble cay melomys.
 Parali Island is indeed one of the inhabited islands of Lakshadweep that got
submerged completely.
 Invasive Alien Species:
 These species are new to the habitat, they belong to some other place but invade and
gets adapts very quickly to the new habitat.
 They consume more food and degrade the conditions for the other species to live,
such species are called Invasive Alien Species.
 Examples are Parthenium, Prosopis juliflora, Lantana camera, etc.
 Global Warming and Climate Change:
 Due to ever-increasing global temperatures, extreme weather events became quite
common like heat waves and flash floods.
 It depleted the biodiversity of the region.
 Global warming resulted in coral bleaching, fast melting of polar ice, displacing the
polar species, and increased incidence of wildfires killing so many forest species also
allowing the species for forceful migration.
 Over-exploitation:
 The over-exploitation of resources especially marine resources leads to the loss and
extinction of marine species.
 New agricultural technologies and practices:
 The new agricultural techniques and practices not only reduced biodiversity but also
genetic diversity.
 People growing high-yielding varieties rises their income levels and lures all the
other farmers in that locality to grow only high-yielding varieties, but the high-
yielding varieties are found only in a few species.
 For example-, in Wheat, there are 20,000 varieties of genetic types but high-yielding
varieties were developed in four varieties.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY (6:02 PM)
 The conservations are of two types:
 1) Species or Habitat-based conservation:
 a) In-situ:
 Sacred groves like Malpahariya in Jharkhand are a good example of in-situ
conservation.
 Wildlife sanctuaries, National parks.
 Biosphere reserves.
 The conservation reserves and community reserves.
 Ecosensitive zones.
 Difference between Wildlife sanctuaries and National parks:

Wildlife
National Parks
Sancturies
It can be
Both the State
announced either
and Central
by the state or the
governments can
central
announce.
government.
The boundaries The boundaries
are clearly are clearly
legislated. legislated.
The local
communities can
enter the wildlife No one is allowed
sanctuaries and in the National
can collect the park without
forest produce, no permission.
permission is
required.
Clear-cut
The chief wildlife legislation not
warden can take a allowing people
decision on into the national
whether to allow parks.
the people to The tribals living
collect the forest in a national park
produce. are moved out of
the national park.
The degree of The degree of
protection under protection under
IUCN is a IUCN is category
category IV II
The national park
is divided into
two zones:
No zonation is
a) Core Zone.
made under
b) Buffer Zone.
wildlife
The permission is
sanctuaries.
given only in the
buffer zone and
the core zone is
 for research
purposes.
Entire flora and
Only a few
Fauna, and
species are
monuments are
protected
being protected.
 b) Ex-situ:

For Plants For Animals
Zoological park
Botanical For Example,
Gardens. Padmaja Naidu
Zoological Park.

Herbarium Aquarium.

DNA Banks
For Example
Seed banks. Central
Veterinary DNA
bank (UP)
Cell banks
Gene Banks (CCMB,
Hyderabad )
Cryopreservation
(low temperatures,
such as -196 LACONES (Lab
degrees Celsius for the
using liquid Conservation of
nitrogen) Endangered
Example: Species)
Svalbard Global
Seed Vault
 2) Institutional-based Conservation:
 IUCN
 CITES
 TRAFFIC
 Ramsar Convention
 CMS
 UNCBD (Biodiversity Act, COP-15)
 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves
BIOSPHERE RESERVES (7:22 PM)
 Biosphere reserves are sites established by countries and recognized under
UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme to promote sustainable
development based on local community efforts and sound science.
 The programme of the Biosphere Reserve was initiated by UNESCO in 1971.
 The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserve is to conserve in situ all forms
of life, along with its support system, in its totality, so that it could serve as a referral
system for monitoring and evaluating changes in natural ecosystems.
 The first biosphere reserve in the world was established in 1979.
 Biosphere Reserves of India:

Name of Biosphere
No Location (State)
reserves
Kerala, Karnataka,
Tamilnadu. (Part of
Wayanad,
Nagarhole, Bandipur
Nilgiri Biosphere
1 and Madumalai,
Reserve
Nilambur, Silent
Valley, and Siruvani
hills, Erravikulum
National Park)
Part of Chamoli,
Pithoragarh, and
2 Nanda Devi
Bageshwar districts
(Uttarakhand)
Part of Garo hills
3 Nokrek
(Meghalaya).
Southern most
islands of Andaman
4 Great Nicobar
And Nicobar (A&N
Islands).
Indian part of Gulf of
Mannar between
5 Gulf of Mannar
India and Sri Lanka
(Tamil Nadu).
Part of Kokrajhar,
Bongaigaon,
Barpeta, Nalbari,
6 Manas
Kamprup and
Darang districts
(Assam)
Part of delta of
Ganges and
7 Sunderbans Brahamaputra river
system
(West Bengal).
 Part of Mayurbhanj
8 Simlipal
district (Orissa).
Part of Dibrugarh
9 Dibru-Saikhowa and Tinsukia
Districts (Assam)
Part of Siang and
10 Dehang-Dibang Dibang Valley in
Arunachal Pradesh.
Parts of Betul,
Hoshangabad and
11 Pachmarhi
Chindwara districts
of Madhya Pradesh.
Parts of
12 Khangchendzonga Khangchendzonga
hills and Sikkim.
Neyyar, Peppara and
Shendurney Wildlife
13 Agasthyamalai Sanctuaries and their
adjoining areas in
Kerala.
Covers parts of
Anupur and Dindori
Achanakamar districts of M.P. and
14
- Amarkantak parts of Bilaspur
districts of
Chhattishgarh State.
Part of Kachchh,
Rajkot, Surendra
15 Kachchh Nagar and Patan
Civil Districts of
Gujarat State
Pin Valley National
Park and
surroundings;
16 Cold Desert Chandratal and
Sarchu&Kibber
Wildlife Sancturary
in Himachal Pradesh
Seshachalam Hill
17 Seshachalam Hills Ranges covering
parts of Chittoor and
 Kadapa districts of
Andhra Pradesh
Part of Panna and
18 Panna Chhattarpur districts
in Madhya Pradesh

Class 09
THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:09 PM)
CONSERVATION EFFORTS (5:19 PM)
 Out of 18 Biosphere reserves in India, Twelve Biosphere reserves are identified by
UNESCO
 Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
 Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve.
 Nandadevi Biosphere Reserve
 Sundarban Biosphere Reserve.
 Panchmarhi Biosphere Reserve.
 Nokrok Biosphere Reserve.
 Simlipal Biosphere Reserve.
 Achanakmar Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve.
 Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve.
 Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve of Kerala
 Kanchenjunga Biosphere Reserve
 Panna Biosphere Reserve.
COMMUNITY RESERVES AND CONSERVATION RESERVES (5:23 PM)
 Conservation reserves and community reserves in India are terms denoting
protected areas of India that typically act as buffer zones to connectors and
migration corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and
reserved and protected forests of India.
 Such areas are designated as conservation areas if they are uninhabited and
completely owned by the Government of India but used for subsistence by
communities and community areas if part of the lands is privately owned.
 These protected area categories were first introduced in the Wildlife (Protection)
Amendment Act of 2002 − the amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
 These categories were added because of reduced protection in and around existing or
proposed protected areas due to private ownership of land, and land use.
ECO-SENSITIVE ZONES (5:41 PM)
 Eco-sensitive Zones are the brainchild of Madhav Gadgil, chairman of the Western
Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP), also known as the Gadgil Committee.
 He submitted the report to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of
India.
  Based on the reports under the Environmental Protection Act, of 1986, Ecosensitive
zones were established.
 It is an umbrella Act.
 Objectives of Eco-sensitive Zones:
 To control human activities around the periphery zones of protected areas.
 It can be declared around the protected area up to 10 Km.
 It prevents ecological damage and promotes sustainable development by regulating
degrading activities.
 They act as transition areas from high protection to low protection areas.
 The activities are divided into three types:
 a) Prohibited activities (Mining, quarrying, construction of power plants)
 b) Regulated Activities (These activities require permissions like, the construction of
hotels and restaurants, cutting of trees, and laying of underground cables)
 c) Allowed Activities (The activities that don't require permission, such as
agriculture, horticulture, the establishment of solar and wind plants, and the
construction of rainwater harvesting pits.)
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS AND BIODIVERSITY HOPE SPOTS (6:12 PM)
 Biodiversity Hotspots:
 There are places on Earth that are both biologically rich and deeply threatened.
 Dr. Norman Myers developed the concept of an ecological hotspot in 1988.
 According to him, To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must meet two strict
criteria:
 a) It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics. which is to say, it must
have a high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in
other words, is irreplaceable.
 b) It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must
be threatened.
 In 1989, Conservation International adopted the idea of protecting these incredible
places.
 A special fund called the 'Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund' was established to
guarantee the work in developing necessary things for conservation.
 As of today, total there are 36 Biodiversity hotspots,
 India has Four Hotspots:
 a) The Himalayas of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, and China.
 b) Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. It includes states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Kerala, Palk Strait, Gulf of Mannar, and Sri Lanka.
 c) Indo Burma Region (It includes North Eastern India including Andaman Islands,
Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Southern China)
 d) Sunda land (Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapur, Brunei, also parts of Philipines.)
 The ecological hotspots represent just 2.5% of the earth's land surface but they
support more than half of the world's plant species as endemics and nearly 43% of
Birds, Mammals, amphibians, etc.
 Hottest Hotspots:
 There are eight Hottest Hotspots all located within the tropics, and these areas are
highly sensitive with a high degree of endemism and they are the most threatened
places.
 The eight hottest hotspots are as follows:
 Madagascar
  Philippines
 Sundaland
 Atlantic Forest of Brazil
 The Caribbean
 Indo-Burma
 Sri Lanka/Western Ghats
 Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Tanzania/Kenya
 Biodiversity Hope Spots:
 The concept was developed by Dr. Sylvia Earle.
 According to her, Hope Spots are special places that are scientifically identified as
critical to the health of the ocean.
 Our Hope Spots are championed by local conservationists whom we support with
communications, expeditions, and scientific advisory.
 In India, there are two hope spots:
 a) Andaman and Nicobar:
 This is a home for highly endemic species and also a biodiversity hotspot.
 The important species found are a wide variety of turtles, leatherback turtles, white-
bellied storks, Irrawaddy Dolphins, Dugongs, etc.
 b) Lakshadweep Island:
 These are home to some of the highest diversity of reefs in India and are the
important biogeographical link between the subcontinent and East Africa.
 The Islands water is home to a high diversity of marine life including spinner
dolphins, bottlenose dolphins, etc.
MEGA BIODIVERSE COUNTRIES (7:19 PM)
 These countries are having coastal, marine ecosystems.
 There are 17 countries that have been identified as the most biodiversity-rich
countries of the world with a particular focus on endemic biodiversity.
 India is one of the 17 mega biodiverse countries.
 The criteria followed to qualify as a mega biodiverse country are as follows:
 A country must have at least 5000 of the world’s plants as endemics.
 Have marine ecosystems within its borders.
 Like-Minded Megadiverse countries:
 The Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries (LMMC) are a group of countries that
harbor the majority of the Earth's species and are therefore considered extremely
biodiverse.
 They are rich in biological diversity (60-70% of the world’s biodiversity) and
associated with traditional knowledge.
 India is a member of this group.
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL ZONES OF INDIA (7:36 PM)
 India is a mega biodiverse country with vast land and with great diversity in climate,
topography, and geology.
 It accounts for only 2.4% of the total landmass of the world but it contains about 7 to
8% of the world's known wildlife.
 The Indian ecologists working in the Wildlife Institute of India Mr. H S Panwar & W.
A. Rodgers classified into 10 biogeographical zones and 26 biotic provinces.

 Bio geographic 26 Biotic
Zones provinces
Ladakh
Trans-Himalayas. mountains,
Tibetan Plateau
Northwest, west,
central, and
The Himalayas
Eastern
Himalayas.

The deserts Thar, Kutch

Semi-arid Zone Punjab Plains

Malabar plains,
Western Ghats
Western Ghats

Central highlands,
Chotta-Nagpur,
Deccan peninsular
Central Plateau,
Deccan South
Upper and Lower
Gangetic planes
Gangetic plains
West and East
Coastal planes Coast,
Lakshadweep
Bramhaputra
North East Valley, Northeast
Hills.
Andaman and
Islands Nicobar,
Lakshadweep
INSTITUTIONAL-BASED CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES (7:54 PM)
 IUCN:
 IUCN stands for the International Union for Conservation of Natural Flora and Fauna.

Class 10
THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:06 PM)
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (5:08 PM)
 IUCN is a membership Union composed of both government and civil society
organizations.
 It harnesses the experience, resources, and reach of its 1300+ member
organizations and around 15,000 expert members.
 Its headquarter is located in Gland, Switzerland.
 The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has six commissions, and
specialized expert networks that focus on the conservation and sustainable use of
natural resources.
 The commissions are:
 1) Commission on Education and Communication (CEC):
 This commission promotes the understanding of conservation and sustainability
through education, communication, and public awareness initiatives.
 2) Commission on Environmental, Economic, and Social Policy (CEESP): This
commission addresses the social, economic, and policy dimensions of conservation
and sustainability, including issues related to governance, equity, and livelihoods.
 3) Commission on Ecosystem Management (CEM): This commission focuses on the
management and restoration of ecosystems, including terrestrial, freshwater, and
marine ecosystems, and promotes the use of ecosystem-based approaches to
conservation and sustainable development.
 4) Commission on Environmental Law (CEL): This commission addresses legal issues
related to conservation and sustainability, including the development and
implementation of environmental laws and policies at global, regional, and national
levels.
 5) Commission on Protected Areas (CPA): This commission focuses on the
establishment, management, and governance of protected areas, including national
parks, wildlife reserves, and other types of protected areas, and promotes best
practices in protected area management.
 6) Species Survival Commission (SSC): This commission focuses on the conservation
of species and their habitats, including efforts to prevent species extinctions, recover
endangered species, and promote sustainable use of species and their ecosystems.
 IUCN works on five Priority Areas:
 a) Biodiversity Conservation.
 b) Climate change.
 c) Green economy.
 d) Renewable energy.
 e) Human well-being ( empowering the local communities)
 UNGA has granted IUCN observer status.
 IUCN World Conservation Congress:
 It's the world's largest congregation of scientists, approx 10,000 around the world.
 The meeting happens after every four years.
 The last summit took place in Marseille, France.
 IUCN Green Status of species:
 IUCN's green status of species complements the Red List by providing a tool for
accessing the recovery of the species population and measuring their conservation
success.
 In 2020, the Green status of species assessments became optional in Red List
assessments.
 How the Green Status is calculated, a Methodology:
  A species is fully recovered if it is present in all parts of its range, even those that are
no longer occupied but were occupied before major human impacts or disruptions.
 It is viable (Not threatened with extinction in all parts of the range)
 It is performing its ecological functions in all parts of the range.
 These factors contribute towards a green score ranging from (0 to 100), Which
shows how far a species is recovered from its fully recovered state.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)(6:10
PM)
 It is also called as Washington Convention.
 It was drafted as a result of the resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of the
members of the IUCN.
 It came into force in 1975.
 It operates with three categories of appendixes.
 (CITES) classifies species into different appendices based on their conservation
status and the level of trade regulation they require.
 There are currently three appendices under CITES:
 Appendix I:
 Species listed under Appendix I are considered to be the most endangered, and
heavily threatened and are subject to the highest level of trade regulation.
 Trade in specimens of Appendix I species is prohibited, with exceptions for certain
circumstances, such as for scientific research, captive breeding for conservation
purposes, or for non-commercial purposes that do not threaten the survival of the
species in the wild.
 Examples of species listed under Appendix I include tigers, etc.
 Appendix II:
 Species listed under Appendix II are considered to be less endangered compared to
Appendix I but still require regulation to ensure their sustainability in the wild.
 Trade in specimens of Appendix II species is allowed, but it is subject to certain
controls to ensure that it is not detrimental to the survival of the species.
 Examples of species listed under Appendix II include African elephants, certain
species of parrots, etc.
 Appendix III:
 Species listed under Appendix III are species that are protected by at least one CITES
member country, which has requested assistance from other member countries in
regulating trade in that species.
 Appendix III species are subject to trade regulation only in the country that has
requested their listing, and trade in specimens of Appendix III species is allowed
only with permits or certificates issued by that country.
 Examples of species listed under Appendix III include various reptiles, amphibians,
birds, and plants.
 The recent summit CITES- COP 19 was held in Panama City in November 2022.
 Indian rosewood was exempted in the product form from Appendix II.
 The Government of India asked to include the Jeypore Hill gecko in Appendix III.
TRAFFIC (6:35 PM)
 TRAFFIC is a non-governmental organization (NGO) that works to combat illegal
wildlife trade and promote sustainable use of natural resources.
 It was founded in 1976.
  It is a joint program of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
 The organization aims to ensure that 'Trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat
to the conservation of nature'.
 TRAFFIC's headquarter is located in Cambridge, UK.
 TRAFFIC is involved with campaigns like "Don't Buy the Trouble", and "WANTED
ALIVE".
 TRAFFIC's ongoing projects include a study on leopards, Trade in peacock feathers,
and owl trade.
 "Don't Buy Trouble" was India's first consumer awareness campaign that advises
tourists to be careful of what they are buying.
 The latest campaign is the "WANTED ALIVE" series on the four Asian big cats (Tiger,
Leopard, Snow leopard, and clouded leopard) all of them are threatened by the
illegal trade of their body parts.
NATIONAL TIGER CONSERVATION AUTHORITY (7:07 PM)
 It is a statutory body under the Ministry of Environment Forest and climate change.
 It was constituted to conserve the tigers.
 Under the Wildlife Protection Act, of 1972, NTCA was established in 2005 on the
recommendations of the Tiger Task Force.
 It consists of the Chairman-Minister in charge of the Environment, forest, and
Climate change,
 Vice Chairman- Minister of State in the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change, and other members, etc.
 Objectives:
 To provide statutory authority to Project Tiger.
 To make its compliance legal.
 To foster accountability of the center and state in the management of Tiger reserves.
 To address the livelihood interests of the local community in the tiger reserves.
 Functions:
 To approve the Tiger conservation plans prepared by the state government.
 Preserving the tiger reserves from diverting for ecologically unsustainable use.
 Increase and support the tiger reserve management in the state for biodiversity
conservation and sustainable development.
 Project Tiger:
 Initiated by the Government of India in 1973.
 NTCA is the immediate supervising agency.
 The activities under NTCA are Anti-poaching activities, and strengthening the
infrastructure within the tiger reserve.
 Habitat improvement and water development.
 Addressing Man-Animal Conflicts.
 Supporting the states with capacity building and staff training and development in
the management of the Tiger reserves.
 The Tiger census is done every Four years.
 TIGER RESERVES :
 As of today, there are 54 Tiger reserves, the Larger being The Nagarjunsagar-
srisailam tiger reserve in Andhra Pradesh/Telangana.
 Recently included Tiger reserves are:
 Ranipur Tiger Reserve in the UP.
  Ramgarh Vishdhari Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan.
ELEPHANT (7:24 PM)
 The Indian elephant Elephas maximus occurs in the central and southern Western
Ghats, northeast India, eastern India, and northern India, and some parts of southern
peninsular India.
 It is included in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and
in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora
and Fauna (CITES).
 It occurs in 16 of the 28 states in the country.
 Project Elephant was launched by the Government of India in the year 1992 as a
Centrally Sponsored Scheme with the following objectives:
 1. To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors.
 2. To address issues of man-animal conflict.
 3. The Welfare of captive elephants.
 Four common issues were identified concerning Elephants:
 a) Poaching, Ivory Trade.
 b) Man-Animal Conflict (Solution is KUMKIs Elephants, Trained Elephants)
 c) Cruality against the elephants.
 d) Accidental killings especially by the Railways.
 MIKE (Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants) Programme:
 It is an international initiative focused on the monitoring and assessment of elephant
populations and illegal elephant poaching.
 It was established by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which is an international treaty aimed at protecting
endangered plants and animals, including elephants, from over-exploitation through
international trade.
RAMSAR CONVENTION (7:58 PM)
 It is an international convention on wetlands.

Class 11
THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:06 PM)
RAMSAR CONVENTION (5:08 PM)
 Definition of the Wetland:
 “Areas of marsh, swamp, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent
or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including
areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters”
 Why wetland is important:
 Storage of fresh water
 Economic and domestic purpose
 Sustainable use of freshwater
 Maximum utilization of groundwater Conserve water
 Betterment of future
 Wetlands create sustainable products and livelihoods
 Recent estimates show that 64 % or more of the world’s wetlands have disappeared
since 1900.
 The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is an international treaty that aims to protect
and conserve wetlands around the world.
 It recognizes the vital ecological, economic, and cultural roles that wetlands play and
the threats they face from habitat loss, pollution, and climate change.
 The convention was developed and adopted by the participating nations in a meeting
held at Ramsar, Iran on 2nd February 1971.
 Montreux Record:
 It is a register of listed Ramsar wetland sites that require special attention and
monitoring due to the risk of ecological degradation.
 there were two Ramsar sites in India listed on the Montreux Record:
 a) Keoladeo National Park:
 b) Loktak Lake:
 The only floating national park inside Loktak Lake is Keibul Lamjao, National Park.
 The endemic species is the Sangai deer or Dancing Deer.
 The objectives of the Ramsar Convention are as follows:
 Conservation and sustainable utilization of the wetlands.
 Stop encroachment and loss of wetlands.
 The Ramsar Convention works closely with the following organizations:
 Birdlife International,
 IUCN
 International Water Management Institute (IWMI).
 Wetlands International.
 WWF International.
 Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust.
 Other partners:
 Convention on Biodiversity.
 The convention to combat desertification.
 Convention on migratory species.
 The World Heritage Convention.
 Prominent Funding Bodies:
 Global Environmental Funds.
 Multilateral Development Banks.
 UNEP
 UNDP
 UNESCO
 UN Economic Comission for Europe.
 UNESCO's Man and Biosphere Programme
 Key features of the Ramsar Convention:
 Recognises wetlands (goods and services) as vital for human wellbeing (food and
water security) and poverty alleviation
 Supports practical wetland sustainable utilization by countries
 Open, collaborative, and flexible mechanisms for both ecosystems and species both
sites and broad-based sustainable use
 Provides practical guidance on many topics
 Ramsar Convention is Working on the Three Pillars:
 1) Wise use of wetlands i.e. sustainable use of wetlands and their resources.
 2) Designation of Ramsar sites, i.e. wetlands of international importance.
 3) Conservation and Management of shared wetlands or transboundary wetlands
and cooperating internationally.
 There are Nine criteria under Ramsar Convention, any four criteria if satisfied can be
announced as internationally important sites.
 The prominent Ramsar Wetlands in India:

Kolleru Lake (Fresh
Andhra water lake between
Pradesh Krishna and Godavari
Rivers)
Deepor Beel ( On the
Assam bank of the
Brahmaputra River)
Bihar Kabartal Wetland
Goa Nanda Lake
Nalsarovar Bird
Gujarat
Sanctuary
Gujarat Wadhvana Wetland
Bhindawas Wildlife
Haryana
Sanctuary
Himachal
Chandertal Wetland
Pradesh
Himachal
Pong Dam Lake
Pradesh
Himachal
Renuka Wetland
Pradesh
Jammu and
Hokera Wetland
Kashmir
Jammu and Surinsar-Mansar
Kashmir Lakes
Wular Lake
Jammu and (Tectonically Formed,
Kashmir Largest Freshwater
Lake)
Ranganathittu Bird
Karnataka
Sanctuary
Kerala Asthamudi Wetland
Kerala Sasthamkotta Lake
Vembanad Kol
Kerala
Wetland
Tso Kar Wetland
Ladakh
Complex
Ladakh Tsomoriri Lake
Madhya Bhoj Wetlands (a
Pradesh man-made wetland)
Madhya
Sakhya Sagar
Pradesh
Lonar Lake (Largest
Maharashtra
Crater lake)
Nandur
Maharashtra
Madhameshwar
Maharashtra Thane Creek
Loktak Lake (This is
the Ramsar Site listed
Manipur in the Montreux
Record of the Ramsar
Convention)
Mizoram Pala Wetland
Chilka Lake
(Successfully delisted
Odisha
from the Montreux
Records)
Odisha Hirakud Reservoir
Odisha Satkosia Gorge
Beas Conservation
Punjab
Reserve
Harike Lake (From
Harike Lake Indira
Punjab
canal was
constructed.)
Punjab Kanjli Lake
Keshopur-Miani
Punjab
Community Reserve
 Nangal Wildlife
Punjab
Sanctuary
Punjab Ropar Lake
Keoladeo Ghana NP
(This is the Ramsar
Site listed in the
Rajasthan
Montreux Record of
the Ramsar
Convention)
Rajasthan Sambhar Lake
Tamil Nadu Pichavaram Mangrove
Point Calimere
Tamil Nadu Wildlife and Bird
Sanctuary
Gulf of Mannar
Tamil Nadu Marine Biosphere
Reserve
Vedanthangal Bird
Tamil Nadu Sanctuary (Siberian
Cranes are sighted)
Rudrasagar Lake
Tripura (Neermahal palace
located inside Lake)
Uttar Parvati Agra Bird
Pradesh Sanctuary
Uttar
Sur Sarovar
Pradesh
Asan Conservation
Uttarakhand
Reserve
West Bengal East Kolkata Wetlands
West Bengal Sunderbans Wetland
UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY (6:55 PM)
 Objectives of the CBD:
 a) Conservation of Biodiversity.
 This objective focuses on preserving the diversity of ecosystems, species, and genetic
resources.
 b) Sustainable use of Biodiversity (Cartagena Protocol, COP 5)
 This objective focuses on using biological resources in a way that maintains their
long-term sustainability and ensures the continued provision of ecosystem services.
 c) Access, Benefit, and Sharing (Nagoya Protocol, COP 10)
  This objective aims to ensure that the benefits of using genetic resources are shared
fairly and equitably among all parties involved.
 Cartagena Protocol:
 The Cartagena Protocol is an agreement that looks into the handling, use, and safe
transfer of living-modified organisms.
 Key features of the Cartagena Protocol:
 Advanced Informed Agreement (AIA):
 This protocol establishes a system for the identification and documentation of
shipments of LMOs.
 This system requires exporters to provide information to the importing country
about the LMOs being shipped, including their intended use, the risk assessment
conducted, and any risk management measures implemented.
 Biosafety Clearing House (BCH):
 The Biosafety Clearing House (BCH) is a central information-sharing platform
established under the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.
 The BCH serves as a mechanism for countries to exchange information related to the
import, export, and handling of living-modified organisms (LMOs).
 Nagoya protocol:
 The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable
Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization is a supplementary agreement to
the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
 The Nagoya Protocol aims to provide a transparent and legal framework for the
access to and utilization of genetic resources, such as plants, animals, and
microorganisms.
 The protocol seeks to ensure that the benefits arising from the use of these resources
are shared fairly and equitably between the countries providing the resources and
the countries utilizing them.

Class 12
THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:05 PM)
UN CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (5:06 PM)
 As of today 15 Summits happened.
 COP 15 happened in 2022.
 To satisfy the second and third objectives two protocols were brought under UNCBD:
 a) Cartagena Protocol:
 It was adopted in the year 2000 and ratified in 2003.
 It provides Biosafety guidelines on the use, labeling, packing, and transporting the
living modified organisms.
 Two instruments protect the interest of importing countries.
 1) Advanced Informed Agreement (AIA)
  2) Biosafety Clearing House (BCH)
 With these two instruments the imported LMOs from the developed world shows
little or no damage in the importing countries.
 A recent amendment to the Cartagena Protocol called the Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur
supplementary protocol to Cartagena on the mechanism of liability for using LMOs.
 b) Nagoya Protocol:
 It was adopted in the year 2010 and came into existence in 2014.
 Nagoya protocol is on access benefits and sharing and "fair and equitable sharing of
benefits arising from modern biotechnologies.
 Example: Divya Pharmacy v/s Union of India case, 2018.
 Kani tribe of Kerala and Jeevani Syrup.
UNCBD COP 15-2022 (5:20 PM)
 Kunming-Montreal Biodiversity Framework:
 The new Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) will replace the AICHI Biodiversity
targets.
 GBF addressed the Biodiversity losses, restored the ecosystems, and protected the
indigenous tribe by announcing the four long-term goals to be achieved by 2050
along with 23 action-oriented global targets to be achieved.
 Global Environment Facility requested to establish a Special Trust Fund in 2023, and
until 2030, to support the implementation of the GBF.
 The fund would have its own equitable governing body dedicated to achieving the
goals of GBF and must be prepared to receive finance from all sources.
 Some Targets under Kunming Montreal 2030:
 1) Effective management of land and sea use changes, and loss of highly important
biodiverse areas close to zero by 2030 is the target.
 2) Effective restoration of at least 30% of the degraded ecosystems by 2030.
 3) Effective conservation and management of at least 30% of lands and 30% of
oceans by 2030.
 4) Halt Human induced extinctions and maintains and restore genetic diversity.
 5) Sustainable use, harvesting, and trade of wild species.
 6) Mitigate or eliminate the impacts of invasive alien species by 50% by 2030.
(Current development: the Chief wildlife warden of Kaziranga national park noted
that new 18 invasive alien species were discovered in the national park degrading
the ecosystem.)
 7) Reduce the pollution risk and impacts from all sources by 2030, reducing the
excess nutrients loss to the environment and the overall risk from pesticides by 50%.
 8) Minimize the impacts of Climate Change and ocean acidification on biodiversity.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING (6:22 PM)
 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).
 Its establishment was a response to growing concern about the potential impacts of
human activities on the Earth's climate.
 The IPCC's mandate is to provide objective scientific information and assessments on
climate change, its potential impacts, and options for adaptation and mitigation to
governments, policymakers, and the public.
 The Brundtland Report, also known as "Our Common Future," is a report published
by the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987.
 The report was named after Gro Harlem Brundtland, the former Prime Minister of
Norway and the chairperson of the commission.
 UNCED stands for United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, also
known as the Earth Summit.
 It was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992 and was attended by representatives of
over 170 countries, as well as numerous NGOs, intergovernmental organizations,
and other stakeholders.
 The conference resulted in the adoption of several key agreements, including the Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development, Agenda 21, and the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change.
 Agenda 21 gave birth to the following organizations:
 UNFCCC -1992.
 UNCBD- 1992.
 UNCCD- 1994.
 The meetings of the UNFCCC are called the Conference of Parties.
 Uptill now a total of 27 UNFCCC COP took place.
 UNCBD meets once in two years so a total of COP-15 of UNCBD took place till now.
 The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) is an international financial organization
that provides grants to developing countries and countries in transition to support
projects and programs that promote sustainable development and address global
environmental issues.
 The GEF was established in 1991 as a partnership between several international
organizations, including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
the World Bank, and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
 The IPCC Second Assessment Report, also known as SAR, was published in 1995.
 It was the second major report produced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) and aimed to provide a comprehensive assessment of the state of
knowledge on climate change.
 The SAR was instrumental in raising awareness of the seriousness of climate change
and in helping to lay the groundwork for the negotiation of the Kyoto Protocol, an
international agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that was adopted in
1997.
 The Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) is a key principle of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol.
 It states that the party responsible for producing pollution should bear the costs
associated with its impacts on the environment and human health.
 The PPP is closely linked to another principle of the UNFCCC, the Principle
of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC).
 This principle recognizes that all countries have a shared responsibility to address
climate change, but that developed countries have a greater responsibility because of
their historical and current emissions and their greater capacity to take action.
 Kyoto Protocol divided the world into Developed countries and Developing
countries.
 Those countries that are listed are called Annex countries.
 Those countries which are not part of these lists are called as Non-Annexure
countries.
 In the Kyoto Protocol, the emission caps were made applicable to developed
countries.
  Per capita emissions refer to the average amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs)
emitted per person in a given population or country.
 This metric is commonly used to compare the relative contributions of different
countries or regions to global emissions, as it takes into account differences in
population size and levels of economic development.
 Control measures adopted by Kyoto Protocol:
 The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered
into force on 16 February 2005.
 Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current
high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of
industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations.
 Commitments to reduce GHGs were made legally binding: Kyoto Protocol became the
first legally binding agreement to reduce greenhouse gases.
 Common but differentiated responsibilities: It divides countries mainly into 3 groups
according to differing commitments:
 a. Annex 1
 b. Annex 2
 c. Non-Annex:
 Industrialized countries (Annex I) have to report regularly on their climate change
policies and measures.
 Market-based mechanisms:
 Kyoto Protocol also implemented 3 market-based mechanisms to reduce the level of
GHGs.
 International Emission trading:
 Annex countries have targets for emissions.
 Emission trading allows to sell the excess capacity to countries that are over their
targets.
 Clean development mechanism:
 It is based on emission reduction and offset.
 Projects established in developing countries earn certified initial reduction credits
equivalent to 1 ton of CO2.
 This credit was tradable.
 For Example, Dahanu Solar Power Plant in Rajasthan was established with the help
of Sweden.
 Joint implementation:
 It allows a country with an initial reduction target to earn an initial reduction in units
in another country.
 This will be counted towards meeting the Kyoto targets.

Class 13
BRIEF REVISION OF PREVIOUS CLASS TOPICS AND KYOTO PROTOCOL:
 IPCC (UNEP+ WMO), Agenda 21, UNFCCC(Cop27), UNCBD(Cop15),
UNCCD(Cop15),AR2, AR3.
  Kyoto Protocol (KP), Principle of equity.
 Annex countries (polluters may pay), Non-Annex countries, CBDR.
 Annex countries (Annex 1 countries and Annex 2 countries/OECD countries).
 2008 to 2012, the Kyoto Protocol started getting implemented.
 Target-5% of GHG of 1990 level.
 KP2 (2013-2020), AGREEMENT.
 KP1- 1st January 2008-31st December 2012 (5% GHG 1990 level).
 KP2- 1st January 2013- 31st December 2020 (18% GHG 1990 level).
 2015- Cop21- Paris Agreement.
 Double threshold (ratification by 55 countries that account for at least 55% of global
emissions).
 Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC).
 This agreement urged parties to take national pledges by finalizing their Intended
Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) by November 2015.
 NDC (Nationally Determined Contributions).
 India had pledged to cut the emissions intensity of its growth by 33-35% of GDP
from 2005 levels by 2030.
 First Carbon Stock Take in 2018 (how much a country is emitting).
 IPCC report Emission Gap Report.
 Climate Action Tracker (CAT) body to check the contribution from the individual
country.
 Net Carbon Neutrality by CAT.
COP26 Glasgow 2021 (01:42 PM)
 India announced elixirs called Panchamrit.
 There must be Net Carbon neutrality by 2050.
 Net Carbon Neutral= (Carbon release=Carbon sink).
COP27, 2022, EGYPT (01:46 PM)
 The important developments are:
 Loss and Damage - It refers to impacts of climate change that cannot be avoided
either by mitigation or adaptation.
 They include economic damage to property, loss of livelihoods, and destruction of
biodiversity and culturally important sites.
 It aimed to establish a Loss and Damage Fund.
 It is a financing mechanism to compensate the most vulnerable countries for climate-
linked disasters.
 AWARe (Action on Water Adaptation or Resilience):
 AWARe was launched by Egypt’s COP27 Presidency, in partnership with World
Meteorological Organization
 It is an initiative that will champion inclusive cooperation to address water-related
challenges and solutions across climate change adaptation.
 Global Offshore Wind Alliance (GOWA):
 COP27 has seen new countries including Germany, Japan, the UK, the US, Australia,
etc., join the Global Offshore Wind Alliance to ramp up the offshore wind to tackle
the climate and energy security crises.
 *Note: Please refer to the Climate Change Handout 2 (IPCC, Various assessment
reports, IPCC Special Reports, UNFCC Members, COP, IET, CDM, ISA, etc).
GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL (02:17 PM)
  It is a measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere up to a
specific time horizon, relative to carbon dioxide.
 It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to
the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide and is expressed as a
factor of carbon dioxide (whose GWP is standardized to 1).
 GWP = Warming caused by a GHG/ Warming caused by CO2.
 Global Warming Potential for Methane is more than that of CO2.
 CH4 is having 80 times more capacity to heat the atmosphere than CO2.
 If CO2 GWP is 1, then:
 GWP of CH4 is 24, NO2 is 206, SF6 is 23000, CFC is 12000-16000, etc.
GEO-ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES (02:31 PM)
 Two types- GHG reduction techniques and Solar Radiation Management techniques.
 GHG reduction techniques:
 Carbon capture and storage techniques.
 Biochar technique.
 Oxy-fuel combustion technique.
 Ocean fertilization-SOIReE.
 Enhanced Alkaline weathering.
 Solar Radiation Management Techniques:
 Cool Roof Technique.
 Marine Sea Brightening.
 Stratospheric Sulphur Aerosol Technique.
 Solar Shades technique.
 *Note: Please refer to the Handout Climate Change2 (Commitment Periods and
Targets KP1 and KP2, KP and the US, Durban platform COP 17, Mission Life, Warsaw
Poland COP 19 CMP- 9, Global Methane Pledge, Mission life, GEF, etc).

Class 14
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION- 1:08 PM
 Definition- It is defined as any undesirable change in physical, chemical, or
biological characteristics of any component of the environment like air, water, or soil
which can cause harmful effects on life or property.
 The addition of any substance solid, liquid, or gas, or any form of energy like heat,
sound, or radioactivity to the environment at a rate faster it can be dispersed,
diluted, decomposed, recycle, or stored in some harmless form.
 The classification of pollutants based on the state of matter can be of three types-
solid, liquid, and gases.
 Based on degradability it can be of two types- Biodegradable and non-biodegradable.
 Based on the source it can be of three types- domestic waste, agriculture waste, and
industrial waste.
 Based on source there can be two types of pollution- Point source and non-point
source pollutant.
 Based on concentration- Qualitative and another is called Quantitative.
  Qualitative- These pollutants affect the environment when they go beyond the
threshold limit, Co2. Human respiration-releasing Co2 is not a pollutant.
 Industrial emissions like Carbon monoxide and Co2 should be controlled.
 Quantitative - These pollutants affect the environment soon after they are released
irrespective of their concentration ex. DDT, endosulfan.
 Based on stages- The pollutants can be of two types- primary pollutant and
secondary pollutant.
 Primary- Thye remain in the state in which they were released directly into the
atmosphere example- Plastic, chemical, and fly ash.
 Secondary- These are the compounds of primary pollutants. they are formed after
the chemical reaction between the primary pollutants example acid rain, ground-
level ozone, photochemical smog, etc.
 There are basically three types of pollution that are classified as major pollution such
as air, water, and soil pollution.
 Modern societies have faced other kinds of pollution like- noise pollution, light
pollution, gene pollution, medical waste, etc.
AIR POLLUTION- 1:52 PM
 Air pollutants can be of two types Gaseous and solid pollutants (soot).
 Based on the size/diameter of the particles there can be three types of particulate
matter PM 1.0, PM 2.5, and PM 10.
 The number represents the diameter of the particles in micrometers.
 In third-world countries, the main air pollutant is PM 2.5, released from the energy
industries.
 Impacts of air pollution-
 Health- Asthma, Bronchitis are choked causing pulmonary disorders, cancer, and
liver damage.
 World Bank released a report striving for clean air - Air pollution and public health in
South Asia.
 The world bank has identified six large air shed in South Asia that affects the quality
of air and in turn, creates health issues.
 The six air sheds are :
 1. West/central indo- Gangetic Plains- It includes Punjab of Pakistan and India,
Haryana, parts of Rajasthan, Chandigarh, Delhi, UP.
 2. Central/Eastern Indo-Gangetic plains- It includes Bihar, Jharkhand, Bengal, and
Bangladesh.
 3. Middle India- Odisha and Chattisgarh
 4. Middle India- Eastern Gujarat and Western Maharashtra
 5. Northern/Central Indus River plains - It includes Pakistan, Parts of Afghanistan
 6. Southern Indus plains and further west - South Pakistan, western Afghanistan
extending into eastern Iran.
 An air shed is a common geographical area where pollutants get trapped creating
similar air quality throughout that geographical area.
 Steps were taken by the government-
 Introduced central pollution control board under Moefccc (Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change).
 Installation of air pollution control devices in and near the factories like electrostatic
precipitators, scrubbers, cyclonic bag houses, gravity settlers, etc.
  The important devices discovered to filter the pollutants at the source
are VAYU, wind augmentation, and purifying units.
 Clean cooking stoves developed by NEERI in association with CSIR for villages
called Neerdhur.
 The government of India has gone to developing an Air quality index.
AIR QUALITY INDEX (AQI)- 2:41 PM
 Developed by CPCB under the ministry of Moefccc.
 It covers all the major cities and towns of India.
 There are six categories with the color-coded and index based.

AQI Quality Color
0-50 Good Green
51-100 Moderate Yellow
Unhealthy for
101-150 sensitive Orange
groups
151-200 Unhealthy Red
Very
201-300 Purple
unhealthy
301-above Hazardous Maroon
 The AQI takes into account 8 pollutants to calculate the index- PM 2.5, PM 10, SO2,
No2, CO, O3 (ground level), Ammonia, and lead.
 The government of India introduced a national clean air program in 2019.
 It is based on the guidelines on air quality given by WHO.
 It covers 131 cities and towns including smart cities to reduce Particulate matter
pollution by 40% by 2026.
 The government of India introduced Bharat stage norms to control vehicular
pollution based on the Euro norms.
 BS stage VI is a leapfrog jump from BS-IV from 1st Jan 2020 for better efficiency of
the fuel and use of clean technology in vehicles especially in the inter-combustion
engines, catalytic convertors, and filters.
 The government of India has introduced the SAFAR India portal (system of air quality
and weather forecasting and research) developed by the Indian Institute of tropical
meteorology under the Ministry of earth sciences.
 It forecast the Air quality three days in advance.
 It takes into consideration the air pollutants like- Co2, Methane, Benzene, black
carbon, No2, and PM 1.0.
 It covers only four cities- Delhi, Mumbai, Ahmedabad, and Pune.
OZONE DEPLETION- 3:22 PM
 It is of two types stratospheric and tropospheric.
 Stratospheric ozone creates the photochemical effect.
 So2 +No2+ VOC = (reacts in the presence of sunlight) to produce SMOG.
  Vienna Convection of 1985 laid the way for the Montreal Protocol of 1987 which
deals with ozone depletion.

Class 15
INTRODUCTION (01:00 PM)
 A brief overview of the previous class.
WATER POLLUTION (01:04 PM)
 Water pollution may be defined as the contamination of streams, lakes, seas,
underground water, or oceans by substances that are harmful to living beings.
 Sources-
 Municipal sources: Municipal wastewater is from households or a mixture of the
household as well as industrial sources along with the precipitation water.
 Industrial water- It is a major source of water pollution. The untreated effluents from
industries such as chemical industries metallurgical industries food processing
industries textile and paper industry and the leather industry.
 Grey water; black water.
 The inorganic pollutants include metals acids and certain salts which are highly
difficult for treating heavy metals are responsible for creating a number of diseases
like-

Metal Disease

Arsenic black foot disease

fluorosis responsible for

Flouride
tooth decay and weakness

Mercury Minamata disease

Nitrate Blue baby syndrome

 Organic pollutants- discharging of oils from animal wastes, animal fats, acid grease,
and several other organic compounds, agricultural waste includes chemical
fertilizers and pesticides. The excess release of these pollutants leads to
eutrophication.
 Eutrophication- when macronutrients like NPK enters the water and makes the
water nutrient increasing the amount of plant and algal growth which in turn rises
the demand for oxygen in the water is called biological oxygen demand (BOD).
 That kills all the marine species and makes the water unfit. Such a process is called
eutrophication.
 Thermal pollution- It is caused by the rising temperature of water. The main source
is the thermal power plants and the nuclear power plants. A sudden rise in
 temperature due to the discharge of hot water from these industries depletes the
plankton and affects marine life.
MARINE POLLUTION (01:53 PM)
 80%- 90% of the world trade is happening over the high seas and the ocean acts as
the final sink of all natural and man-made pollutants.
 The sewage, and garbage, of the coastal cities are dumped into the sea. After the
lifespan of the ships they are dismantled and the way it is thrown into the oceans.
 The explorations like oil and natural gas also the polymetallic nodules contaminate
the waterbody.
 The heavy accidents lead to oil spills and the dumping of waste into the water. The
discharge of plastic waste leads to the development of microplastic due to the
soaking of plastic in water and thus creating "great Pacific garbage".
 The discharge of pollutants in the Oceans has developed OMZ (oxygen minimum
zones) and dead zones.
 International Maritime Organization (IMO) under the UN developed a convention in
1973 for the Prevention of marine pollution (MARPOL Convention).
 MARPOL convention:
 Adapted in the year 1973 by IMO. The objective is to prevent pollution of all kinds
caused by the ships.
 MARPOL is having an annexure. It takes care of 6 types of pollutants- oil spills;
garbage including plastic; discharge of sewage from the ships; packaged discharge
sewage; packaged soil waste discharge; noxious liquid substances; air pollution
caused by the ships.
LAND POLLUTION (02:07 PM)
 Land is an important resource for the human. Land pollution is defined as the
degradation of the texture of the soil by human activities in such a fashion that is
unfit for any other purpose.
 It can be both natural as well as man-made.
 Sources:
 Man-made land pollution- construction; agriculture activities; dumping of industrial
wastes, dumping of plastic waste. In modern times medical waste and e-waste have
degraded land resources.
 Construction of canals: mining; Natural- soil erosion, flooding conditions, droughts,
volcanic eruptions, forest fires, natural deforestation.
 In order to utilize the land resources on a judicious UN came up with a convention to
combat desertification in 1994; to date 15 such meetings have happened the last
conference of parties was held in New Delhi.
 Environmental problems under UNCCD Land degradation neutrality (LDN) was
brought to be achieved by the governments by 2030. The great green wall initiation
of Africa is being replicated in India under the Great Green Wall of Aravallis.
 COP15, UNCCD 2022:
 The summit held at Abidjan, Cote de Ivore.
 Key outcomes: to restore 1 billion hectares of degraded land by 2030.
 to establish an intergovernmental working group on drought for 2022-24 to support
drought management.
 to address sand and dust storms.
 COP 15 title was land, life, and legacy.
  In this convention, they discovered that more than 2.3 billion people face water
stress, and proper measures need to be initiated by participating parties also the
corporate world in order to achieve LDN.
 The Initiatives like Sahel Sourcing Challenge- growing the grey-green wall and using
technology to monitor progress, create jobs, and commercialize their products. The
African great green wall extends from Senegal to Djibouti.
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT (02:44 PM)
 There are some international positions under conventions to protect the interest of
importing countries, the importing of hazardous chemicals and pesticides and
persistent organic pollutants and to control the transboundary movement of
hazardous waste and their disposal.
 There are three conventions:
 BASEL convention, Rotterdam convention, and Stockholm convention which are
under UNITR (united nations institute for Training and Research) organization.
 BASEL convention- on the control of the transboundary movement of hazardous
wastes and their disposal. It came into force in 1989 under UNEP. It provides
guidelines to control the import and export of toxic and harmful hazardous wastes.
 Rotterdam Convention: It is on the PIC (prior informed consent procedure) for
certain hazardous chemicals and pesticides, international trade.
 Stockholm Convention of Persistent organic pollutants (POP) is a global treaty to
protect human health and the environment from highly hazardous, long-lasting
chemicals by restricting and ultimately eliminating their production, use, release,
and storage.
 Global Environment Facility (GEF) provides funds for the Stockholm Convention on
POP.
 NOTE: GEF is providing funds for 5 organizations- UNFCCC; UNCBD; UNCCD;
Stockholm Convention on POP; Minamata convention on POP.
BIO-MEDICAL WASTE (BMW) (03:16 PM)
 Biomedical waste management rules 2016 were amended in 2018 and 2019. The
CPCB gave guidelines for handling, treatment, and disposal of waste generated
during the treatment/ diagnosis/ quarantine of Covid 19 patients.
 To keep the hospitals clean and safe identifying hazardous waste and handling the
waste is important.
 Four colored bins designated specifically for handling the BMW waste.


anatomical waste, clinical waste,

Yellow soiled waste, chemotherapy waste,
bin discarded linen, medicines, and
lab waste.

Red
for contaminated plastic waste.
bin
Blue for glass waste and metallic
bin implants.
 White
sharp metals
bins
 Biomedical waste handling management and waste rules:
 Introduction of new technology for disposal of biomedical waste e.g. plasma
pyrolysis, barcoding for packaging, and labeling of biomedical waste to avoid
pilferage on the way of transportation.
 Mandatory phasing out of chlorinated plastic bags, gloves, and blood bags.
 Control of all medical and healthcare facilities irrespective of the medicinal system.
 Simplification of the categorization and treatment of biomedical waste.
E-WASTE MANAGEMENT (03:34 PM)
 It includes households waste like TV refrigerators and cellphones.
 Corporate e-waste- these are the bulk generators of electronic wastes like computers
monitoring screens
 Government office's e-waste. India is the 3rd largest e-waste in the world only after
China and USA.
 E-waste Management and Handling Rules, 2022:
 Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change notified e-waste management
rules under the environmental protection act 1986
 1. Extended producer's responsibility (EPR) introduced in the e-waste.
 2. target-based approach, the government sets the targets for recycling and
collecting
 3. flexibility for implementation of EPR
 Producers' Responsibility Organizations (PRO) are allowed to establish to solve the
issues of recollection and recycling.
 Pan India EPR authorization of producers by CPCB.
 CPCB can delegate its powers to SPCB.
 CFL (compact fluorescent lamps) and mercury lamps brought under e-waste.
 Stringent environment compliance based on standard operating procedures (SOP)
and guidelines-based approach for permissions.
PLASTIC WASTE (03:45 PM)
 Plastic management rules: Plastic has multiple uses and is widely used in business
households and corporates. From time to time the governments have notified and
subsequently amended the guidelines.
 The government of India notified the plastic waste management rules in 2011 and
subsequently amended them in 2016, 2018, and 2021.
 Guidelines: Increasing the minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from 40 to 50
microns.
 EPR introduced and mandatory for the handling of plastic wastes.
 Introduction of plastic waste management fee through pre-registration of the
producers, and importers of the plastic carry bags.
 Jurisdiction is extended to rural areas.
 To develop eco-friendly products as a complete substitute for plastic by introducing
new technologies.
 Promote bioremediation
 Promote energy recovery and waste to oil etc.
 banning single-use plastic- Ministry of Forestry& climate change banned Single used
plastic from 1 July 2022 across India.
ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) (03:54 PM)
 1. Screening- EIA is required or not
 2. Scoping
 3. Impact
 4. Mitigation
 5. Impact review
 6. Decision making