Civil Engineering Notes

For
ESE-2021, GATE-2021, IRMS, SSC-JE,
State PSC and other Exams

Surveying and Geology

By- Mr. Syed Sajid Sohail
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 CONTENTS
S. No. Chapter
1. Introduction
2. Chain Surveying
3. COMPASS SURVEYING
4. Theodilite & Traverse Survey
5. Levelling
6. Conturing
7. Areas and Volumes
8. Tachometry
9. Curves
10. Plane Table Surveying
11. Errors and Accuracy
12. GIS, GPS and Remote Sensing
13. Engineering Geology (only ESE)
14. Photometry
15. Field Astronomy (only ESE)

ESE Syllabus:
(a) Surveying: Classification of surveys, various methodologies, instruments & analysis of
measurement of distances, elevation and directions; Field astronomy, Global Positioning System;
Map preparation; Photogrammetry; Remote sensing concepts; Survey Layout for culverts,
canals, bridges, road/railway alignment and buildings, Setting out of Curves.

(b) Geology: Basic knowledge of Engineering geology & its application in projects.
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Chapter -1 Introduction

Surveying is the process of determining relative positions of different objects on the

surface of the earth by measuring horizontal distances between them and preparing a
map to any suitable scale.

Principles of Surveying

1. Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference:

According to this principle, the relative position of a point to be surveyed should be
located by measurement from at least two points of reference, the positions of which
have already been fixed.

2. Working from whole to part

According to this principle, it is always desirable to carryout survey work from whole
to part. The idea of working this way is to prevent the accumulation of errors and to
control and localize minor errors which, otherwise, would expand to greater
magnitudes if the reverse process is followed, thus making the work uncontrolled at
the end.

Method of Surveying in Civil Engineering

Primary types of Surveying are:
• Plane surveying
• Geodetic surveying

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1. Plane surveying

• Plane surveying is conducted by state agencies as well as private agencies. As we

know earth is spherical in shape but its diameter is big enough to consider plane in
small dimensions.
• It is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a
plane and the spheroidal shape is neglected.
• All triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane triangles.
• The level line is considered as straight and plumb lines are considered parallel.
• Plane surveying is done of the area of survey is less than 250 km2.

2. Geodetic surveying

• Geodetic survey is conducted by survey department of the country. It is that type of

surveying in which the curved shape of the earth is taken in to account.
• The objective of geodetic survey is to determine the precise position on the surface of
the earth, of a system of widely distant points.
• Line joining two points is considered as curved line and angles are assumed as
spherical angles.
• It is carried out if the area exceeds over 250 km2.

Secondary classification of Surveying

a) Topographical Surveys
They are carried out to determine the position of natural features of a region such as
rivers, streams, hills etc. and artificial features such as roads and canals. The purpose
of such surveys is to prepare maps and such maps of are called topo-sheets.
b) Hydrographic Survey
Hydro-graphic survey is carried out to determine M.S.L. (Mean Sea Level), water
spread area, depth of water bodies, velocity of flow in streams, cross-section area of
flow etc.
c) Astronomical Survey
The Astronomical Survey is carried out to determine the absolute location of any point
on the surface of earth. The survey consists of making observations to heavenly bodies
such as stars.
d) Engineering Survey
This type of survey is undertaken whenever sufficient data is to be collected for the
purpose of planning and designing engineering works such as roads, bridges and
reservoirs.
e) Archeological Survey
This type of survey is carried out to gather information about sites that are important
from archeological considerations and for unearthing relics of antiquity.

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f) Photographic Survey
In this type of survey, information is collected by taking photographs from selected
points using a camera.
g) Aerial Survey
In this type of survey data about large tracks of land is collected by taking photographs
from an aero-plane.
h) Reconnaissance Survey
In this type of survey, data is collected by marking physical observation and some
measurements using simple survey instruments.

Classification on the Basis of Instruments Used:

Based on the instrument used; surveys can be classified into;

i) Chain tape surveys
ii) Compass surveys
iii) Plane table surveys
iv) Theodelite surveys

Classification based on the method used

1. Triangulation Survey
In order to make the survey manageable, the area to be surveyed is first covered with
series of triangles. This process is called triangulation.

2. Traverse survey
If the bearing and distance of a place of a known point is known: it is possible to
establish the position of that point on the ground. From this point, the bearing and
distances of other surrounding points may be established. In the process, positions of
points linked with lines linking them emerge. Traverses may either be open or closed.

1. Closed Traverse : When a series of connected lines forms a closed circuit, i.e.
when the finishing point coincides with the starting point of a survey, it is called as a
‘closed traverse’.
2. Open Traverse : When a sequence of connected lines extends along a general
direction and does not return to the starting point, it is known as ‘open traverse’ or
(unclosed traverse).

Types of Measuring Scales in Surveying

Plane Scale :
It is possible to measure two successive dimensions only.

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Diagonal Scale :
It is possible to measure three successive dimensions.

Chord scale :
It is used to set out angles without using a protractor.

Vernier Scale :
It is a device for measuring accurately the fractional part of the smallest division on a
graduated scale. It divided into,

• Direct Vernier : ‘n’ divisions on the vernier scale are equal in length to (n – 1)
divisions on the main scale. Thus ‘n’ divisions of vernier = {n -1) of main scale :
∴ n ‘v’ = (n-1) ‘s’ or v = {(n-1)/n}*s
Where, n = total No. of divisions on vernier scale, v = length of one division on the
vernier, s = length of one division on the main scale.

The least count (L.C) is, therefore given by

L.C = s – v.
L.C = s – {(n-1)/n}*s.
L.C = s/n.

• Retrograde Vernier : ‘n’ divisions of the vernier scale are equal to ‘(n+1)’ divisions
on the main scale.
∴ n ‘v’ = (n+1) ‘s’
L.C = s – v.
L.C = s/n.

• Extended Vernier : ‘n’ divisions of the vernier scale are equal in length to (2n – 1)
divisions of the main scale. Therefore,
∴ n ‘v’ = (2n-1)s
L.C = s – v.
L.C = s/n.
Extended Vernier is used in ABNEY LEVEL

• Double Vernier : It is used when the graduations on the main scale are numbered in
both directions. It is a combination of both direct and retrograde verniers.
Double vernier is used in Theodolite.

• Double folded vernier : Its length is half of corresponding double verniers – economy
of space.
Double folded vernier is used in Sextent.

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SCALE OF A MAP

• Scale of a map or plane represents the ratio of a line on the map (or plan) to the
length of the same line on ground.
• A scale may be represented numerically by Engineer’s scale or Representative
Fraction.
• The Engineer’s scale is represented by a statement, e.g. 1 cm = 40 m.
• When a scale is represented as a fraction, it is called as Representative Fraction.
Engineer’s scale 1 cm = 40 m => Representative Fraction (R.F) = 1/4000

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Error due to the use of wrong scale:

if the length of line existing on a plan or a map is calculated by means of wrong scale
the length obtained will be wrong.

Methods of Measuring Horizontal Distances:

Depending on the accuracy desired and time available for measurement, there are
many methods of measuring horizontal distances. They are: (i) Pacing, (ii) Odometer
readings, (iii) Tachometry, (iv) Electronic distance measurement, (v) Chaining, and
(vi) Taping.

Pacing: – distance can be obtained by pacing (the number of paces can be counted by
tally or pedometer registry attached to one leg). It is used in reconnaissance surveys&
in small scale mapping
Odometer of a vehicle: - based on diameter of tires (no of revolutions X wheel
diameter); this method gives a fairly reliable result provided a check is done
periodically on a known length. During each measurement a constant tyre pressure has
to be maintained.
Tachometry: -distance can be can be measured indirectly by optical surveying
instruments like theodolite. The method is quite rapid and sufficiently accurate for
many types of surveying operations.
Taping (chaining): - this method involves direct measurement of distances with a
tape or chain. Steel tapes are most commonly used. It is available in lengths varying
from 15m to 100m.

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Note:
SPHERICAL TRIANGLE

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Chapter -2 CHAIN SURVEYING

Equipment Used in Chain Surveying

These equipments can be divided into three, namely

(i) Those used for linear measurement. (Chain, steel band, linear tape)
(ii) Those used for slope angle measurement and for measuring right angle (Eg. Abney
level, clinometer, cross staff, optical squares)
(iii) Other items (Ranging rods or poles, arrows, pegs etc)

Abney Level
This instrument is generally used to obtain roughly the slope angle of the ground. It
consists of a rectangular, telescopic tube (without lenses) about 125mm long with a
graduated arc attached. A small bubble is fixed to the vernier arm, once the image of
the bubble is seen reflected in the eyepiece the angle of the line of sight can be read
off with the aid of the reading glass.

Clinometer
This instrument is used for measuring angles of ground slopes (slope angle). They are
of several form, the common form is the WATKING’S CLINOMETER, which consist
of a small disc of about 60mm diameter. A weighted ring inside the disc can be made
to hang free and by sighting across this graduated ring angle of slopes can be read off.
It is less accurate than abney level.

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Cross Staff:
This consists of two pairs of vanes set at right angle to each other with a wide and
narrow slit in each vane. The instrument is mounted upon a pole, so that when it is set
up at normal eye level. It is also used for setting out lines at right angle to the main
chain line.
(French cross staff It is used to set 45o, 90o& 135o from a chain line)

Optical Square:
This instrument is used for setting out lines at right angle to main chain line. It is used
where greater accuracy is required. There are two types of optical square, one using
two mirrors and the other a prism.
The mirror method is constructed based on the fact that a ray of light is reflected from
a mirror at the same angle as that at which it strikes the mirror.
• The prism square method is a simplified form of optical square consisting of a single
prism. It is used in the same way as the mirror square, but is rather more accurate.

Ranging Rod
These are poles of circular section 2m, 2.5m or 3m long, painted with characteristic
red and white bands, tipped with a pointed steel shoe to enable them to be driven into
the ground. They are used in the measurement of lines with the tape, and for marking
any points which need to be seen.

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Pegs
Pegs are made of wood 50mm x 50mm and some convenient length. They are used for
points which are required to be permanently marked, such as intersection points of
survey lines. Pegs are driven with a mallet and nails are set in the tops

Arrows
Arrow consists of a piece of steel wire about 0.5m long, and are used for marking
temporary stations. A piece of coloured cloth, white or red ribbon is usually attached
or tied to the end of the arrow to be clearly seen on the field.

Types of chains

1) Gunter’s chain: it is 66 feet long & consist of 100 links

1 link = 0.66 feet
2) Engineer’s Chain : it is 100 feet long & consists of 100 links
1 link = 1 feet
3)Metric chain : 10m chain, 20m chain and 30m chain
10m chain = 50 links
20m chain = 100 links
30m chain = 150 links
(the tolerance limit for 20m chain is ±5mm & for 30m chain is ±8mm.)

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4) Revenue chain: It is 33 ft. long and consist of 16 links. Revenue chain is used in
cadastral survey

Note:
❖ 1 Acre = 40 guntas, 10 square gunter chains, 43560 sq feet
❖ Pentagraph - plan enlarging instrument
❖ Tellurometer – distance measuring microwave instrument
❖ Ghats traces – Gradient Finding Instrument

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OBSTACLES IN CHAINING

Various obstacles to chaining may be grouped into:

(i) Obstacles to ranging (chaining free-vision obstructed)
(ii) Obstacles to chaining (chaining obstructed-vision free)
(iii) Obstacles to both ranging and chaining (Building is a typical example)

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Methods of Ranging

Ranging involves placing ranging poles along the route to be measures so as to get a
straight line. The poles are used to mark the stations and in between the stations
1). Direct Ranging: When both the end points are clearly intervisible.
2). Indirect Ranging or Reciprocal Ranging: When both the end points are not
clearly intervisible.

Random ranging: If survey line passes through a thick forest or a lake

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INCORRECT LENGTH

Incorrect length of a tape or chain is one of most important errors. It is systematic. A

tape or chain is of nominal or designated length at the time of manufacture but with
use it will seldom remain at its original length. It should be frequently compared with
a standard length to find out the discrepancy. The correction to be applied is known as
absolute correction Cn and is given by
Cn = True length - nominal length = ( L - LI )

Ctotal = No of chains X Cn
Where;
No of chains = lI/l
Cn = LI - L

Correction for Temperature

If the tape is used at a field temperature different from the standardization

temperature, then the temperature correction to the measured length is

where
α = the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material, tm = the mean field
temperature, and t0 = the standardization temperature.

If Tm is more than To , recorded length is less than the actual by the amount of
extension. The error is –ve and the correction to the length L is +ve by the amount of
extension.
If the field temperature Tm is less than To the error is =+ve and the corrections is –ve.

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Correction for Pull or Tension

If the pull applied to the tape in the field is different from the standardization pull, the
pull correction is to be applied to the measured length. This correction is

where
P = the pull applied during the measurement, P0 = the standardization pull, A = the
area of cross-section of the tape, and E = the Young’s modulus for the tape material.

Correction for Sag

The tape hanging between two supports, free of ground, sags under its own weight,
with maximum dip occurring at the middle of the tape. This necessitates a correction
for sag if the tape has been standardized on the flat, to reduce the curved length to the
chord length. The correction for the sag is
Cs =𝑤 2 𝐿3 ⁄24 𝑝2
Or
Cs = 𝑊 2 𝐿⁄24𝑝2
where W = the weight of the tape per span length
w = the weight of the tape per unit length

If both the ends of the tape are not at the same level, a further correction due to slope
is required. It is given by
cs′ =cs cos α
α = the angle of slope between the end supports

Correction for Alignment

If the intermediate points are not in correct alignment with ends of the line, a
correction for alignment given below, is applied to the measured length

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Correction for Slope:

If the length L is measured on the slope, it must be reduced to its horizontal equivalent
L cos θ. The required slope correction is

Hypotenusal allowance:
Hypotenusal allowance is made for each tape length. It is always positive and added
after each chain length.

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Normal Tension: it is the value of P, so that Cpull = Csag

If chain is changing length along distance:

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THE FIELD BOOK

The notebook in which field measurements are noted is known as the ‘field book’. The
size of the field book is 20 cm x 12 cm and it opens lengthwise. Field books may be of
two types:
• Single –line ,
• Double-line.
1. Single-line field book In this type of field book, a single red line is drawn through
the middle of each page. This line represents the chain line, and the chainages are
written on it. The offsets are recorded, with sketches, to the left or right of the chain
line. The recording of the field book is started from the last page and continued
towards the first page.
2. Double-line field book In this type of field book, two red lines, 1.5 cm apart, are
drawn through the middle of each page. This column represents the chain line, and the
chainages are written in it. The offsets are recorded, with sketches, to the left or right
of this column. The recording is begun from the last page and continued towards the
first.

Survey Stations

Survey stations are the points at the beginning and the end of a chain line. They may
also occur at any convenient points on the chain line. Such stations may be:
• Main stations
• Subsidiary stations and
• Tie stations
1. Main stations Stations taken along the boundary of an area as controlling points are
known as ‘main survey lines’. The main survey lines should cover the whole area to
be surveyed.
2. Subsidiary stations Stations which are on the main survey lines or any other survey
lines are known as “Subsidiary stations”. These stations are taken to run subsidiary
lines for dividing the area into triangles, for checking the accuracy of triangles and for
locating interior details.
3. Tie stations These are also subsidiary stations taken on the main survey lines. Lines
joining the tie stations are known as tie lines. Tie lines are mainly taken to fix the
directions of adjacent sides of the chain survey map. These are also taken to form
‘chain angles’ in chain traversing, when triangulation is not possible. Sometimes tie
lines are taken to locate interior details.
4. Base Line
The line on which the framework of the survey is built is known as the ‘base line’. It is
the most important line of the survey. Generally, the longest of the main survey
lines is considered the base line. This line should be taken through fairly level
ground, and should be measured very carefully and accurately.

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5. Check Line
The line joining the apex point of a triangle to some fixed point on its base is known
as the ‘check line’. It is taken to check the accuracy of the triangle. Sometimes this
line helps to locate interior details.
6. Offset
The lateral measurement taken from an object to the chain line is known as ‘offset’.
Offsets are taken to locate objects with reference to the chain line. They may be of two
kinds - perpendicular and oblique.

1. Perpendicular offsets When the lateral measurements are taken perpendicular to

the chain line, they are known as perpendicular offsets
Perpendicular offsets may be taken in the following ways:
(a) By setting a perpendicular by swinging a tape from the object to the chain line. The
point of minimum reading on the tape will be the base of the perpendicular
(b) By setting a right angle in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5
(c) By setting a right angle with the help of builder’s square or tri-square
(d) By setting a right angle by cross-staff or optical square.

2. Oblique offsets Any offset not perpendicular to the chain line is said to be oblique.
Oblique offsets are taken when the objects are at a long distance from the chain line or
when it is not possible to set up a right angle due to some difficulties. Such offsets are
taken in the following manner.

Perpendicular offsets are preferred for the following reasons:

(a) They can be taken very quickly
(b) The progress of survey is not hampered
(c) The entry in the field book becomes easy
(d) The plotting of the offsets also becomes easy

Limiting length of offset

The maximum length of the offset should not be more than the length of the tape used
in the survey. However, this length also depends upon the following factors:
(a) The desired accuracy of the map
(b) The scale of the map
(c) The maximum allowable deflection of the offset from its true direction and
(d) The nature of the ground

While plotting, the measured length of the offset (l), is set out at right angles to PP 1 at
P2, so that the point P2 is displaced to P2’ and the amount of displacement is
approximately equal to l sin α on the ground and 𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶⁄𝒔 , on the paper, where 'S' m
to 1 cm is the scale of the paper. The length of the offset should be limited to such an

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amount that this displacement should not be appreciable on the paper. It is assumed
that the smallest distance on the paper which can be distinguished while plotting is
0.025 cm

𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼⁄𝑠 = 0.025

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Chapter -3 COMPASS SURVEYING

In compass survey, the direction of the survey line is measured by the use of a
magnetic compass while the lengths are by chaining or taping.
The two major primary types of survey compass are: the prismatic compass and
surveyors compass

Surveyors compass uses edge bar needle and give reading in Reduced Bearing (RB)
and measured clockwise starting from North with reference to the observer. prismatic
compass uses Broad needle (hidden below aluminum ring) and gives it in Whole circle
bearing (WCB) with 00 at south pole.

Temporary adjustment of prismatic compass

The following procedure should be adopted after fixing the prismatic compass on the
tripod for measuring the bearing of a line.

Centering : Centering is the operation in which compass is kept exactly over the
station from where the bearing is to be determined. The centering is checked by
dropping a small pebble from the underside of the compass. If the pebble falls on the
top of the peg then the centering is correct, if not then the centering is corrected by
adjusting the legs of the tripod.
Leveling : Leveling of the compass is done with the aim to freely swing the graduated
circular ring of the prismatic compass. The ball and socket arrangement on the tripod
will help to achieve a proper level of the compass. This can be checked by rolling
round pencil on glass cover.

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Focusing : the prism is moved up or down in its slide till the graduations on the
aluminum ring are seen clear, sharp and perfect focus. The position of the prism will
depend upon the vision of the observer.

Magnetic Meridian
• The magnetic meridian at any place is the direction obtained by observing the
position of a freely supported magnetized needle when it comes to rest uninfluenced
by local attracting forces.
• Magnetic meridians run roughly north –south and follow the varying trend of the
earth’s magnetic field. The direction of a magnetic meridian does not coincide with
the true or geographical meridian which gives the direction of the true North pole
except in certain places.

Magnetic Bearing
The magnetic bearing of a survey line is the angle between the direction of the line
and the direction of the magnetic meridian at the beginning of the line.

True meridian
True meridian is a line joining true north pole, true south pole and point of reference.

true bearing :
• true bearing of a survey line is the angle between the direction of the line and the
direction of the true meridian at the beginning of the line.

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Angle of Declination:
It is defined as the horizontal angle between the direction of the magnetic meridian
and the true meridian at any point.

VARIATION IN DECLINATION
The position of the magnetic poles is not fixed and the North magnetic pole tends to
wander more than the south causing alterations in the positions of the isogonic lines
from time to time. The angle of declination at any point is therefore not constant
subject to the following variations;
1. Secular Variation:
This causes the largest variation in magnetic declination. Secular variation of
declination occurs over a long period of time approximately for 250 years.

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2. Diurnal Variation:
This is a swing of the compass needle about its mean daily position.
[Link] Variation:
This is a minor variation of the magnetic meridian during the week, a lunar month,
year, eleven years, etc.
[Link] Variation: These are caused by magnetic storms which can produce
sudden variations of the magnetic meridian.

Angle of DIP:
Dip it is vertical angle(inclination) made by magnetic line of forces with the horizontal
surface of earth.
Dip at poles, Dip = 90o
At Equator, Dip = 0o
In Northern Hemisphere, North end of needle dips downward.
In Southern Hemisphere, South end of needle dips downward.

• Aclinic: Line joining zero dip

• Isoclinic: Line joining equal dip

Designation of bearing:

The bearing is designated in the following two system:

1) Whole Circle Bearing System. (W.C.B)
2) Quadrantal Bearing System. (Q.B)

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Whole circle bearing system (W.C.B.)

The bearing of a line measured with respect to magnetic meridian in clockwise
direction is called magnetic bearing and its value varies between 0ᴼ to 360ᴼ.
The quadrant start from north and progress in a clockwise direction as the first
quadrant is 0ᴼ to 90ᴼ in clockwise direction , 2nd 90ᴼ to 180ᴼ , 3rd 180ᴼ to 270ᴼ, and
up to 360ᴼ is 4th.

Quadrantal bearing system(Q.B.)

In this system, the bearing of survey lines are measured wrt to north line or south line
whichever is the nearest to the given survey line and either in clockwise direction or
in anti clockwise direction.

Reduced bearing (R.B)

When the whole circle bearing is converted into Quadrantal bearing, it is termed as
“REDUCED BEARING”.
Thus, the reduced bearing is similar to the Quadrantal bearing.
Its values lies between 0ᴼ to 90ᴼ, but the quadrant should be mentioned for proper
designation.

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Note:
1)Azimuth is angle in WCB
East Azimuth - 900
South Azimuth- 1800
West Azimuth-2700
North Azimuth-3600
2)Both WCB and RB are with respect to magnetic meridian and not true meridian if
nothing is mentioned.

Back and Fore bearing

Fore bearing is the compass bearing of a place taken from a direction that the survey is
being carried out. The back status to the other in the bearing in the other hand is the
bearing in the opposite direction i.e. the bearing taken backwards from the next station
to its preceding station that the fore bearing was taken. The difference between BB
and FB is always 1800.

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Q) In an old map line AB was drawn with a magnetic bearing of 136° 45′ when the
magnetic declination was 2° 30′ east. To what magnetic bearing the line should be set
now, if magnetic declination is 3° 30′ west ?

A) Present magnetic bearing of line AB = 3° 30′ + 2° 30′ + 136° 45′ = 142° 45′

Local Attraction:
It is an attraction on magnetic needle towards a local magnetic field other than earth’s
magnetic field.
Local Attraction is due to presence of heavy magnetic object such as magnet bar,
electric wire etc.
Due to local attraction, magnetic bearing of line changes. there will be no local
attraction if a line has difference of 180o in fore bearing & back bearing, provided that
there should be no instrumental error.

Checks for angular error are available

Interior angle; sum of interior angles = (2n-4) x right angle, where n is number of
traverse side
Exterior angle; sum of exterior angles = (2n+4) x right angle, where n is number of
traverse side

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Methods of elimination:

Difference of B.B. & F.B. of each lines of traverse is checked to note if they differ by
correctly or not.
The one having correct difference means that bearing measured in those stations are
free from local attraction
Correction is accordingly applied to rest of station.
If none of the lines have correct difference between F.B. & B.B., the one with
minimum error is balanced and repeat the similar procedure.

Q) In a closed traverse, the following bearings were observed, with a compass.

Calculate their interior angles and then compute the corrected magnetic bearings

A)

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SURVEYOR’S COMPASS

It consists of a brass or aluminium circular box of about 150 mm diameter.

• The graduated card or scale ring is directly fixed to the box, which governs the size
of compass.
• The graduations are in degree and half degrees.
• All parts of the compass except the magnetic needle are made of nonmetallic
materials.
• The magnetic needle is made up of magnetic steel. The needle of its center has a
conical Jewell bearing which rests on a hardened steel point.
• A small metal rider or a sliding weight is provided on the needle to counteract the
effect of dip. The rider can be slid along the needle so that the needle lies in a
horizontal plane.
• The size of the compass is defined by the diameter of the reading edge of the
graduated ring. It generally varies from 50 mm to 200 mm.
• The surveyor’s compass is used for measurement of quadrantal bearings

PRISMATIC COMPASS

The prismatic compass is a magnetic compass in which there is a prism for taking
observations
The prismatic compass is generally smaller in size than a surveyor’s compass.
• The prismatic compass consists of a circular box, about 85 to 100 mm diameter.
• The magnetic needle used in a prismatic compass is of broad in shape.
• An aluminium ring graduated in degrees and hale degrees is directly attached with
the needle.
• The graduations on the aluminium ring increase clockwise from 0° to 360°, with
the zero of the graduations coinciding with the south end of the needle, 90° graduation

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is at the west, 180° graduation at the north and 270° graduation at the east as show
below in the figure.
• The prismatic compass is used for the determination of the whole circle bearings
(W.C.B.) of the lines.
• Readings are taken through a prism attached to the box
• It may be noted that in a prismatic compass, the sighting of the object and
the reading of the bearing are done simultaneously, whereas in a surveyor’s compass,
first the object is sighted, and then reading of the bearing is taken by
moving around the looking down from the glass cover

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CHAPTER -4 THEODILITE & TRAVERSE SURVEY

A traverse consists a series of straight lines of known length related one another by
known angles between the lines. The points defining the ends of the traverse lines are
called the traverse stations. Traverse survey is a method of establishing control points,
their positions being determined by measuring the distances between the traverse
stations which serve as control points and the angles subtended at the various stations
by their adjacent stations. The angles are measured with a theodolite (Now with
improved technology, Electronic Distance Measurement Instruments [EDMI] is being
used in most triangulations.

Types of Traverse
There are two types of traverse,
[Link] traverse
2. the closed traverse.

An open traverse originates at a point of known position and terminates at a point of

unknown position, whereas a closed traverse originates and terminates at points of
known positions.

When closed traverse originates and terminates at the same point, it is called the
closed-loop traverse.

For establishing control points, a closed traverse is preferred since it provides different
checks for included angles, deflection angles and bearings for adjusting the traverse.

Linear measurements

They can be done by Taping or chaining, Tachometric method or Electronic Distance

Measurement Instruments [EDMI]
(Linear measurement equipment chosen should be such that degree of accuracy in this
is of the same order as that of the angle measurement instrument)

Example) if angular measurements are made with an error of 20’’(Theodolite); the

relative accuracy of the linear measurements is given by

Hence distance should be measured with a precision of 1 in 10000

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ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
The following methods are generally used for measurement of angles in a theodolite
traverse.
1. Lose needle method of bearings
2. Fast needle method of bearings
3. Method of included angles
4. Method of direct angles
5. Method of deflection angles

Loose needle Method

❖ The loose needle method is also known as the free needle method.
❖ In loose needle method, the direction of the magnetic meridian is established at
each traverse station and the direction of the line is measured with reference to the
magnetic meridian. In other words, the magnetic bearing of each line is measured
at each station.
❖ A theodolite fitted with a magnetic compass is used for measuring the magnetic
bearings of the traverse line.

Fast Needle Method

❖ The magnetic meridian is established only at the starting station and the magnetic
bearing of the first line is measured. The magnetic bearings of all other lines are
determined indirectly from the magnetic bearing of the first line and the included
angles.
❖ The method is more accurate than the loose needle method, and is generally
preferred in the field.

Method of included angle

❖ Traversing by the method of included angles is the most commonly used method.
In this method, magnetic bearing of any of the one line (generally, the initial line)
is measured in the field.
❖ Bearing of all the other lines are determined from the bearing of the initial line and
the included angles are measured. This method is more accurate than the fast
needle method.

Note:
❖ An included angle is one of the two angles formed at a station by the two
traverse lines meeting there.

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❖ All angles are measured clockwise. This is done because in theodolite the graduations
increase in clockwise direction.

DEPARTURE AND LATITUDE

The coordinates of points are defined as departure and latitude. The latitude is always
measured parallel to the reference meridian and the departure perpendicular to the
reference meridian.
The departure and latitude take the sign depending upon the quadrant in which the line
lies.

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CLOSURE ERROR:
• If the traverse has an error of closure, it will not close when plotted on the paper. In
other words, the end point A of the closed traverse ABCD will not coincide with the
starting point A.

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Relative error of closure = Error of closure (e) / Perimeter of traverse (∑l)

Relative error of closure is also called relative accuracy or degree of accuracy.

Correction of Traverse (closing error):

If the error of closure is within the permissible limits, the traverse should be adjusted.
The purpose of adjustment of the traverse is to reduce the error of closure to zero.
Hence the error is distributed among various sides of the traverse such that the traverse
geometrically closes.
1. Bowditch’s rule (there is one more method of correction of traversing called as
Graphical method, it is also based on Bowditch rule)
2. Transit rule

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Bowditch’s rule

❖ Is used for adjusting the traverse in which the angles and distances are measured
with the same precision.
❖ Bowditch’s rule is based on the assumption that the errors introduced in the
traverse are accidental (random) in nature.
❖ When the traverse is adjusted by Bowditch’s rule, both the lengths and bearings of
the lines get changed. However, in comparison to the transit rule the lengths are
changed less and the angles are changed more.

Bowditch’s Rule, is also called as compass rule.

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Transit Rule
The transit rule is used to balance a traverse in which the angular measurements are
more precise than the linear measurements
In the transit rule, the angles are changed less but the lengths are changed more.

THEODOLITE
❖ It is a commonly used instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. It is
used for prolonging
a line, levelling and even for measuring the distances indirectly (tachometry).
❖ Using Vernier angles can be read accurately up to 20’’. Precise theodolites
(micrometre theodolite) are available which can read angles up to even 1’’
accuracy.
❖ Theodolites can be classified into transit and non-transit theodolites.
A theodolite is said to be a transit one when its telescope can be rotated through
180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis

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Parts of a Vernier Theodolite:

Telescope: A telescope is mounted on a horizontal axis (trunnian axis) hence it can

rotate in
vertical plane. Telescope is a tube with object glass and eyepiece. Object glass can be
adjusted using the focussing screw before sighting the graduated staff held on the
object. Eyepiece can be adjusted by rotating it to see that parallel is removed and cross
hairs appears distinctly. Eyepiece once adjusted needs no change
as long as the same person takes the readings.
Vertical Circle: A graduated vertical circle is rigidly connected to the telescope and
hence moves with it when the telescope is rotated in vertical plane. The graduations
are in quadrantal system, 0-0 line being horizontal.
Vernier Frame: It is a T-shaped frame consisting of a vertical arm and a horizontal
arm. With the help of the climping screws the vertical frame and hence the telescope
can be clamped at desired angle. Vertical frame is also known as T-frame or index
frame. The vernier arm is known as index arm. At the ends it carries Verniers C and D
so as to read graduations on vertical circle. They are provided with glass magnifiers.
Altitude bubble tube is fitted over the horizontal arm.

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Standards or A-Frame: The frames supporting telescope are in the form of English
letter ‘A’. This frame allows telescope to rotate on its trunnian axis in vertical frame.
The T-frame and the clamps are also fixed to this frame.
Upper Plate: Upper plate supports standards on its top surface. On lower side it is
attached to a inner spindle which rotates in the outer spindle of lower plate. Using
upper clamp, upper plate can be clamped to lower plate. Using tangent screws, it is
possible to give slight relative motion between the two plates, even after clamping.
Two diametrically opposite Verniers A and B fixed to upper plate help in reading
horizontal circle graduations. They are provided with magnifying glasses.

Lower Plate: The lower plate, attached to the outer spindle carries a graduated circle
at its bevelled edge. Graduations are up to an accuracy of 20′. It can be clamped at any
desired position using lower clamps. If upper clamp is locked and the lower one is
loosened the two plates rotate together. If the upper clamp is loosened and lower
clamp locked, upper plate alone rotates. This mechanism is utilised in measuring
horizontal angle
Plate Level: One or two plate level tubes are mounted on the upper plate. If the two
level tubes are provided they will be at right angles to each other one of them being
parallel to trunnion axis. These levels help in making the vertical axis of the
instrument truely vertical.

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Levelling Head: It consists of two parallel triangular plates known as tribratch plates.
The upper tribratch plate is provided with three levelling screws—each one carried by
a arm of tribratch plate. By operating screws, the levelling of upper plate and hence
telescope can be ensured. The lower tribratch can be fitted into a tripod head.
Tripod: Theodolite is always used by mounting it on a tripod. The legs of tripod may
be solid or framed. At the lower end the legs are provided with steel shoes to get good
grip with the ground. The top of tripod is provided with external screw to which the
lower tribratch plate can be screwed. When not in use tripod head may be protected
with a steel cap, provided for this purpose.
Plumb Bob: A hook is provided at the middle of lower tribratch plate from which a
plumb bob can be suspended. It facilitates exact centering of the theodolite on a
station.
Shifting Head: It is provided below the lower plate. In this, one plate slides over
another over a small area of about 10 mm radius. The two plates can be tightened in
the desired position. It facilitates exact centering of the instruments.
Magnetic Compass: In some theodolites a magnetic compass is fixed on one of the
strands. It is useful if readings are to be recorded with magnetic north as meridian.
HORIZONTAL AXIS
It is also called the Trunnion axis or transverse axis. It is the axis about which the
telescope can be rotated in a vertical plane
(Vertical axis is also called Azimuth Axis)
LINE OF SIGHT
It is the imaginary line passing through the intersection of the cross-hairs of the
diaphragm and the optical centre of the objective. It is also known as line of
collimation.
When line of sight comes in horizontal plane, it is called as line of collimation (line
joining cross hair to objective glass centre).
AXIS OF LEVEL TUBE
It is a line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the level tube at its centre. Axis of
plate level is horizontal when bubble is centered
FACE RIGHT
When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the right-hand side of the observer

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FACE LEFT
When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the left-hand side of the observer, the
position is called face left and the observation made is called face left observation(By
taking the man of both of the face readings, the collimation error is eliminated)
TELESCOPE NORMAL
The telescope is said to be normal or direct when its vertical circle is to the left-hand
side of the observer and the bubble is up.
TELESCOPE NORMAL
The telescope is said to be normal or direct when its vertical circle is to the left-hand
side of the observer and the bubble is up.
TELESCOPE INVERTED
The telescope is said to be inverted when its vertical circle is to the right-hand side of
the observer and the bubble is down.
TRANSIT
It is also called as plunging or reversing. This is the operation of revolving the
telescope by 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis, thus making it point
exactly in the opposite direction.
SWINGING OF THE TELESCOPE
Revolving the telescope in the horizontal plane, about its vertical axis is called
swinging of telescope or simply swing. A right swing means clockwise rotation of the
telescope, whereas a left swing means anticlockwise rotation of the telescope.
CHANGING FACE
• It is the operation of bringing the telescope from the face left condition to the face
right condition and vice versa.
• The face is changed by plunging the telescope and swinging it by 180°. The errors
that are eliminated by changing face are as below:
1. Error due to line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
2. Error due to horizontal axis not being perpendicular to the vertical axis.
3. Error due to line of collimation not being parallel to the axis of the altitude level
DOUBLE SIGHTING
It is the process of measurement of a horizontal angle or a vertical angle twice; once
with the telescope in the normal condition and once with the telescope in the inverted
condition

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TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF A THEODOLITE

Temporary adjustments are the adjustments which are required to be made at each
setting of the instrument before taking observations. The following five temporary
adjustments are required.
1. Setting up
2. Centering
3. Leveling
4. Focusing the eyepiece
5. Focusing the objective

(CENTERING is the process of setting up the instrument exactly over the station
mark. A plumb bob suspended from a small hook attached to the underside of the
inner spindle is used for Precise centering.
Accurate levelling of the theodolite is done with the help of levelling screws or foot
screws with reference to the plate levels. The leveling is done to make the vertical axis
of the instrument truly vertical or to make horizontal plate truly horizontal. The basic
approach is to make axis of the plate bubble horizontal)

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CHAPTER – 5 LEVELLING
Elevation measurements involve measurements in vertical plane. It is also known as
levelling

TERMS USED IN LEVELLING

Level Surface: A surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the earth is called a level
surface and the line drawn on the level surface is known as a level line. Hence all
points lying on a level surface are equidistant from the centre of the earth.
Horizontal Surface: A surface tangential to level surface at a given point is called
horizontal surface at that point. Hence a horizontal line is at right angles to the plumb
line at that point
Vertical Line: A vertical line at a point is the line connecting the point to the centre of
the earth. It is the plumb line at that point. Vertical and horizontal lines at a point are
at right angles to each other.
Datum: The level of a point or the surface with respect to which levels of other points
or planes are calculated, is called a datum or datum surface.
Mean Sea Level (MSL): MSL is the average height of the sea for all stages of the
tides. At any particular place MSL is established by finding the mean sea level (free of
tides) after averaging tide heights over a long period of at least 19 years. In India MSL
used is that established at Karachi, presently, in Pakistan. In all important surveys this
is used as datum.
Reduced Levels (RL): The level of a point taken as height above the datum surface is
known as RL of that point.
Parallax: If the image formed by the objective is not in the same plane with cross-
hairs any movement of the eye is likely to cause an apparent movement of the image
with reference to cross hairs. This is called parallax
Benchmarks: A benchmark is a relatively permanent reference point, the elevation of
which is known (assumed or known w.r.t. MSL). It is used as a starting point for
levelling or as a point upon which to close for a check. The following are the different
types of benchmarks
used in surveying:

(a) GTS Benchmark: The long form of GTS benchmark is Great Trigonometrical
Survey benchmark. These benchmarks are established by national agency. In India,
the department of Survey of India is entrusted with such works. GTS benchmarks are

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established all over the country with highest precision survey, the datum being mean
sea level. A bronze plate provided on the top of a concrete pedastal with elevation
engraved on it serves as benchmark. It is well protected with masonry structure built
around it so that its position is not disturbed by animals or by any unauthorised person.

(b) Permanent Benchmark: These are the benchmarks established by state

government agencies like PWD. They are established with reference to GTS
benchmarks. They are usually on the corner of plinth of public buildings.

(c) Arbitrary Benchmark: In many engineering projects the difference in elevations

of neighbouring points is more important than their reduced level with respect to mean
sea level. In such cases a relatively permanent point, like plinth of a building or corner
of a culvert, are taken as benchmarks, their level assumed arbitrarily such as 100.0 m,
300.0 m, etc.

(d) Temporary Benchmark: This type of benchmark is established at the end of the
day’s work, so that the next day work may be continued from that point. Such point
should be on a permanent object so that next day it is easily identified.

IMPORTANT TERMS:
(i) Plane of Collimation: It is the reduced level of plane of sight with respect to the
datum selected. It is also known as ‘height of instrument’.
(ii) Back Sight (BS): It is the sight taken on a level staff held on the point of known
elevation with an intension of determining the plane of collimation. It is always the
first reading after the instrument is set in a place. It is also known as plus sight, since
this reading is to be added to RL of the point (Benchmark or change point) to get plane
of collimation.
(iii) Intermediate Sight (IS): Sights taken on staff after back sight (first sight) and
before the last sight (fore sight) are known as intermediate sights. The intension of
taking these readings is to find the reduced levels of the points where staff is held.
These sights are known as ‘minus sights’ since the IS reading is to be subtracted from
plane of collimation to get RL of the point where staff is held.
(iv) Fore Sight (FS): This is the last reading taken from the instrument station before
shifting it or just before ending the work. This is also a minus sight.
Note: A telescope consists of i) objective ii) eye piece iii) diaphragm
❖ Objective It is compound lens (Achromatic lens). It has double convex lens made
of crown glass and a convex concave lens made of flint glass. With this compound
lens both spherical and chromatic aberrations are completely eliminated

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❖ Eyepiece (Ramsden’s eye piece is the most commonly used. It is composed of

plane-convex lenses of equal focal length, with a spacing of (2/3)F )
❖ Diaphragm Consists of cross hairs.
The following methods are used to determine the difference in elevation of various
points:
(i) Barometric levelling
(ii) Hypsometric
(iii) Direct levelling
levelling
and

Barometric Levelling
This method depends on the principle that atmospheric pressure depends upon the
elevation of place.
Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure and hence elevation is
computed.
Hypsometric Levelling
This is based on the principle that boiling point of water decreases with the elevation
of the place. Hence the elevation difference between two points may be found by
noting the difference in boiling point of water in the two place
Direct Levelling
It is common form of levelling in all engineering projects. In this method horizontal
sight is taken on a graduated staff and the difference in the elevation of line of sight
and ground at which staff is held are found. Knowing the height of line of sight from
the instrument station the difference in the elevations of instrument station and the
ground on which staff is held can be found

Methods of Finding Reduced Level:

Height of instrument method
Height of instrument is calculated at each set up of the instrument. Based on the height
of instrument the RLs of other staff stations can be calculated.
Generally used for fly leveling, or to establish BMs and is suitable if there are no
intermediate sights

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Check: ∑ BS - ∑ FS = last RL- First

Rise and fall method :

• The difference between levels of consecutive staff points is calculated
• Higher staff reading indicates fall and lesser indicates rise
• Used when a lot number of intermediate station readings are required
• Check : ∑ BS - ∑ FS = last RL- First RL = ∑Rise - ∑fall

INVERTED STAFF:

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EXACT DIFFERENCE OF HEIGHT

Reciprocal Levelling:
In levelling, it is better to keep distance of back sight and fore sight equal. By doing so
the following errors are eliminated:
(i) Error due to non-parallelism of line of collimation and axis of bubble tube.
(ii) Errors due to curvature and refraction.
But in levelling across obstacles like river and ravine, it is not possible to maintain
equal distances for fore sight and back sight. In such situations reciprocal levelling as
described below is used:

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Since A is very close, error in reading at A is negligible. Hence ha is correct reading.

Let error in hb be ‘e’

Thus, the true difference in the elevations of the two points is equal to the mean of the
two apparent differences in the elevations.

COLLIMATION ERROR:
Type of instrument error due to which, line of collimation may not be horizontal even
if bubble is at center.
Assumption: survey is plane (i.e effect of curvature & refraction are ignored)

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SENSITIVITY
• Angle of rotation given to telescope due to just one division moment of bubble inside
bubble tube (liquid in bubble tube is spirit or chloroform)
• Generally, the linear value of one division is kept as 2 mm.

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TRIGNOMETRIC LEVELLING

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CHAPTER -6 CONTURING
A contour line is an imaginary line which connects points of equal elevation. Such
lines are drawn on the plan of an area after establishing reduced levels of several
points in the area. The contour lines in an area are drawn keeping difference in
elevation of between two consecutive lines constant.

1. Contour lines must close, not necessarily in the limits of the plan.
2. Widely spaced contour indicates flat surface
3. Closely spaced contour indicates steep ground.
4. Equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope.
5. Irregular contours indicate uneven surface.
6. Approximately concentric closed contours with decreasing values towards centre
indicate a pond.
7. Approximately concentric closed contours with increasing values towards centre
indicate hills.
8. Contour lines with U-shape with convexity towards lower ground indicate ridge

9. Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher ground indicate valley.

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10. Contour lines generally do not meet or intersect each other.

11. If contour lines are meeting in some portion, it shows existence of a vertical cliff

12. If contour lines cross each other, it shows existence of overhanging cliffs or a cave

NOTE:
Elevation difference between 2 consecutive contours: contour interval (constant for a
map)
Horizontal distance between 2 consecutive contours: horizontal equivalent

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Chapter -7 Areas and Volumes

a) Triangle:
(i) If base width is b and height is ‘h’,

(ii) If a, b and c are the sides of a triangle,

(b) Rectangle: If b and ‘d’ are the dimension of a rectangle,

A = bd
(c) Trapezium:

where d is the distance between two parallel sides and h1 and h2 lengths of parallel
sides

Areas of Irregular Shapes

1. Area by average offset method
2. Area by Trapezoidal rule
3. Area by Simpson’s rule.

Area by average offset method

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Area by Trapezoidal Rule:

Area by Simpson’s rule:

Q. Plot the following cross staff survey of a land and compute the area

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A.

= 2840m2

Note:
❖ Accuracy: Simpsons > Trapezoidal > Avg offset
❖ To use Simpson’s method, odd number of offsets are required.
❖ If Even number of offsets are given, Simpson rule will be applied till last odd offset
and remaining area should be calculated using trapezoidal rule

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Volumes:

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Chapter -8 Tachometry

the telescope of the angle measuring instrument called theodolite is provided with two
additional cross hairs at a and b which are at distance ‘i’
To measure distance ‘D’ between two-point P and Q instrument is set at P and a
graduated staff is held vertically at Q and vertical intercept AB is recorded. Then
distance D can be computed as explained below:

v/ u = i/ s or u = v s/ i
But from the law of optics,
1/ f= 1/u + 1/ v

Multiplying throughout by uf, we get

u = f + (u/ v) f
= f +(s/ i) f
= f +(f/ i) s
If the distance between objective lence at O and centre of telescope is ‘d’ then
D=u+d
= f +( f/i) s + d
= ks + c
where k = f/ i and c = f + d
k and c are constants for a given instrument and hence can be found once for all. Thus
distance between P and Q can be found by measuring vertical intercept ‘s’. Thus
distance is measured by optical means easily. This is called Tachometric
measurement. But this measurement is not that accurate as obtained by measuring with
chain or tape.

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NOTE:
A tachometry has an analectic lens which is of external focusing type this lens has 2
constants
i). multiplying constant (k=100)
ii). additive constant (c=0)
For small distances up to 100 m, an ordinary leveling staff may be used but beyond
this a stadia rod is used. It is a 5 – 15 m long rod, graduated in decimals of leveling.

Fixed hair method (stadia method)

❖ In this method, the angle at the instrument at A subtended by a known short
distance along a staff kept at B is made with the help of a stadia diaphragm having
stadia wires at fixed or constant distance apart.
❖ The readings are on the staff corresponding to all the three wires taken.
❖ The staff intercept, i.e., the difference of the readings corresponding to top and
bottom stadia wires will therefore depend on the distance of the staff from the
instrument.
❖ When the staff intercept is more than the length of the staff, only half intercept is
read.
Distance and Elevation formulae for Staff Vertical

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Distance and Elevation formulae for Staff is kept normal to LOS

Subtense Method
This method is similar to the fixed hair method except that the stadia interval is
variable
TANGENTIAL METHOD OF TACHEOMETRY
1. In this method, the stadia hairs are not used, the readings being taken against the
horizontal cross-hair.
2. To measure the staff intercept, two pointings of the instruments are, therefore,
necessary.
3. This necessitates measurement of vertical angles twice for one single
observation.
4. The tangential method is inferior to the stadia method.

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Case 1: Both angles of Elevation

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NOTE:

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Chapter -9 CURVES
To avoid abrupt change of direction curves are introduced between two straights both
in the horizontal and vertical plane. Curves can be broadly classified as follows

CIRCULAR CURVES

A simple circular curve consists of simple arc of a circle of radius R connecting two
straights AI and IB at tangent points
T1 called the point of commencement (P.C.) or point of curve and
T2 called the point of tangency (P.T.),
intersecting point I is called the point of intersection (P.I.),
deflection angle ∆
angle of intersection φ.
The arc length from T1 to T2 is the length of curve
the chord T1T2 is called the long chord.
The distance E of the midpoint of the curve from I is called the external distance or
apex distance.
The distance M between the midpoints of the curve and the long chord, is called the
mid-ordinate.
The distance T1I which is equal to the distance IT2, is called the tangent length.
The tangent AI is called the back tangent and the tangent IB is the forward tangent.

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Formula to calculate the various elements of a circular curve for use in design and
setting out, are as under

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Setting out of Circular Curve

a) Perpendicular Offsets from Tangent

b) Radial Offsets

c) Offsets from Chords Produced

This method is very much useful for setting long curves. In this method, a point on the
curve is fixed by taking offset from the tangent taken at the rear point of a chord.
Thus, point A of chord T1A is fixed by taking offset O1 = AA1 where T1A1 is tangent
at T1. Similarly, B is fixed by taking offset O2 = BB1 where AB1 is tangent at A.

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d) Two-Theodolite Method
In this method, two theodolites are used, one at the point of curve (PC i.e. at T 1) and
another at the point of tangency (PT i.e. at T2). For a point on the curve deflection
angle with back tangent and forward tangent are calculated. The theodolites are set at
PC and PT to read these angles and simultaneous ranging is made to get the point on

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the curve. In this only angular measurement are needed & linear measurement is
completely eliminated.

e) Rankin’s Method or Deflection Angle Method

A deflection angle to any point on the curve is the angle between the tangent at point
of curve (PC) and the line joining that point to PC (∆)
ẟ1 is the deflection angle of A and ẟ1 + ẟ 2 is the deflection angle of B. In this method
points on the curve are located by deflection angles and the chord lengths.

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Note:
MAXIMUM length of offset = R/20

COMPOUND CURVES
A compound curve has two or more circular curves contained between the two main
straights or tangents. The individual curves meet tangentially at their junction point.

REVERSE CURVES
A reverse curve is one in which two circular curves of same or different radii have
their centre of curvature on the opposite sides of the common tangent

TRANSITION CURVES
Transition curves permit gradual change of direction from straight to curve and vice-
versa, and at the same time gradual introduction of cant or superelevation

(A clothoid is a curve whose radius decreases linearly from infinity to zero. It fulfills
the condition of an ideal transition curve)

Offsets from tangent

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CHAPTER – 10 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING (only for state exams, SSC)

In this method of surveying a table top, similar to drawing board fitted on to a tripod is
the main instrument. A drawing sheet is fixed on to the table top, the observations are
made to the objects, distances are scaled down and the objects are plotted in the field
itself. Since the plotting is made in the field itself, there is no chance of omitting any
necessary measurement in this surveying. However the accuracy achieved in this type
of surveying is less.
The following accessories are required to carry out plane table survey:
1. Alidade
2. Plumbing fork with plumb bob
3. Spirit level
4. Trough compass
5. Drawing sheets and accessories for drawing
After fixing the table top to the stand and drawing sheet to the table, the following
operations are to be carried out before map making:
1. Centering
2. Levelling
3. Orientation.
The following four methods are available for carrying out plane table survey:
1. Radiation
2. Intersection
3. Traversing
4. Resection.
Radiation
After setting the plane table on a station, say O, it is required to find the plotted
position of various objects.

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Intersection
In this method the plotted position of an object is obtained by plotting rays to the
object from two stations. The intersection gives the plotted position.

Traversing
This is the method used for locating plane table survey stations. In this method, ray is
drawn to next station before shifting the table and distance between the stations
measured.

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Resection
This method is just opposite to the method of intersection. In the method of
intersection, the plotted position of stations are known and the plotted position of
objects are obtained by intersection. In this method the plotted position of objects are
known and the plotted position of station is obtained.

Three-point problem: three points and their positions in field are Known and by
sighting these three points we can locate point where equipment is located (Lehmann,
tracing, analytical, graphical methods)
TWO-point problem: two points are sighted from one point corresponding to the
point given in plain table sheet. Used when points are inaccessible.

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Chapter -11 ERRORS AND ACCURACY

Natural Errors

These are caused due to variations in nature i.e., variations in wind, temperature,
humidity, refraction, gravity and magnetic field of the earth.

Instrumental Errors

These result from imperfection in the construction or adjustment of surveying

instruments, and movement of their individual parts.

Personal Errors

These arise from limitations of the human senses of sight, touch and hearing

PRECISION AND ACCURACY

Precision is the degree of closeness or conformity of repeated measurements of the

same quantity to each other whereas the accuracy is the degree of conformity of a
measurement to its true value.

STANDARD DEVIATION Standard deviation also called the root-mean square

(R.M.S.) error, is a measure of spread of a distribution and for the population,
assuming the observations are of equal reliability it is expressed as

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STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN:

The standard error of mean σm is given by

Where σ is sample standard deviation, n is number of samples.

True value: ideal concept which cannot be achieved. It is exact value.

Most Probable Value (MPV): it is the value for which chances of being true value is
more. It is calculated on the basis of Principle of least square.
Principal Of Least Square: MPV is that value for which sum of squares of error is
least

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CONCEPT OF WEIGHTAGE:
Weightage is inversely proportional to the square of the respective mean square error

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MOST PROBABLE ERROR

The most probable error is defined as the error for which there are equal chances of
the true error being less and greater than probable error. In other words, the probability
of the true error being less than the probable error is 50% and the probability of the
true error being greater than the probable error is also 50%. The most probable error is
given by

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CHAPTER -12 GIS, GPS and Remote Sensing

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up
of a network of 24 satellites (21 active + 3 spare) placed into orbits by various
countries. GPS was originally intended for military applications. GPS works in any
weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day.
GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and transmit signal
information to earth. GPS receivers take this information and use triangulation to
calculate the user's exact location. Essentially, the GPS receiver compares the time a
signal was transmitted by a satellite with the time it was received. The time difference
tells the GPS receiver how far away the satellite is. Now, with distance measurements
from a few more satellites, the receiver can determine the user's position and display it
on the map. The 24 satellites that make up the GPS space segment are orbiting the
earth about 20,000 km above us. They are constantly moving, making two complete
orbits in less than 24 hours.
The orbits are designed in such a way that minimum 4 satellites whose visibility is
above 15 degrees cut off angle are present anywhere on earth surface

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Geographic Information System

A Geographic Information System, or GIS, integrates data, hardware, software and
GPS to assist in the analysis and display of geographically referenced information.
Geographical information system is a data processing system that is capable of
gathering, analyzing and providing geographic information. GIS systems are used to
create maps or display the results of queries for the location of objects or systems.

(NOTE:
geostationary satellites are launched in the space, which rotate around the earth at the
same speed as earth. Hence the relative velocity is zero and they appear stationary
when observed from any point on the earth. They are at 36000 km above earth)
Remote sensing
Remote sensing is a revolutionary change in surveying in which objects on the earth
are sensed from remote places like aircrafts or satellites and are used in map making.
It always goes with Geographical Information System (GIS) which is a software tool
used for the analysis of remotely sensed data with the help of the computers.

Remote sensing may be defined as art and science of collecting informations about
objects, area or phenomenon without having physical contact with it. Eye sight and
photographs are common examples of remote sensing in which sunlight or artificial
light energy from electricity is made to strike the object. Light energy consists of
electromagnetic waves of all length and intensity. When electromagnetic wave falls on
the object, it is partly
1. absorbed
3. transmitted
2. scattered
4. reflected

Different objects have different properties of absorbing, scattering, transmitting and

reflecting the energy. By capturing reflected waves with sensors, it is possible to
identify the objects. Data obtained from satellites are transferred to ground stations
through RADARS where user analyses to find out the type of object and the extent of
it. This is called image processing. For quantifying the objects computers are used.

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Various applications of remote sensing may be grouped into the following:

1. Resource exploration
2. Land use
[Link] investigation
4. Environmental study
5. Site investigation
6. Natural hazards study (Earthquake. Landslides etc)

Note 1:
1) Active sensors have its own source of light or illumination. In particular,
it actively sends a pulse and measures the backscatter reflected back to
the sensor.
2) passive sensors measure reflected sunlight emitted from the sun. When
the sun shines, passive sensors measure this energy
Note 2:
RASTER AND VECTOR DATA

Raster data is made up of pixels (also referred to as grid cells). They are usually
regularly-spaced and square. Discrete rasters have distinct themes or categories. For
example, one grid cell represents a land cover class or a soil type.
Vector data is not made up of a grid of pixels. Instead, vector graphics are comprised
of vertices and paths. The three basic symbol types for vector data are points, lines
and polygons (areas).

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Scattering of Electromagnetic radiation

Rayligh scattering: size of particle much smaller than wavelength of radiation.

Occurs due to gaseous molecules in upper atmosphre. Scattering is inversely
proportional to wavelength4
Mie scattering:
When particle size is larger than wavelength. Eg: scattering due to aerosols.

The amount of scattering or absorption depends on wavelength and composition of

atmosphere, in order to minimise the effect of atmosphere, it is essential to choose the
region with high transmittance.

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CHAPTER -13 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (only ESE)

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Chapter 14& 15
PHOTOMETRY (ese +gate) and FIELD ASTRONOMY(only ese) are very simple but
needs lot of visualisation and so a separate coloured PDF is provided for better
understanding, please take photocopy of that.

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